International Journal of Mechanical And Production Engineering, ISSN: 2320-2092, Volume- 5, Issue-9, Sep.

-2017
http://iraj.in
COMPOSITE MATERIALS - HISTORY, TYPES, FABRICATION
TECHNIQUES, ADVANTAGES, AND APPLICATIONS
RAHUL REDDY NAGAVALLY

Affiliation: Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal, Telangana, India

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract— This paper presents a brief introduction of composite materials followed by history, fabrication techniques,
advantages and applications.A composite material (also called a composition material or shortened to composite which is
the common name) is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components.
The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for
many reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter, or less expensive when compared to
traditional materials. More recently, researchers have also begun to actively include sensing, actuation, computation and
communication into composites,[1] which are known as Robotic Materials. As the composite materials possess great
properties they are substituting various other conventional materials therefore, the research on composite materials must be
developed further.

Index Terms— Fibrous Composites, Filament winding, History, Resin infusion processes.

I. INTRODUCTION the only source of glues and binders.In the early

1900s, plastics such as vinyl, polystyrene, phenolic
A typical composite material is a system of materials and polyester were developed. These new synthetic
composing of two or more materials (mixed and materials outperformed resins that were derived from
bonded) on a macroscopic scale. For example, nature.However, plastics alone could not provide
concrete is made up of cement, sand, stones, and enough strength for structural applications.
water. If the composition occurs on a microscopic Reinforcement was needed to provide the strength,
scale (molecular level), the new material is then and rigidity. In 1935, Owens Corning introduced the
called an alloy for metals or a polymer for plastics. first glass fiber, fiberglass.Fiberglass, when combined
Generally, a composite material is composed of with a plastic polymer creates an incredibly strong
reinforcement (fibers, particles, flakes, and/or fillers) structure that is also lightweight. This is the
embedded in a matrix (polymers, metals, or beginning of the Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP)
ceramics). The matrix holds the reinforcement to industry as we know it today.
form the desired shape while the reinforcement
improves the overall mechanical properties of the WWII – Driving Early Composites Innovation
matrix. When designed properly, the new combined Many of the greatest advancements in composites
material exhibits better strength than would each were incubated by war. Just as the Mongols
individual material. developed the composite bow, World War II brought
the FRP industry from the laboratory into actual
II. HISTORY production. Alternative materials were needed for
lightweight applications in military aircraft.
The first uses of composites date back to the 1500s Engineers soon realized other benefits of composites
B.C. when early Egyptians and Mesopotamian beyond being lightweight and strong. It was
settlers used a mixture of mud and straw to create discovered that fiberglass composites were
strong and durable buildings. Straw continued to transparent to radio frequencies, and the material was
provide reinforcement to ancient composite products soon adapted for use in sheltering electronic radar
including pottery and boats.Later, in 1200 AD, the equipment (Radomes).
Mongols invented the first composite bow. Using a
combination of wood, bone, and “animal glue,” bows Adapting Composites: “Space Age” to “Everyday”
were pressed and wrapped with birch bark. These By the end of the WWII, a small niche composites
bows were extremely powerful and extremely industry was in full swing. With lower demand for
accurate. Composite Mongolian bows provided military products, the few composites innovators
Genghis Khan with military dominance, and because were now ambitiously trying to introduce composites
of the composite technology, this weapon was the into other markets. Boats were an obvious fit for
most powerful weapon on earth until the invention of composites, and the first commercial boat hull was
gunpowder. The modern era of composites did not introduced in 1946.At this time Brandt Goldsworthy,
begin until scientists developed plastics. Until then, often referred to as the “grandfather of composites,”
natural resins derived from plants and animals were developed new manufacturing processes and

Composite Materials - History, Types, Fabrication Techniques, Advantages, and Applications

82
 International Journal of Mechanical And Production Engineering, ISSN: 2320-2092, Volume- 5, Issue-9, Sep.-2017
http://iraj.in
products. He is credited with numerous advancements • Laminar Composites are composed of layers of
including being the first to fiberglass a surfboard, materials held together by matrix. Sandwich
which revolutionized the sport.Goldsworthy also structures fall under this category.
invented a manufacturing process known as • Particulate Composites are composed of particles
pultrusion. Today, products manufactured from this distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The
process include ladder rails, tool handles, pipes, particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete
arrow shafts, armor, train floors, medical devices, and and wood particle boards are examples of this
more. category.

