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08 Invertibility and Isomorphisms

The document discusses linear maps and isomorphisms between vector spaces. It provides definitions and theorems regarding isomorphisms. An isomorphism is a linear map between two vector spaces that is both one-to-one and onto. Two vector spaces are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism between them. An important result is that two vector spaces are isomorphic if and only if they have bases of the same cardinality, or dimension in the case of finite-dimensional spaces. Several examples of isomorphisms between different vector spaces and matrices are also given.

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Constantin Von Tsirlen
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352 views13 pages

08 Invertibility and Isomorphisms

The document discusses linear maps and isomorphisms between vector spaces. It provides definitions and theorems regarding isomorphisms. An isomorphism is a linear map between two vector spaces that is both one-to-one and onto. Two vector spaces are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism between them. An important result is that two vector spaces are isomorphic if and only if they have bases of the same cardinality, or dimension in the case of finite-dimensional spaces. Several examples of isomorphisms between different vector spaces and matrices are also given.

Uploaded by

Constantin Von Tsirlen
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Let V be a vector space and α = [v1 , . . .

, vn ] be an
ordered basis for V .
Theorem 1 The coordinate mapping C : V → Fn
given by C (v) = [v]α is linear and invertible (i.e.,
one-to-one and onto).

Let W be another vector space and


β = [w1 , . . . , wm ] be an ordered basis for W .
Theorem 2 The mapping
M : L(V , W ) → Mm,n (F) given by M(L) = [L]βα is
linear and invertible.
Linear maps and matrix multiplication
Let V , W , and X be vector spaces. Suppose α = [v1 , . . . , vn ]
is an ordered basis for V , β = [w1 , . . . , wm ] is an ordered
basis for W , and γ = [x1 , . . . , xk ] is an ordered basis for X .

Theorem 1 For any linear transformation L : V → W and


any vector v ∈ V ,
[L(v)]β = [L]βα [v]α .

Theorem 2 For any linear transformations L : V → W and


T : W → X,
[T ◦L]γα = [T ]γβ [L]βα .

Theorem 3 For any linear operators L : V → V and


T : V → V,
[T ◦L]α = [T ]α [L]α .
Identity matrix
Definition. The identity matrix (or unit matrix)
is an n×n matrix I = (aij ) such that aii = 1 and
aij = 0 for i %= j. It is also denoted In .
 
! " 1 0 0
1 0
I1 = (1), I2 = , I3 =  0 1 0  .
0 1
0 0 1
 
1 0 ... 0
0 1 . . . 0
In general, I =  .. .. . . . .. .
. . .
0 0 ... 1
Theorem. Let A be an arbitrary m×n matrix.
Then Im A = AIn = A.
Inverse matrix
Definition. Let A ∈ Mn,n (F). Suppose there
exists an n×n matrix B such that AB = BA = In .
Then the matrix A is called invertible and B is
called the inverse of A (denoted A−1 ).
AA−1 = A−1 A = I

Basic properties of inverse matrices:


• If B = A−1 then A = B −1 . In other words, if A is
invertible, so is A−1 , and A = (A−1 )−1 .
• The inverse matrix (if it exists) is unique.
• If n×n matrices A and B are invertible, so is AB, and
(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .
• Similarly, (A1 A2 . . . Ak )−1 = A−1
k . . . A2 A1 .
−1 −1
Inverting 2×2 matrices

Definition.
! "The determinant of a 2×2 matrix
a b
A= is det A = ad − bc.
c d
! "
a b
Theorem A matrix A = is invertible if
c d
and only if det A %= 0.
If det A %= 0 then
! "−1 ! "
a b 1 d −b
= .
c d ad − bc −c a
! "
a b
Theorem A matrix A = is invertible if
c d
and only if det A %= 0. If det A %= 0 then
! "−1 ! "
a b 1 d −b
= .
c d ad − bc −c a
! "
d −b
Proof: Let B = . Then
−c a
! "
ad−bc 0
AB = BA = = (ad − bc)I2 .
0 ad−bc

In the case det A %= 0, we have A−1 = (det A)−1 B.


