370 DEGRADATION

DEGRADATION
C J Ritsema, Alterra, Wageningen, The Netherlands are the result of human disturbance of either a natural
G W J van Lynden, ISRIC, Wageningen, or anthropogenic state of equilibrium. Some of these
The Netherlands are:
V G Jetten and S M de Jong, Utrecht University,
Utrecht, The Netherlands Agricultural causes: Defined as the improper man-
agement of cultivated arable land. It includes a wide
ß 2005, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
variety of practices, such as insufficient or excessive
use of fertilizers, shortening of the fallow period in
Introduction shifting cultivation, use of poor quality irrigation
Soil is under increasing threat from a wide range of water, absence or bad maintenance of erosion-control
human activities that are undermining its long-term measures, improper use of heavy machinery, etc. Deg-
availability and viability. One third of the world’s radation types commonly linked to this causative
agricultural soils, or approximately 2 billion hectares factor are erosion (water or wind), compaction, loss
of land are affected by soil degradation. Water and of nutrients, salinization, and pollution (by pesticides
wind erosion account for most of the observed dam- or fertilizers).
age, while other forms such as physical and chemical Deforestation or removal of natural vegetation:
degradation are responsible for the rest. Appropriate Defined as the near complete removal of natural vege-
soil and water conservation strategies are needed to tation (usually primary or secondary forest) from
prevent and combat the effects of soil degradation in large stretches of land, for example by converting
the field and at the planning level. forest into agricultural land (hence sometimes fol-
Soil degradation is ‘‘a process that describes human- lowed by agricultural mismanagement), large-scale
induced phenomena which lower the current and/or commercial forestry, road construction, urban devel-
future capacity of the soil to support human life.’’ In a opment, etc. Deforestation often causes erosion and
general sense, soil degradation could be described as loss of nutrients.
the deterioration of soil quality, or in other words: the Overexploitation of vegetation for domestic use:
partial or entire loss of one or more functions of Contrary to ‘deforestation or removal of natural
the soil. Quality should be assessed in terms of the vegetation,’ this causative factor does not necessarily
different potential functions of the soil. involve the (near) complete removal of the ‘natural’
Land degradation is the reduction in the capability vegetation, but rather a degeneration of the remain-
of the land to produce benefits from a particular ing vegetation, thus offering insufficient protection
land use under a specified form of land management. against erosion. It includes activities such as excessive
Seven main groups of land-degradation processes are gathering of fuel wood, fodder, (local) timber, etc.
normally distinguished: (1) mass movement (such as Overexploitation of natural water resources: This
debris flows and avalanches), (2) water erosion (sheet, leads to water shortages for the natural ecosystem and
rill, gully erosion), (3) wind erosion, (4) excess of salts in the long term to the removal of the natural vegeta-
(salinization, sodification), (5) chemical degradation tion cover. The result is an increased vulnerability of
(acidification, contamination, toxicity), (6) physical the land for surface runoff, soil erosion, and soil sur-
degradation (crusting, compaction, oxidation), and face crusting. As soon as the process of vegetation
(7) biological degradation (loss of soil biodiversity). deterioration starts, it normally has a self-enhancing
An important aspect of many soil and land deg- effect which is difficult to stop or to reverse.
radation processes are the so called off-site effects; Overgrazing: Besides actual overgrazing of the
for example, dust storms or eroded sediment cause vegetation by livestock, other phenomena of exces-
problems such as damage by mudflows, siltation of sive livestock amounts are also considered here, such
dams, or pollution of drinking water in downwind or as trampling. The effect of overgrazing usually is soil
downstream areas. compaction and/or a decrease in plant cover, both of
which may in turn give rise to water or wind erosion.
Factors and Processes Affecting Industrial activities: All human activities of an
industrial or bioindustrial nature are included: indus-
Degradation of Soils
tries, power generation, infrastructure and urban-
Various types of human activities may lead to soil ization, waste handling, traffic, etc. It is most often
degradation. Although some degradation processes linked to pollution of different kinds (either point
may also occur naturally, many degradation types source or diffuse) and loss of productive function.
 DEGRADATION 371

