Mahmoud Salama Tawfik Mohamed

https://zagazig.academia.edu/Salama

[email protected]

Short notes about

Geographic Information System (for beginners)

2019
Abstract

Geographic Information System is virtually used in every field. It's comprised of

hardware, software, data, humans, and a set of organizational protocols. These
components must be well integrated for effective use of GIS to help people reach a
common goal. GIS technology applies geographic science with tools for
understanding and collaboration. It’s used in every aspect of our daily lives and it
is difficult to count its uses as it is used by different institutions and hundreds of
thousands of organizations for many different purposes and to make maps that
communicate, perform analysis, share information and solve complex problems
around the world since it allows the analyzation of environmental, demographic,
and topographic data. This is changing the way the world works. GIS is a tool used
by individuals and organizations, schools, governments, and businesses seeking
innovative ways to solve their problems. It's considered as a decision-making tool
which uses spatial information. It supports the study of natural and man-made
phenomena. Words can't explain how his tool is so very important in our lives so
that the intention of this book is to lay the principle basics foundation of GIS and
to define some of the common terminologies which GIS users using.

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Contents

Abstract I

List of figures III

List of tables IV

1. Introduction 1

2. GISystem and GIScience 2

3. Components of GIS 3

4. Types of models 3

5. GIS data Types 5

5.1. Non-spatial (attribute, tabular, schedule) data 5

5.2. Spatial (coordinates) data 6

6. TIN, DEM, DTM, DSM and DHM 7

7. Databases 8

7.1. Linking GIS and DBMS 8

8. Geographic references 8

8.1. Geoid and ellipsoid 9

8.2. Geographic coordinate system 11

8.2.1. Datums 11

8.3. Projected coordinate systems 11

8.3.1. Map projection 12

8.3.1.1. Transverse Mercator Map Projection 13

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List of figures

Figure no. Page

Figure1. GIS is dealing with layers. 1

Figure2. GIS components. 2

Figure3. Vector and raster models. 4

Figure4. Run-length coding for raster model. 4

Figure5. Attribute and Spatial data. 6

Figure6. Components of an attribute data table. 6

Figure7. TIN and DEM. 7

Figure8. DTM and DSM. 7

Figure9. a. The difference between geoid and ellipsoid, b. The real shape of 9
the Earth.

Figure10. The geographic coordinate system formed from longitudes and 10

latitudes.

Figure11. Longitudes and latitudes. 10

Figure12. Projected coordinate system, longitude and latitude represented as 12

X and Y.

Figure13. Map projection. 12

Figure14. World UTM zones map. 13

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List of tables

Table no. Page

Table1. A comparison of Vector and Raster data models. 3

Table2. Types of attribute data. 5

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 1. Introduction

Geographic information system is in everyday life as it allows you to bring all

types of data together based on the geographic and locational component of the
data. GIS is defined as a computer-based system to aid in the collection,
maintenance, storage, analysis, output and distribution of spatial data and
information. It aids decision-makers to solve a problem and take better decisions.
GIS will give you the power to create maps, integrate information, visualize
scenarios, solve complicated problems, present powerful ideas and develop
effective solutions like never before. The input (data entry) of GIS is in the form of
a hard copy picture and its output is a digital data (data with coordinates). GIS
stores information about the world as a collection of thematic layers that can be
linked together by geography (Figure 1).

GIS have rapidly developed since 1970’s in term of both technical and
processing capabilities. Today GIS is widely used all over the world for a wide
range of purposes. All professionals work with positional data (spatial data) can
use GIS to make them work easier. Because GISs have the ability to link data sets
together by geography, they facilitate interdepartmental information sharing and
communication. By creating a shared database, one department can benefit from
the work of another - data can be collected once and used many times. GIS
requires an organization to support various activities. It also requires trained
personnel to use it and a set of protocols guiding how the GIS will be used.

Figure1. GIS is dealing with layers.