Continued Advancement in Composites Based on the form of reinforcement, common

In the 1970s the composites industry began to mature. composite materials can be classified as follows:
Better plastic resins and improved reinforcing fibers 1. Fibers as the reinforcement (Fibrous Composites):
were developed. DuPont developed an aramid fiber a. Random fiber (short fiber) reinforced composites
known as Kevlar, this fiber has become the standard
in armor due to its high tenacity. Carbon fibers was
also developed around this time; it has since been
replacing metal as the new material of choice.The
composite industry is still evolving, with much of the
growth is now focused around Renewable energy b. Continuous fiber (long fiber) reinforced
Wind turbine blades are constantly pushing the limits composites
on size and are requiring advanced materials, designs,
and manufacturing.In contrast to metallic alloys, each
material retains its separate chemical, physical, and
mechanical properties. The two constituents are a
reinforcement and a matrix.
2. Particles as the reinforcement (Particulate
III. TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
composites):
Composite materials are commonly classified at
following two distinct levels:
• The first level of classification is usually made with
respect to the matrix constituent. The major
composite classes include Organic Matrix
Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites 3. Flat flakes as the reinforcement (Flake
(MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). composites):
The term organic matrix composite is generally
assumed to include two classes of composites,
namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and
carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as
carbon-carbon composites.

• The second level of classification refers to the 4. Fillers as the reinforcement (Filler composites):
reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites,
laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre
Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided
into those containing discontinuous or continuous
fibres.
• Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of
fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite
is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre
composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On IV. FABRICATION TECHNIQUES
the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such
that any further increase in length does not further There are numerous methods for fabricating
increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite components. Some methods have been
composite is considered to be continuous fibre borrowed (injection molding, for example), but many
reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when were developed to meet specific design or
pushed axially, they bend easily although they have manufacturing challenges. Selection of a method for a
very good tensile properties. These fibres must be particular part, therefore, will depend on the
supported to keep individual fibres from bending and materials, the part design and end-use or application.
buckling. Composite fabrication processes involve some form

Composite Materials - History, Types, Fabrication Techniques, Advantages, and Applications