Types of Soil Degradation erosion status for a watershed or the pollution status
for a province. Qualitative assessments are based on
The type of soil degradation refers to the nature of the
expert judgement and hence more liable to subjectiv-
degradation process. Soil particles may be displaced
ity than quantitative methods. A method does not
by the action of water or wind (erosion and sedi-
have to be fully qualitative or quantitative, mixtures
mentation), which may cause damage to crops, infra-
may occur. Some frequently used methods or tools are:
structure, buildings, and the environment in general.
Erosion can be linear, i.e., concentrated along certain 1. Expert opinion: Qualitative assessment on a
channels (rill or gully erosion and mass wasting such controlled mapping base and semiquantitative de-
as landslides), sometimes creating very deep scars in finitions, as employed for instance in the Global
the landscape (Figure 1). Less conspicuous, but often Assessment of Human-induced Soil Degradation
even more detrimental to crops is the gradual removal (GLASOD) survey. GLASOD and related methods
of the topsoil layer (sheet erosion). Off-site effects of are based on an assessment of land suitability by na-
erosion may consist of siltation of reservoirs and river tional experts that use defined, semiquantitative class
beds and/or flooding, or dune formation and ‘over- limits on a given mapping base. Its major disadvan-
blowing’ in the case of wind erosion. Degradation tage is the inevitable degree of subjectivity. Its major
in situ, i.e., without movement of soil particles, can advantage is its capacity to produce results, such as
be chemical (soil pollution by chemical wastes or ex- achieving complete world coverage (Figure 2), in a
cessive fertilization; fertility decline due to nutrients short time and on a small budget. Costs per unit area
being removed by harvesting, erosion and leaching; are relatively low. In Figure 3 an integrated global soil
salinization due to irrigation with saline groundwater degradation severity map is shown, indicating areas
and/or without proper drainage in semiarid and arid with different degradation rates;
areas, acidification due to pH-lowering additions to 2. Remote sensing: Analysis of low- and high-
the soil from fertilizers or from the atmosphere), or resolution satellite data and airborne imagery (e.g.,
physical (compaction due to the use of heavy machin- analysis of composite indices such as the Normalized
ery; deteriorating soil structure such as crusting of the Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)). Remote sensing
soil surface; waterlogging due to increased water always includes linkages with ground observations.
table or its opposite, aridification). The basis of this method is comparison of remotely
sensed imagery of different dates, for regional cover-
Assessment of Degradation age, mainly low-resolution imagery; and, specifically,
comparison of the NDVI, derived from imagery col-
Approaches lected by the sensor aboard the National Oceano-
graphic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
The status of soil degradation can be assessed in a satellite, and more detailed imagery. This method
qualitatively broad manner or in a more detailed was tested amongst others in Saudi Arabia and
quantitative manner. The former generic approach is shows areas where vegetation response to rainfall is
better suited for small-scale assessments, such as for decreasing (degradation of resources) or increasing
entire countries, continents, or global overviews. (rehabilitation of resources). It has been applied par-
A quantitative approach is required for more specific ticularly to early warning systems. For longer-term
and detailed assessments, e.g., to determine the comparisons, some form of calibration for preceding
rainfall is needed. Costs are relatively low. It is recog-
nized that remote sensing cannot be used alone.
Spectral mixture analysis (SMA): Since 1985 hyper-
spectral remote sensing has been developed, opening
new methods to survey and assess degradational state
of the soil surface. Hyperspectral remote sensing
refers to the collection of images in the solar spec-
trum, with many narrow spectral bands allowing the
collection of very accurate spectra of objects and the
earth surface and identification of absorption features
of plants and of soil minerals in these spectra. SMA is
a technique to unravel the spectral information in the
remote-sensing images by assuming that the spectral
Figure 1 Severely degraded soils on the Loess Plateau of variation is caused by a limited number of surface
China. material (green vegetation, senescent vegetation, a
372 DEGRADATION

Degradation
severity
(Extent + Degree)

Water erosion Wind erosion

Low Low
Medium Medium
High High
Very high Very high

Chemical deterioration Physical deterioration

Low Low
Medium Medium
High High
Very high Very high

Stable terrain Other

Stable Nonused wasteland
Ocean, inland water

Figure 2 Global assessment (in 1990) of the status of human-induced soil degradation. (Reproduced with permission from Oldeman
LR, Sombroek WG, and Hakkeling R (1991) World Map on the Current Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation. An Explanatory Note, 2nd edn.
Wageningen, the Netherlands: ISRIC/Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP.)