In the case det A = 0, the matrix A is not invertible as
otherwise AB = O =⇒ A−1 (AB) = A−1 O = O
=⇒ (A−1 A)B = O =⇒ I2 B = O =⇒ B = O
=⇒ A = O, but the zero matrix is not invertible.
Left multiplication
Any m×n matrix A ∈ Mm,n (F) gives rise to a
linear transformation LA : Fn → Fm given by
LA (x) = Ax, where x ∈ Fn and L(x) ∈ Fm are
regarded as column vectors.
Theorem 1 The matrix of the transformation LA
relative to the standard bases in Fn and Fm is
exactly A.
Theorem 2 Suppose L : Fn → Fm is a linear map.
Then there exists an m×n matrix A such that
L(x) = Ax for all x ∈ Fn . Columns of A are
vectors L(e1 ), L(e2 ), . . . , L(en ), where e1 , e2 , . . . , en
is the standard basis for Fn .
Matrix of a linear transformation (revisited)
Let V , W be vector spaces and f : V → W be a linear map.
Let α = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] be a basis for V and g1 : V → Fn
be the coordinate mapping corresponding to this basis.
Let β = [w1 , . . . , wm ] be a basis for W and g2 : W → Fm
be the coordinate mapping corresponding to this basis.
f
V −→ W

g1 * *g2
 

Fn −→ Fm
The composition g2 ◦f ◦g1−1 is a linear mapping of Fn to Fm .
It is uniquely represented as x (→ Ax, where A ∈ Mm,n (F).
Theorem A = [f ]βα , the matrix of the transformation f
relative to the bases α and β.
Isomorphism

Definition. A linear map L : V1 → V2 is called an


isomorphism of vector spaces if it is both
one-to-one and onto.
The vector space V1 is said to be isomorphic to V2
if there exists an isomorphism L : V1 → V2 .
The word “isomorphism” applies when two complex
structures can be mapped onto each other, in such
a way that to each part of one structure there is a
corresponding part in the other structure, where
“corresponding” means that the two parts play
similar roles in their respective structures.
Alternative notation
General maps
one-to-one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . injective
onto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . surjective
one-to-one and onto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bijective
Linear maps
any map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .homomorphism
one-to-one. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .monomorphism
onto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . epimorphism
one-to-one and onto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . isomorphism
Linear self-maps
any map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . endomorphism
one-to-one and onto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . automorphism
Examples of isomorphism
• M1,3(F) is isomorphic to M (F).
 3,1
x1
Isomorphism: (x1, x2, x3) !→ x2 .

x3
4
• M2,2(F) is %
isomorphic
& to F .
a b
Isomorphism: !→ (a, b, c, d ).
c d
• M2,3(F) is isomorphic to M3,2(F).
Isomorphism: A !→ At .
• The plane z = 0 in R3 is isomorphic to R2 .
Isomorphism: (x, y , 0) !→ (x, y ).
Examples of isomorphism

• Pn is isomorphic to Rn+1 .
Isomorphism: a0 +a1 x+ · · · +an x n !→ (a0 , a1, . . . , an ).
• P is isomorphic to R∞ 0 .
Isomorphism:
a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n !→ (a0, a1, . . . , an , 0, 0, . . . ).
• Mm,n (F) is isomorphic to L(Fn , Fm ).
Isomorphism: A !→ LA , where LA (x) = Ax.
• Any vector space V of dimension n is isomorphic
to Fn .
Isomorphism: v !→ [v]α , where α is a basis for V .
Isomorphism and dimension
Definition. Two sets S1 and S2 are said to be of the same
cardinality if there exists a bijective map f : S1 → S2 .

Theorem 1 All bases of a fixed vector space V are


of the same cardinality.
Theorem 2 Two vector spaces are isomorphic if
and only if their bases are of the same cardinality.
In particular, a vector space V is isomorphic to Fn if
and only if dim V = n.
Remark. For a finite set, the cardinality is a synonym for the
number of its elements. For an infinite set, the cardinality is a
more sophisticated notion. For example, R∞ and P are both
infinite-dimensional vector spaces but they are not isomorphic.

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