83
 International Journal of Mechanical And Production Engineering, ISSN: 2320-2092, Volume- 5, Issue-9, Sep.-2017
http://iraj.in
of molding, to shape the resin and reinforcement. A resins in larger droplets at low pressure. Another
mold tool is required to give the unformed resin /fiber option is a roller impregnator, which pumps resin into
combination its shape prior to and during cure. a roller similar to a paint roller.
In the final steps of the sprayup process, workers
The most basic fabrication method for thermoset compact the laminate by hand with rollers. Wood,
composites is hand layup, which typically consists of foam or other core material may then be added, and a
laying dry fabric layers, or “plies,” or prepreg plies, second sprayup layer imbeds the core between the
by hand onto a tool to form a laminate stack. Resin is laminate skins. The part is then cured, cooled and
applied to the dry plies after layup is complete (e.g., removed from the reusable mold.
by means of resin infusion). Hand layup and sprayup methods are often used in
tandem to reduce labor.
Several curing methods are available. The most basic
is simply to allow cure to occur at room temperature. Resin infusion processes
Cure can be accelerated, however, by applying heat, Ever-increasing demand for faster production rates
typically with an oven, and pressure, by means of a has pressed the industry to replace hand layup with
vacuum.Many high-performance thermoset parts alternative fabrication processes and has encouraged
require heat and high consolidation pressure to cure fabricators to automate those processes wherever
— conditions that require the use of an autoclave. possible.
Autoclaves, generally, are expensive to buy and A common alternative is resin transfer molding
operate. Manufacturers that are equipped with (RTM), sometimes referred to as liquid molding. The
autoclaves usually cure a number of parts benefits of RTM are impressive. Generally, the dry
simultaneously. Computer systems monitor and preforms and resins used in RTM are less expensive
control autoclave temperature, pressure, vacuum and than prepreg material and can be stored at room
inert atmosphere, which allows unattended and/or temperature. The process can produce thick, near-net
remote supervision of the cure process and shape parts, eliminating most post-fabrication work.
maximizes efficient use of the technique. It also yields dimensionally accurate complex parts
Electron-beam (E-beam) curing has been explored as with good surface detail and delivers a smooth finish
an efficient curing method for thin laminates. In E- on all exposed surfaces. It is possible to place inserts
beam curing, the composite layup is exposed to a inside the preform before the mold is closed, allowing
stream of electrons that provide ionizing radiation, the RTM process to accommodate core materials and
causing polymerization and crosslinking in radiation- integrate “molded in” fittings and other hardware into
sensitive resins. X-ray and microwave curing the part structure. Finally, RTM significantly cuts
technologies work in a similar manner. A fourth cycle times and can be adapted for use as one stage in
alternative, ultraviolet (UV) curing, involves the use an automated, repeatable manufacturing process for
of UV radiation to activate a photoinitiator added to a even greater efficiency, reducing cycle time from
thermoset resin, which, when activated, sets off a what can be several days, typical of hand layup, to
crosslinking reaction. UV curing requires light- just hours — or even minutes.
permeable resin and reinforcements.
In contrast to RTM, where resin and catalyst are
Open molding premixed prior to injection under pressure into the
Open contact molding in one-sided molds is a low- mold, reaction injection molding (RIM) injects a
cost, common process for making fiberglass rapid-cure resin and a catalyst into the mold in two
composite products. Typically used for boat hulls and separate streams. Mixing and the resulting chemical
decks, RV components, truck cabs and fenders, spas, reaction occur in the mold instead of in a dispensing
bathtubs, shower stalls and other relatively large, head. Automotive industry suppliers combine
noncomplex shapes, open molding involves either structural RIM (SRIM) with rapid preforming
hand layup or a semi-automated alternative, sprayup. methods to fabricate structural parts that don’t require
In an open-mold sprayup application, the mold is first a Class A finish. Programmable robots have become
treated with mold release. If a gel coat is used, it is a common means to spray a chopped
typically sprayed into the mold after the mold release fiberglass/binder combination onto a vacuum-
has been applied. The gel coat then is cured and the equipped preform screen or mold. Robotic sprayup
mold is ready for fabrication to begin. In the sprayup can be directed to control fiber orientation. A related
process, catalyzed resin (viscosity from 500 to 1,000 technology, dry fiber placement, combines stitched
cps) and glass fiber are sprayed into the mold using a preforms and RTM. Fiber volumes of up to 68
chopper gun, which chops continuous fiber into short percent are possible, and automated controls ensure
lengths, then blows the short fibers directly into the low voids and consistent preform reproduction,
sprayed resin stream so that both materials are without the need for trimming.
applied simultaneously. To reduce VOCs, piston
pump-activated, non-atomizing spray guns and fluid Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM)
impingement spray heads dispense gel coats and refers to a variety of related processes that represent

Composite Materials - History, Types, Fabrication Techniques, Advantages, and Applications