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 2. GISystem and GIScience

There is a difference between GISystem & GIScience. GISystem depends on

progress in GIScience. GISystem is the analysis, storage, visualization and
management of geographic data. Geographic Information Systems is a software
tool in everyday work. This tool came from GIScience which studies the data
structures and computational techniques. GIScience is much broader than
GISystem because GIScience forms a theoretical foundation on which GISystem is
based. The discipline that deals with all aspects of the handling of spatial data and
geo-information is called geographic information science. GIScience is the
scientific field that attempts to integrate different disciplines studying the methods
and techniques of handling spatial information.

3. Components of GIS

A GIS user can expect support from the system to enter geo-referenced data to
analyses it in various ways and to produce presentations including maps from the
data. This computer system is very important especially when it comes to planning.
It has been used in a variety of industries to help in planning and monitoring. There
are five essential key components (Figure 2): computer hardware, software, spatial
data, people and methods.

Figure2. GIS components.

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 4. Types of models

Geographic information systems work with two fundamentally different types of

geographic models; vector model and raster model (Figure 3). Both the vector and
raster models for storing geographic data have unique advantages and
disadvantages (Table 1). Modern GISs are able to handle both models. But most
GIS software applications mainly focus on the usage and manipulation of vector
geodatabases (geodatabase is a database that is in some way referenced to locations
on the earth).

Table1. A comparison of Vector and Raster data models.

Vector Raster
Divided into three types: point, line (or Cell-based data. There are two types of
arc), and polygon (area) objects. raster data: continuous and discrete.

Advantages Advantages
It's a map-like, with continuous curves. Data structure is simple to understand
The graphical output is generally cell size. The analysis is easy for
simpler. Furthermore, it gives higher continuous data. Accessibility is easy to
geographic accuracy because data isn’t modify due to simple data structure.
dependent on grid size. Preferred for
network analysis and proximity
operations. Storage requirements are
small for most data sets.

Disadvantages Disadvantages
Data structure and accessibility is Storage requirements are large because
complex. Continuous data is poorly they record values for each cell in an
stored and displayed as vectors. image. Coordinates conversion is slow
due to the data volume. You can't create
network datasets. Also, you don’t have
the flexibility with raster data attribute
tables. As resolution increases, the size
of the cell decreases.

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In the vector model (scanned map or picture), information is about points, lines and
polygons is encoded and stored as a collection of x,y coordinates. A raster image
comprises a collection of grid cells. The vector model is extremely useful for
describing discrete features but less useful for describing continuously varying
features such as soil type or costs of hotels. The raster model has evolved to model
such continuous varying features.

Figure3. Vector and raster models.

Data compression is common in GIS and most often applied to discrete

raster data. Compressions are based on algorithms that reduce the size of a
computer file while maintaining the information contained in the file. Run-length
coding (Figure 4) is a common data compression method. This compression
technique is based on recording sequential runs of raster cell values. Each run is
recorded as the value and the run length. Seven sequential cells of type A might be
listed as 7A instead of AAAAAAA. So run-length coding substantially reduces the
size of raster data sets.

Figure4. Run-length coding for raster model.

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 5. GIS data Types

GIS Data is the key component of a GIS and has two general types: Attribute and
Spatial data (Figure 5).

5.1. Non-spatial (attribute, tabular, schedule) data

Attribute data are descriptions, measurements, and/or classifications of geographic

features in a map. Attribute data generally defined as additional information, which
can then be tied to spatial data. It can be classified into three levels of
measurement: nominal, ordinal and interval or ratio (Table 2).

Table2. Types of attribute data.

Nominal Interval or ratio Ordinal

Provide descriptive Used for numeric items and May be descriptive such
information about an often recorded as real numbers. as small, medium, or
object. large, or they may be
numeric, such as an
erosion class.

The nominal level is The interval measurement Ordinal data are ranked
the lowest level of indicates the distance between into hierarchies but does
measurement for the ranks of the measured not show any magnitude
distinguishing features elements. Ratio measurements of difference.
quantitatively using are the highest level of
type or class. measurements.
E.g. color, vegetation E.g. 11, 300, length, elevation,
type, city name, soil areas … etc.
type … etc.

Attribute data is the detailed data used in combination with spatial data to create a
GIS. Attribute data can be obtained from a number of sources. Some popular
sources of attribute data are from town planning and management departments,
policing and fire departments, environmental groups, online media, field data
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collection, questionnaires, books and researches, statistics and internet.
Components of an attribute data table are: Item which is a particular column
expresses a particular attribute, and Record which is a row that includes all the
attributes for one unit (Figure 6).