Figure 3 Global soil degradation severity map as produced by the GLASOD initiative.

number of soil types, and water). A reference library from green vegetation. These three factors are
of these surface materials collected in the field or in important inputs in soil-erosion models because they
the laboratory yields the basis for SMA of the remote- act differently with respect to raindrop interception.
sensing images. This approach has been applied suc- 3. Field monitoring: Stratified soil sampling and
cessfully in a number of case studies to survey soil analysis, and field observation of vegetation and bio-
conditions and to identify classes of degradation. The diversity under certain land-use or management prac-
SMA approach normally improves on results using the tices and climate variability. To date, soil monitoring
NDVI but requires more spectral bands: SMA is suc- has been applied mainly in developed countries, and
cessfully applied to separate, in images, bare soil sur- tests are needed of its cost-effectiveness in developing
faces from senescent vegetation and yellow vegetation countries. In areas where baseline studies have
 DEGRADATION 373

been established, monitoring of changes will be measures using climatic data with a specific return
undertaken; in other areas, establishment of a base- period (worst-case scenario modeling); (4) extending
line will be a priority. Stratified soil-sampling with the range of applicability of results; (5) integrating
analysis, and/or benchmark sites, repeated over 5- to biophysical with socioeconomic factors. Much re-
10-year intervals, has been advocated as a basic activ- search has been put into devising models for the pre-
ity for national soil survey organizations. Examples of diction of soil-erosion hazard. There are established
application to date (2003) are few, but successful: methods for the modeling of both water and wind
the method has been applied to 20 000 sites over a erosion, which have been widely applied, in part be-
25-year period in Japan; is currently being used for cause it is vastly cheaper than any form of field obser-
a national 16-km-grid in France; and has been started vation. The modeling approach is mainly relevant to
in Denmark and Switzerland. The same approach has degradation hazard, but can be applied to actual deg-
been applied to field observations of vegetation, along radation first, as a means of calibration of the model
transects or in sampling plots, and to biodiversity. to the specific requirements of an area, optimizing
Costs per unit area are relatively high, but could be sampling design, or to extrapolate the applicability
reduced by application to priority areas only, on of results obtained on a sampling basis. Risk reflects
a stratified sampling basis. a potential development in the future, while status
4. Productivity changes: Observation of changes reflects the development to date. Models vary widely
in crop yields, biomass production, and livestock in complexity and data requirements, depending on
output, which directly apply to the definition of land the type of degradation they are addressing and the
degradation in terms of lowered productivity, al- size of the area under investigation. Models are useful
though they are influenced by many other factors. to learn and understand degradation processes, but
There is a range of possibilities: At national level, both the model and input data are a simplification of
use might be made of national yield statistics (of reality, hence extrapolation of models should be done
which the reliability is still under debate), adjusted with care. Very often models are developed for experi-
for fertilizer use and climate. At local level, yield mental plots or pilot zones of a restricted size and
monitoring is possible by comparisons with a stand- under more or less controlled conditions, which
ard crop, either without fertilizer or with standard should be taken into account when applying the
fertilizer and management. Substantial problems model elsewhere. The data requirements and structure
arise in that productivity decline could be due to fac- of a model, and the type of processes included in it,
tors other than land degradation, e.g., removal of fer- depend on many things: (1) the temporal scale of the
tilizer subsidy or civil strife. The same cost constraints research objectives: Is an annual, daily, or event-based
apply as for soil monitoring. result required? (2) the spatial scale: Are predictions
5. Sample studies at farm level, based on field cri- needed for a single plot, a field, complex spatial catch-
teria and the expert opinion of land users. Even at ment, or an entire region? (3) Is the emphasis on the
national level, such detailed studies are essential on a on-site effects of land degradation (e.g., soil erosion or
sample basis, to obtain grass roots views both of the crop yield changes) or on the off-site effects such as
severity of degradation and its causes, together with water sediment levels and pollution? Spatial and tem-
practicable remedies (Stocking and Murnaghan, poral scales are often linked, as, for example, is the
2001). Field indicators of soil degradation were de- case for physically based spatial erosion models
veloped about 20 years ago, and could be extended to (Figure 4) that simulate single events for first-order
condition of vegetation. Talking with farmers means catchment with a high level of detail. They can be used
getting the views of farmers, and other land users, on to answer subtle questions about the effects of specific
whether things have got worse – which are of course, land-use changes or soil and water conservation meas-
subjective and perhaps systematically biased, but still ures in the catchment upon reducing runoff and
essential to get grass roots view at local level. The erosion (Figure 5). On the other hand there are less-
method is clearly applicable only at a local scale, and complex empirical models that can simulate continu-
thus on a selective sampling basis. Observations of ous periods mostly for fields or hillslopes, but they can
the state of the land can be combined with assessment only show the change in annual erosion or soil loss.
of driving factors and impacts.
6. Modeling: Based on data obtained by other
Potentials and Limitations
methods, modeling can be used in many ways,
such as: (1) prediction of degradation hazard; (2) It is useful to emphasize some potentials and limita-
operational definition of degradation in terms tions of land degradation assessments. It is obvious
of unfavorable changes in plant productivity, soil that an assessment at a small scale (e.g., 1:1 M) does
properties, and hydrology; (3) design of conservation not have a direct value for activities at the field level,
374 DEGRADATION