84
 International Journal of Mechanical And Production Engineering, ISSN: 2320-2092, Volume- 5, Issue-9, Sep.-2017
http://iraj.in
the fastest-growing new molding technology. The markets previously held by thermoplastic and metal
salient difference between VARTM-type processes casting manufacturers. For example, the first-ever
and RTM is that in VARTM, resin is drawn into a BMC-based electronic throttle control (ETC) valves
preform through use of a vacuum only, rather than (previously molded only from die-cast aluminum)
pumped in under pressure. VARTM does not require debuted on engines in the BMW Mini and the
high heat or pressure. For that reason, VARTM Peugeot 207, taking advantage of dimensional
operates with low-cost tooling, making it possible to stability offered by a specially-formulated BMC
inexpensively produce large, complex parts in one supplied by TetraDUR GmbH (Hamburg, Germany),
shot. a subsidiary of Bulk Molding Compounds Inc.
In the VARTM process, fiber reinforcements are (BMCI, West Chicago, Ill.,).Injection speeds are
placed in a one-sided mold, and a cover (typically a typically one to five seconds, and as many as 2,000
plastic bagging film) is placed over the top to form a small parts can be produced per hour in some
vacuum-tight seal. The resin typically enters the multiple-cavity molds.
structure through strategically placed ports and feed Parts with thick cross-sections can be compression
lines, termed a “manifold.” It is drawn by vacuum molded or transfer molded with BMC. Transfer
through the reinforcements by means of a series of molding is a closed-mold process wherein a measured
designed-in channels that facilitate wetout of the charge of BMC is placed in a pot with runners that
fibers. Fiber content in the finished part can run as lead to the mold cavities. A plunger forces the
high as 70 percent. Current applications include material into the cavities, where the product cures
marine, ground transportation and infrastructure under heat and pressure.
parts. This method has been employed by The Boeing
Co. (Chicago, Ill.) and NASA, as well as small Filament winding is a continuous fabrication method
fabricating firms, to produce aerospace-quality that can be highly automated and repeatable, with
laminates without an autoclave. relatively low material costs. Filament winding yields
parts with exceptional circumferential or “hoop”
High-volume molding methods strength. The highest-volume single application of
Compression molding is a high-volume thermoset filament winding is golf club shafts. Fishing rods,
molding process that employs expensive but very pipe, pressure vessels and other cylindrical parts
durable metal dies. It is an appropriate choice when comprise most of the remaining business.
production quantities exceed 10,000 parts. As many
as 200,000 parts can be turned out on a set of forged Pultrusion, like RTM, has been used for decades with
steel dies, using sheet molding compound (SMC), a glass fiber and polyester resins, but in the last 10
composite sheet material made by sandwiching years the process also has found application in
chopped fiberglass between two layers of thick resin advanced composites applications. In this relatively
paste. Low-pressure SMC formulations that are now simple, low-cost, continuous process, the reinforcing
on the market offer open molders low-capital- fiber (usually roving, tow or continuous mat) is
investment entry into closed-mold processing with typically pulled through a heated resin bath and then
near-zero VOC emissions and the potential for very formed into specific shapes as it passes through one
high-quality surface finish. or more forming guides or bushings. The material
Automakers are exploring carbon fiber-reinforced then moves through a heated die, where it takes its
SMC, hoping to take advantage of carbon’s high net shape and cures. Further downstream, after
strength- and stiffness-to-weight ratios in exterior cooling, the resulting profile is cut to desired length.
body panels and other parts. Newer, toughened SMC Pultrusion yields smooth finished parts that typically
formulations help prevent microcracking, a do not require postprocessing. A wide range of
phenomenon that previously caused paint “pops” continuous, consistent, solid and hollow profiles are
during the painting process (surface craters caused by pultruded, and the process can be custom-tailored to
outgassing, the release of gasses trapped in the fit specific applications.
microcracks during oven cure).
Composites manufacturers in industrial markets are Tube rolling is a longstanding composites
formulating their own resins and compounding SMC manufacturing process that can produce finite-length
in-house to meet needs in specific applications that tubes and rods. It is particularly applicable to small-
require UV, impact and moisture resistance and have diameter cylindrical or tapered tubes in lengths as
surface-quality demands that drive the need for great as 20 ft/6.2m. Tubing diameters up to 6
customized material development. inches/152 mm can be rolled efficiently. Typically, a
tacky prepreg fabric or unidirectional tape is used,
Injection molding is a fast, high-volume, low- depending on the part. The material is precut in
pressure, closed process using, most commonly, filled patterns that have been designed to achieve the
thermoplastics, such as nylon with chopped glass requisite ply schedule and fiber architecture for the
fiber. In the past 20 years, however, automated application. The pattern pieces are laid out on a flat
injection molding of BMC has taken over some surface and a mandrel is rolled over each one under

Composite Materials - History, Types, Fabrication Techniques, Advantages, and Applications