Figure6. Components of an attribute data table.

5.2. Spatial (coordinates) data

Spatial data (maps or images) are used to provide the visual representation of a
geographic space and is stored as raster and vector types. Any format of a
geographical image with location or co-ordinate points can be used as spatial data.
Spatial data can be obtained from satellite images, scanned maps, topographic
maps, research maps and Google earth's maps. This data can then be digitized into
vector data or maintained as raster graphic data.

Figure5. Attribute and Spatial data.

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 6. TIN, DEM, DTM, DSM and DHM

TIN (Triangular Irregular Network) is a vector-based representation whereas DEM

(Digital Elevation Model) is represented as a raster from grid of squares (Figure 7).
Actually, TIN is a type of DEM and derived from the raster DEM. Both of them
will have some errors due to the surface of the Earth. But TIN is less error than
DEM. When DEM has a regular grid, TIN has non-overlapping triangles (an
irregular network of triangles) which fit better to the Earth surface. The TIN
representation has information about slope and aspect and you can use them to
extract the areas you require. DEM includes both DTM and DSM (Figure 8).

DTM is the abbreviation of the Digital Terrain Model and means the Digital
Earth Model; it includes land heights and does not take into account the height of
buildings and trees. DSM is the abbreviation of Digital Surface Model; it is a
digital surface height model including the height of buildings and trees. DHM is an
abbreviation of the Digital Heights Model, which means the digital model of
altitude and includes the height of buildings; DHM is the difference between DSM
and DTM.

Figure7. TIN and DEM.

Figure8. DTM and DSM.

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 7. Databases

A database is an organized collection of structured information or data, typically

stored electronically in a computer system. A database may have many tables, each
of which stores data of a certain kind. A database is usually controlled by a
database management system (DBMS) which is a software package that allows the
user to set up, use and maintain a database. Together, the data and the DBMS,
along with the applications that are associated with them, are referred to as a
database system, often shortened to just database. Database is a repository for
sorting large amounts of data. It can store almost any kind of data and can be used
by multiple users at the same time. It is modeled in rows and columns in a series of
tables to make processing efficient. The data can then be easily accessed, managed,
modified, updated, controlled, and organized. In other words, the amount of data in
database is large, but the data itself has a simple and regular structure.

7.1. Linking GIS and DBMS

GIS provides support for spatial and attributes data and it stored these data
separately. A lot of data in GIS is attribute data so that DBMSs is specifically
designed for handling with this type of data. For data support, many GIS
applications have made use of external DBMSs. GIS had to provide a link between
spatial data (vector and raster) and attribute one stored in external DBMS.

8. Geographic references

All geographic data, by definition, has some sort of geographic referencing to help
identify its location in the world. Geographic information contains either an
explicit clear geographic reference (locations), such as a latitude and longitude or
national grid coordinate, or an implicit reference (descriptions) such as an address,
postal code or road name. These geographic references allow you to locate features
and events on the earth's surface for analysis. An automated process called
geocoding is used to create explicit geographic references from implicit references.

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 8.1. Geoid and ellipsoid

Making gravity surveys all over the Earth to explore and measure variations of the
gravitational field associated with differences in the distribution of densities and
hence rock types within the Earth, shows that the real surface of the Earth is
uneven and irregular but for geophysical and mathematical purposes the Earth’s
shape is represented by a smooth surface. The mathematical smooth shape of the
Earth can be represented as an ellipsoid, and the irregular real shape of the Earth is
called geoid which reflects the true distribution of masses inside the Earth and
differs from the theoretical ellipsoid by small amounts (Figure 9a). That is to say,
The Geoid is the actual figure of the Earth (Figure 9b) that coincides with the mean
sea level and describes the highest, and Ellipsoid is the theoretical shape of the
Earth which describes the horizontal coordinates of points of interest which will be
projected onto a map plane. Excess of mass makes geoid goes up and the deficit of
mass makes geoid goes down. Geoid undulation is the differences in meters
(displacement) between the geoid and reference ellipsoid. Positive geoid
undulation is over a mass excess under the ellipsoid, on the other hand, a mass
deficit beneath the ellipsoid will deflect the geoid below the ellipsoid causing a
negative geoid undulation.