but can be highly useful (if well done) to planners, issues, which makes its assessment a rather generic
government agencies, legislative bodies, educational or alternatively highly unwieldy exercise. It is already
institutions, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), quite complicated to assess one specific type of soil
and the general public in highlighting (potential) prob- pollution, not to mention the various other types of
lem areas and decision-making for further action. soil degradation, which in itself is just one aspect of
Besides geographic coverage and scale, another land degradation. This also means that the frequently
factor that determines the usefulness of an assessment observed desire to have ‘simple’ assessment methods
methodology is the range of degradation issues the is not entirely realistic, if this is supposed to be any-
assessment tries to cover. Land degradation is a very thing more than just a general awareness-raising tool.
broad issue, covering a wide range of degradation Two types of assessments have been identified one
is ‘backward-looking’ and determines the result of
degradation over a recent past period. The other ap-
proach is forward-looking in the sense that it makes
predictions for the future based on models and scen-
arios. Although the backward-looking approach con-
siders the current status, it does not necessarily reflect
the result of the degradation process over that period,
but the net result of a number of acting and counter-
acting factors. Degradation is one of these, but re-
medial activities compensating the degradation effect
to some extent is another one.
Though the wish to have ‘simple’ degradation as-
sessment methods is often expressed, it should be
realised that soil degradation is a complex process,
determined by a range of factors of a natural and
socioeconomic character. Hence a simple method
will tend to correspond less with reality than a more
complex and comprehensive one.
Figure 4 Model structure of a physically based spatial hydro-
logic and soil-erosion model, in which water and sediment are
routed to the outlet of a catchment and produced as discharge. Degree and Impact of Degradation
Input var, input variable; LAI, leaf area index; Cov, soil cover;
Ksat, hydraulic conductivity; theta, moisture content; RR, surface Degree of Degradation
roughness; ldd, runoff network; n, flow resistance; slope, terrain
slope; As, aggregate stability; COH, Cohesion; D50, median grain Degree is defined as the intensity of the soil degrad-
size of suspended sediment. ation process, e.g., in the case of erosion, the amount

Changed land use

Present land use with external support

Negligible erosion (0−2.5 t ha−1)

Slight erosion (2.5−10 t ha−1)
Moderate erosion (10−25 t ha−1)
Serious erosion (25−100 t ha−1)
Severe erosion (100−2000 t ha−1)

Figure 5 Computed soil losses in a first-order watershed for the current land use and management conditions and for an
alternatively defined land-use distribution.
 DEGRADATION 375