85
 International Journal of Mechanical And Production Engineering, ISSN: 2320-2092, Volume- 5, Issue-9, Sep.-2017
http://iraj.in
applied pressure, which compacts and debulks the at equal wall thickness compared to multiaxial
material. When rolling a tapered mandrel — e.g., for fiberglass wound pipe. In the casting process, epoxy
a fishing rod or golf shaft — only the first row of or vinyl ester resin is injected into a 150G
longitudinal fibers falls on the true 0° axis. To impart centrifugally spinning mold, permeating the woven
bending strength to the tube, therefore, the fibers fabric wrapped around the mold’s interior surface.
must be continuously reoriented by repositioning the The centrifugal force pushes the resin through the
pattern pieces at regular intervals. layers of fabric, creating a smooth finish on the
outside of the pipe, and excess resin pumped into the
Automated fiber placement (AFP) The fiber mold creates a resin-rich, corrosion- and abrasion-
placement process automatically places multiple resistant interior liner. Fiber-reinforced thermoplastic
individual prepreg tows onto a mandrel at high speed, components now can be produced by extrusion, as
using a numerically controlled, articulating robotic well. A huge market has emerged in the past decade
placement head to dispense, clamp, cut and restart as for extruded thermoplastic/wood flour (or other
many as 32 tows simultaneously. Minimum cut additives, such as bast fibers or fly ash) composites.
length (the shortest tow length a machine can lay These wood plastic composites, or WPCs, used to
down) is the essential ply-shape determinant. The simulate wood decking, siding, window and door
fiber placement heads can be attached to a 5-axis frames, and fencing.
gantry, retrofitted to a filament winder or delivered as
a turnkey custom system. Machines are available with V. ADVANTAGES
dual mandrel stations to increase productivity.
Advantages of fiber placement include processing Light Weight - Composites are light in weight,
speed, reduced material scrap and labor costs, parts compared to most woods and metals. Their lightness
consolidation and improved part-to-part uniformity. is important in automobiles and aircraft, for example,
Often, the process is used to produce large thermoset where less weight means better fuel efficiency (more
parts with complex shapes. miles to the gallon). People who design airplanes are
greatly concerned with weight, since reducing a
Automated tape laying (ATL) is an even speedier craft’s weight reduces the amount of fuel it needs and
automated process in which prepreg tape, rather than increases the speeds it can reach. Some modern
single tows, is laid down continuously to form parts. airplanes are built with more composites than metal
It is often used for parts with highly complex including the new Boeing 787, Dreamliner.
contours or angles. Tape layup is versatile, allowing High Strength - Composites can be designed to be far
breaks in the process and easy direction changes, and stronger than aluminum or steel. Metals are equally
it can be adapted for both thermoset and strong in all directions. But composites can be
thermoplastic materials. The head includes a spool or engineered and designed to be strong in a specific
spools of tape, a winder, winder guides, a compaction direction.
shoe, a position sensor and a tape cutter or slitter. In Strength Related to Weight - Strength-to-weight ratio
either case, the head may be located on the end of a is a material’s strength in relation to how much it
multi axis articulating robot that moves around the weighs. Some materials are very strong and heavy,
tool or mandrel to which material is being applied, or such as steel. Other materials can be strong and light,
the head may be located on a gantry suspended above such as bamboo poles. Composite materials can be
the tool. designed to be both strong and light. This property is
Although ATL generally is faster than AFP and can why composites are used to build airplanes—which
place more material over longer distances, AFP is need a very high strength material at the lowest
better suited to shorter courses and can place material possible weight. A composite can be made to resist
more effectively over contoured surfaces. These bending in one direction, for example. When
technologies grew out of the machine tool industry something is built with metal, and greater strength is
and have seen extensive use in the manufacture of the needed in one direction, the material usually must be
fuselage, wing skin panels, wingbox, tail and other made thicker, which adds weight. Composites can be
structures on the forthcoming Boeing 787 Dreamliner strong without being heavy. Composites have the
and the Airbus A350 XWB. ATL and AFP also are highest strength-to-weight ratios in structures today.
used extensively to produce parts for the F-35 Corrosion Resistance - Composites resist damage
Lightning II fighter jet the V-22 Osprey tiltrotor troop from the weather and from harsh chemicals that can
transport and a variety of other aircraft. eat away at other materials. Composites are good
choices where chemicals are handled or stored.
Centrifugal casting of pipe from 1 inch/25 mm to 14 Outdoors, they stand up to severe weather and wide
inches/356 mm in diameter is an alternative to changes in temperature.
filament winding for high-performance, corrosion- High-Impact Strength - Composites can be made to
resistant service. In cast pipe, 0°/90° woven fiberglass absorb impacts—the sudden force of a bullet, for
provides both longitudinal and hoop strength instance, or the blast from an explosion. Because of
throughout the pipe wall and brings greater strength this property, composites are used in bulletproof vests
Composite Materials - History, Types, Fabrication Techniques, Advantages, and Applications