Figure9. a. The difference between geoid and ellipsoid, b. The real shape of the Earth.

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 8.2. Geographic coordinate system

A geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface

to define locations (points) on the earth. A point is referenced by its longitude and
latitude values measured in degrees. In the spherical system, horizontal lines (east-
west lines) are lines of latitude (parallels), and vertical lines (north-south lines) are
lines of longitude (meridians). These lines encompass the globe and form a gridded
network called a graticule (a network of lines representing meridians and parallels,
on which a map or plan can be represented) (Figure 10).

Figure10. The geographic coordinate system formed from longitudes and latitudes.

Latitude values (Y) are measured relative to the equator and range from -90° at the
South Pole to +90° at the North Pole. Longitude values (X) are measured relative to
the prime meridian (Greenwich), they range from -180° when traveling west to
180° when traveling east (Figure 11).

Figure11. Longitudes and

latitudes.

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 8.2.1. Datums

Datums are used to translate positions indicated on maps to their real position on
Earth. A datum is a part of a geographic coordinate system. It provides a frame of
reference for measuring locations on the surface of the Earth. It defines the origin
and orientation of latitude and longitude lines (defines the position). Horizontal
datums are used for describing a point (measure positions) on the Earth's surface,
in latitude and longitude or another coordinate system. A specific point on the
Earth can have different coordinates, depending on the datum used to make the
measurement. Vertical datum is a reference surface for vertical positions, used to
measure elevations or underwater depths. The most recently developed and widely
used datum is WGS 1984. It serves as the framework for locational measurement
worldwide.

8.3. Projected coordinate systems

Unlike a geographic coordinate system, a projected coordinate system is defined

on a flat, two-dimensional surface. In a projected coordinate system, the latitude
and longitude coordinates are converted to X, Y coordinates on the flat projection
on a grid with the origin at the center of the grid usually has a coordinate of (0,0)
(Figure 12). Each position has two values one specifies its horizontal position and
the other its vertical position. The values above the X-axis are positive, and the
values below the X-axis are negative. The values to the right of the Y-axis are
positive, and the values to the left of the Y-axis are negative. The four quadrants
represent the four possible combinations of positive and negative X and Y
coordinates.

Defining coordinates for the earth's surface is complicated as the Earth is

curved, so when we plot latitude and longitude coordinates on a Cartesian system
(X and Y coordinate system), straight lines will appear bent, and areas will be
incorrect. The second reason is the irregular nature of the Earth’s shape and the
Earth is shaped like a sphere. These deformations affect how we best map the
surface of the Earth, and how we define Cartesian coordinate systems for use in
mapping and GIS.

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 Figure12. Projected coordinate system, longitude and latitude represented as X and Y.

8.3.1. Map projection

To create a flat map sheet with X, Y Cartesian coordinates, the curved three-
dimensional Earth's spheroid surface (latitude and longitude coordinate locations)
must be transformed into that flat map (Figure 13). These mathematical
transformation equations are commonly referred to as map projections. The shape
of the graticule on the flat paper is different from that on the Earth so that map
projection has distorted the graticule and alters spatial properties.

Figure13. Map projection.

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 8.3.1.1. Transverse Mercator Map Projection

The problem with projections is that it is very difficult to represent the curved 3D
surface of the Earth on a flat 2D surface of a map; some distortion is bound to
occur. The Transverse Mercator projection is widely used around the world and
works especially well for mapping areas smaller than a few degrees longitudinally,
such as a state or county. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system
is a global coordinate system. It treats the earth as a perfect ellipsoid. It is widely
used in Egypt. The UTM system divides the Earth into zones numbered from 1 to
60 in an easterly direction (Figure 14). Egypt lies in the Red Sea belt from zone 35
to zone 37 (including Halayeb and Shalateen areas). The zone containing most of
Egypt is UTM Zone 36°N.

Figure14. World UTM zones map.

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