of soil washed or blown away. The FAO has proposed (or use) of the soil. In many cases, the impact of
values for maximum acceptable limits of soil loss by degradation types will be on its biotic functions, or
erosion with respect to decreased agricultural prod- more specifically on its productivity. A significant
uctivity. Four classes are distinguished, ranging from complication in indicating productivity losses caused
no loss of productivity to severe loss of productivity. by soil degradation is the variety of reasons that may
The classes are <12, 12–25, 25–50, and >50 t ha 1 contribute to yield decline. Falling productivity may
year 1. Relative changes of the soil properties are be caused by a wide range of factors such as erosion,
other good indicators of soil degradation: the percent- fertility decline, improper management, drought, or
age of the total topsoil lost, the percentage of total waterlogging, quality of inputs (seeds, fertilizer),
nutrients and organic matter lost, the relative decrease pests, and plagues, often in combination with each
in soil moisture-holding capacity, changes in buffering other. However, if one considers a medium- to long-
capacity, etc. However, although such data may exist term period (e.g., 25 years), large aberrations resulting
for experimental plots and pilot areas, precise and from fluctuations in the weather pattern or pests
actual information is often lacking at a regional scale. should be leveled out.
The effects of soil degradation can be partially
Rate of Soil Degradation hidden by various management measures such as
soil conservation, use of improved varieties, fertil-
The recent rate of degradation relates to the rapidity
izers, and pesticides. Some of these inputs are used
of degradation over the past 5–10 years or, in other
to compensate for the productivity loss caused by soil
words, the trend of degradation. A severely degraded
degradation, for example application of fertilizers to
area may be quite stable at present (i.e., low rate,
compensate for lost nutrients. In other words, yields
hence no trend toward further degradation), while
could have been much higher in the absence of soil
other areas that are now only slightly degraded may
degradation (and/or costs could have been reduced).
show a high rate, hence a trend toward rapid further
Therefore, productivity changes should be seen in
deterioration. From a purely physical point of view,
relation to the degree of input or level of manage-
the latter area would have a higher conservation pri-
ment. The latter may include use of fertilizers, bio-
ority than the former. Areas where the situation is
cides, improved varieties, mechanization, various soil
improving (through soil conservation measures, for
conservation measures, and other important changes
example), can also be identified. A comparison of the
in the farming system.
actual situation with that of the preceding decade
Changes in productivity should be expressed in
may suffice, but often it is preferable to examine the
relative terms, i.e., the current average productivity
average development over the last 5–10 years to level
compared with the average productivity in the non-
out irregularities. Whereas the degree of degradation
degraded situation and in relation to inputs. For in-
only indicates the current, static situation (measured
stance, if previously an average yield of 2 t of wheat
by decreased or increased productivity compared
ha 1 was attained while at present only 1.5 t is real-
with some 10–15 years ago) the rate indicates the
ized in spite of high(er) inputs – and all other factors
dynamic situation of soil degradation, namely the
being equal – this would be an indication of strong soil
change in degree over time.
degradation. Sometimes the impact may be ranked as
negligible, even when degradation occurs, because of
Impact of Degradation
the capacity of the soil to resist a certain amount of
Impact refers to the effects of soil degradation on the degradation. Although for most degradation types the
various soil functions. Changes in soil and terrain dominant impact is on productivity, some types (pol-
properties (e.g., loss of topsoil, development of rills lution in particular) may have additional or different
and gullies, exposure of hardpans in the case of ero- impacts, e.g., on human or animal health or on entire
sion) may reflect the occurrence and intensity of soil ecosystems.
degradation but not necessarily the seriousness of its
impact. Removal of a 5-cm layer of soil may have a
Preventing and Combating Degradation
greater impact on a poor shallow soil than on a deep
fertile soil. The impact depends on the function and/ There are a wide variety of measures to prevent or
or use of the soil: a heavily compacted soil is unsuit- combat land degradation. These measures are gener-
able for agriculture, but may be an appropriate basis ally known as soil conservation or soil and water
for road construction. conservation (SWC), especially when related to
Whereas the degree of degradation mainly refers to aspects like erosion, soil-moisture problems and soil
the degradation process, the impact of degradation fertility. More broadly applicable are names such as
can be manifold, depending on the current function land husbandry or sustainable land management.
376 DEGRADATION

The WOCAT (World Overview of Conservation

Approaches and Technologies) network, which con-
stitutes an international consortium of institutions
and individuals from all over the world, provides an
evaluation tool for SWC activities, an information-
management system designed to collect, analyze,
present, and disseminate SWC knowledge and a deci-
sion-support system designed to assist in the search for
SWC options appropriate to the prevailing biophysical
and socioeconomic settings. WOCAT was initated in
1992 and has developed a common framework and
methodology, consisting of three comprehensive ques-
tionnaires (in English, French, and Spanish) for the
documentation and evaluation of SWC.
The WOCAT methodology consists of three major
modules:
1. Questionnaire and database on SWC technolo-
gies;
2. Questionnaire and database on SWC ap-
proaches;
3. Questionnaire and database on the geographic
distribution of SWC (mapping).
The first two modules aim at a comprehensive and
detailed description of specific technologies, i.e., agro-
nomic, vegetative, structural, and/or management
measures used in the field (Figure 6), and the ways
and means used to implement an SWC technology on
the ground. The mapping module is more or less simi-
lar to the qualitative methodology for degradation
assessment described earlier. In this approach, infor-
mation is collected for individual units of a (physio-
graphic or other) base map on the following items:
. Land use: type, extent, trend in area, trend in
intensity;
. (Per land use type) degradation, as above, but
only for water and wind erosion and fertility
decline in erosion-prone areas;