86
 International Journal of Mechanical And Production Engineering, ISSN: 2320-2092, Volume- 5, Issue-9, Sep.-2017
http://iraj.in
and panels, and to shield airplanes, buildings, and the end of the life of many original composites. Many
military vehicles from explosions. composites have been in service for half a century.
Design Flexibility - Composites can be molded into
complicated shapes more easily than most other V. APPLICATIONS
materials. This gives designers the freedom to create
almost any shape or form. Most recreational boats Appliance
today, for example, are built from fiberglass Cooking, Dishwasher, Refrigerator, Small
composites because these materials can easily be Appliances, Laundry, Ice Machines
molded into complex shapes, which improve boat Construction
design while lowering costs. The surface of Entry Doors, Garage Doors, Architecture,
composites can also be molded to mimic any surface Countertops, Wastewater Treatment
finish or texture, from smooth to pebbly. Electrical Distribution
Part Consolidation - A single piece made of Circuit Breakers, Motor Control, Centers,
composite materials can replace an entire assembly of Generators, Switchgear, Busway, Control Cabinets,
metal parts. Reducing the number of parts in a Cross Arms
machine or a structure saves time and cuts down on Energy
the maintenance needed over the life of the item. Wind Turbine, Fuel Cells, Solar Panels,Pumps
Dimensional Stability - Composites retain their shape Forward Lighting
and size when they are hot or cool, wet or dry. Wood, Headlamps, Reflections
on the other hand, swells and shrinks as the humidity HVAC
changes. Composites can be a better choice in Drain Pans, Blower Housing, Wall Sleeves, Control
situations demanding tight fits that do not vary. They Panels, Recreational Vehicles
are used in aircraft wings, for example, so that the Lighting
wing shape and size do not change as the plane gains Class 1/ DV2, Light Housing, In ground, Explosion
or loses altitude. Proof, Reflectors
Nonconductive - Composites are nonconductive, Marine
meaning they do not conduct electricity. This Engine Covers, Personal Watercraft, Boat Access
property makes them suitable for such items as Covers, Electrical Buyer's, Motor Housing
electrical utility poles and the circuit boards in Sanitary/Plumbing
electronics. If electrical conductivity is needed, it is Faucets, Sinks, Drains, Showers, Bathtubs
possible to make some composites conductive. Transportation Resisters
Nonmagnetic - Composites contain no metals; Drive Motors, Controls, Valve Covers, Oil Pans,
therefore, they are not magnetic. They can be used Air Suspensions
around sensitive electronic equipment. The lack of
magnetic interference allows large magnets used in CONCLUSION
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) equipment to
perform better. Composites are used in both the In a nutshell the composites are the materials which
equipment housing and table. In addition, the have many desirable properties and makes them the
construction of the room uses composites rebar to best material that can be used in many applications.
reinforced the concrete walls and floors in the These properties make the composite materials
hospital. replace the already existing materials which are used
Radar Transparent - Radar signals pass right through in the present days. Therefore the research on the
composites, a property that makes composites ideal composite materials must expand through leaps and
materials for use anywhere radar equipment is bounds.
operating, whether on the ground or in the air.
Composites play a key role in stealth aircraft, such as REFERENCES
the U.S. Air Force’s B-2 stealth bomber, which is
nearly invisible to radar. [1] An Introduction to Composite Materials (Cambridge Solid
Low Thermal Conductivity - Composites are good State Science Series) 2nd Edition, by D. Hull (Author), T.
insulators—they do not easily conduct heat or cold. W. Clyne (Author)
[2] Composite Materials: Design and Applications, Third
They are used in buildings for doors, panels, and Edition by Daniel Gay
windows where extra protection is needed from [3] Composite Materials, Science and Applications Authors:
severe weather. Chung, Deborah D. L.
Durable - Structures made of composites have a long [4] Composite Materials: Science and Engineering (Materials
Research and Engineering) 3rd Edition by Krishan K.
life and need little maintenance. We do not know how Chawla (Author).
long composites last, because we have not come to



Composite Materials - History, Types, Fabrication Techniques, Advantages, and Applications

87