(6) are often spaced according to slope; (c) structural measures

such as terraces, banks, bunds, constructions, palisades, etc.
which: (1) often lead to a change in slope profile, (2) are of long
duration or permanent, (3) are carried out primarily to control
Figure 6 Categorization of soil and water conservation meas- runoff, wind velocity, and erosion, (4) require substantial inputs of
ures according to the World Overview of Conservation Ap- labour or money when first installed, (5) are often zoned on the
proaches and Technologies (WOCAT) initiative: (a) agronomic contour/against wind direction, (6) are often spaced according to
measures such as mixed cropping, contour cultivation, mulching, slope, (7) involve major earth movements and/or construction
etc. which: (1) are usually associated with annual crops, (2) are with wood, stone, concrete, etc.; (d) management measures
repeated routinely each season or in a rotational sequence, such as land use change, area closure, rotational grazing, etc.
(3) are of short duration and not permanent, (4) do not lead to which: (1) involve a fundamental change in land use, (2) involve
changes in slope profile, (5) are normally not zoned, (6) are no agronomic and structural measures, (3) often result in im-
normally independent of slope; (b) vegetative measures such as proved vegetative cover, (4) often reduce the intensity of use;
grass strips, hedge barriers, windbreaks, etc. which: (1) involve (e) combinations in conditions where they are complementary
the use of perennial grasses, shrubs, or trees, (2) are of long and thus enhancing each other. Any combinations of the above
duration, (3) often lead to a change in slope profile, (4) are often measures are possible, e.g.: structural: terrace, with vegetative:
zoned on the contour or at right angles to wind, (5) direction, grass and trees, with agronomic: ridges.
 DEGRADATION 377

WOCAT data available

Preliminary WOCAT data

Agronomic SWC measure:

1 − conservation tillage
Vegetative and management SWC measure:
2 − agroforestry
3 − afforestation, forest protection
4 − rotational system
5 − grazing land management: control stocking rates,
enclosure, reseeding
Combination of structural and vegetative SWC measure:
6 − contour bunds, grass strips, forward-sloping terraces
Structural SWC measure:
7 − irrigation terraces
8 − stone terraces
9 − water-harvesting: microbasin, small ponds, ditches

Figure 7 Reported soil conservation measures as recently compiled by the WOCAT initiative.

. (Per land use type) conservation: type, extent, for Assessment of Soil Degradation. Boca Raton, FL:
period of implementation, effectiveness, trend CRC Press.
in effectiveness, and reference to a corresponding Lal R, Blum WH, Valentine C, and Stewart BA (eds) (1997)
questionnaire in the technology database for Methods for Assessment of Soil Degradation. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
more detailed information;
Liniger HP, van Lynden GWJ, and Schwilch G (2002)
. (Per land use type) productivity: trend, contribu-
Documenting field knowledge for better land manage-
tion of SWC or degradation to this trend, aver- ment decisions – Experiences with WOCAT tools in
age production value, average input value. local, national and global programs. Proceedings of
An overview of soil and water conservation measures ISCO Conference 2002, vol. I, pp. 259–267, Beijing,
China: Tsinghua University Press.
applied in different geographic regions of the world is
Oldeman LR, Sombroek WG, and Hakkeling R (1991)
shown in Figure 7.
World Map on the Current Status of Human Induced
Soil Degradation. An Explanatory Note, 2nd edn.
See also: Desertification; Erosion: Water-Induced; Wageningen, the Netherlands: ISRIC/Nairobi, Kenya:
Wind-Induced; Salination Processes UNEP.
Ritsema CJ (ed.) (2003) Soil erosion and participatory land
use planning on the Loess Plateau in China. (Special
issue.) Catena 754.
Further Reading
Stocking M and Murnaghan N (2001) Handbook for the
Blaikie PM and Brookfield HC (1987) Land Degradation Field Assessment of Land Degradation. Sterling, VA:
and Society. London, UK: Methuen. Earthscan Publications.
Blum WEH (1988) Problems of Soil Conservation. Nature Van der Meer FD and de Jong SM (eds) (2001) Imaging
and Environment Series 39. Strasbourg, France: Council Spectrometry: Basic Principles and Prospective Applica-
of Europe. tions. Bookseries Remote Sensing and Digital Image
Crosson P (1997) The on-farm economic costs of erosion. Processing, vol. 4. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer
In: Lal R, Blum WEH, Valentin C, and Stewart BA (eds) Academic Publishers.
Methods for Assessment of Soil Degradation. Boca Van Lynden GWJ (1995) European soil resources. Current
Raton, FL: CRC Press. status of soil degradation, causes, impacts and need for
Dregne HE (1997) Desertification assessment. In: Lal R, action. Nature and Environment Series 71. Strasbourg,
Blum WH, Valentin C, and Stewart BA (eds) Methods France: Council of Europe.