FACTORIZATION AND QUADRATIC FORMULA

Dear Reader

There are large numbers of topics in class XI where you need to apply various methods
of factorizing polynomials like splitting the middle term, Using Factor Theorem, zeroes
of a polynomial and Quadratic Formula. Some of such topics in class XI are Relations
and functions, Complex Numbers, Permutations and Combinations, Binomial Theorem,
Sequence and Series, Straight Lines, Conic Sections, Limits and Derivatives etc. So, you
are requested to revisit and revise all the important terms, concepts and methods.
Some of the terms and solved examples are given below for your ready reference
followed by worksheets. You are also provided with links to some interactive and
interesting websites and YouTube videos where you can have more practice and
understanding.
Let’s recap some basic terms and concepts.

Constant and Variable

1
A constant is a value which remains fixed e.g. 3,  , S etc., whereas a variable is
2
represented by a symbol which can have different numerical values e.g. if r is the
radius of a circle, then its area is given by A  S r 2 . Here r is a variable which will assume
the value of the radius of that circle whose area is to be found.

Algebraic Expression
An expression containing or using only algebraic symbols and some or all algebraic
operations of addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (  ), division (  ), extraction of
roots, raising to integral and fractional powers is called an Algebraic Expression.
1
For example 2 x 3  5 x , 5 xy  x 3 , y  etc.
y2

Polynomial
An algebraic expression in which the exponent of variables are whole numbers is
known as a Polynomial.

2
For example, 5 x 2  3 is a polynomial in one variable x , x3  5 xy  y3 is a polynomial in
two variables x and y .
1
Now consider algebraic expressions such as x  , x  4, 3 x  x 2 . We can write
x
1
x   x  x 1 . Here, the exponent of the second term, i.e., x 1 is –1, which is not a whole
x
number. So, this algebraic expression is not a polynomial in x. Again, we can write
1
1
x  4  x 2  4 . Here the exponent of x is , which is not a whole number. So, x  4 is
2
not a polynomial in x? What about 3
x  x 2 ? No, it is also not a polynomial in x. (Why?).

Let us now define a general polynomial in one variable as follows:

Let x be a variable, n be a whole number and a0 , a1 , a2 ,..., an be constants (real numbers).
Then an x n  an 1x n 1  an  2 xn  2  ...  a1 x  a0 is known as a polynomial in the variable x .

Degree of a Polynomial in one variable:

The exponent of the highest degree term in a polynomial with non-zero coefficient is
known as its degree. For example, the degree of f x  3x 4  2 x3  x 2  2 x  5 is 4. The
degree of constant polynomials, except for the polynomial 0, such as 5, -2, … is 0. The
degree of the polynomial 0 is not defined.

Linear Polynomial:
A polynomial of degree one is known as a linear polynomial. For example, f x  3x  5
is a linear polynomial.

Quadratic Polynomial:
A polynomial of degree two is known as a quadratic polynomial. For example,
f x  4x 2  7 x  8 is a quadratic polynomial.
Zeroes of a Polynomial: A real number D is a zero of the polynomial
f x  an x n  an 1 xn 1  an  2 xn  2  ...  a1 x  a0 if
f D  0 i.e. anD n  an 1D n 1  an  2D n  2  ...  a1D  a0  0

3
Factorization
The process of expressing a given algebraic expression as a product of algebraic
expressions, each of degree less than that of given algebraic expression, is called
factorization.
When we factorize an algebraic expression, we write it as a product of factors. These
factors may be numbers, algebraic symbols or algebraic expressions.

Expressions like 4 xy , 2 y x  2 ,3 x 1 2 y  3 are already in factored form. On the other

hand consider expressions like 4 x 12, x 3  4 x , x 2  5 x  6 .It is not obvious what their
factors are. We have already developed few systematic methods to factorize these
expressions in class IX and class X.

Identity
An identity is an equality that holds true regardless of the values chosen for its
variables. They are used in simplifying or rearranging algebra expressions. For
2
example, the identity a  b  a 2  2ab  b 2 is true for all the values chosen for a and b .

Some other identities are:

2
a  b  a 2  2ab  b 2

a 2  b2  a  b a  b

a 3  b 3  (a  b )(a 2  ab  b 2 )

a 3  b 3  ( a  b )( a 2  ab  b 2 )

3
ab  a 3  3a 2b  3ab 2  b3
3
a b  a 3  3a 2b  3ab 2  b3
2
abc  a 2  b 2  c 2  2ab  2bc  2ca

a 3  b 3  c 3  3abc  a  b  c a 2  b 2  c 2  ab  bc  ca

4
Solved Examples\Various Methods for Factorization

(a) Method of common factors

Example 1: Factorize 5 xy  15 y

Solution:

5 xy  15 y  5 y x  3

Example 2: Factorize 27 x3 y  81x 2 yz

Solution:

27 x 3 y  81x 2 yz  27 x2 y x  3z

(b) Factorization by regrouping terms

Example 3: factorize 6xy – 4y + 6 – 9x
Solution:
6xy – 4y + 6 – 9x
= 6xy – 4y – 9x + 6
= 2y (3x – 2) – 3 (3x – 2)
= (3x – 2) (2y – 3)

Example 4: Factorize x3  2 x2 y  3xy 2  6 y3

Solution:

x 3  2 x 2 y  3 xy 2  6 y 3
 x3  2 x 2 y  3xy 2  6 y3
 x2 x  2 y  3 y2 x  2 y
 x  2 y x 2  3 y2

(c) Factorization using identities:

Example 5: factorize 4 x 2 12 x  9

5
 Solution:

4 x 2  12 x  9
2 2
 2 x  2 2x 3  3
2
 2 x  3  2x  3 2x  3

Example 6: Factorize x8  y 8
Solution:
x8  y 8
2 2
 x4  y4
 x4  y 4 x4  y 4

 x 4  y 4  x 2  y 2 

2 2

 
 x4  y 4 x2  y 2 x 2  y2
 x4  y 4 x2  y 2 x y x y

Note: x2  y 2 and x 4  y 4 can’t be factorized further in the set of real numbers.

Yet these factors can be further factorized in the set of complex numbers, about
which you will study later.

(d) Factorization using splitting the middle term

Let x2  bx  c be a quadratic polynomial and x  p and x  q are other two
polynomials such that
x 2  bx  c  x  p x  q
 x 2  p  q x  pq
Comparing the coefficients of like terms, we get p  q  b and pq  c

So, in order to factorize quadratic polynomial x2  bx  c , we have to find two terms

p and q such that p  q  b and pq  c .

Let us understand this process by considering an example.

6
 Example 7: Factorize: x2  7 x 12
Solution:
We note 12 = (-3) x (-4) and (-3) + (-4) = -7. Therefore,

Example 8: Factorize 12 x2  25 x 12

Solution:
Observe that here coefficient of x2 1 .
Here we find two numbers such that their sum is 25 and product is 12 12 144 .
Clearly, .

12 x 2  25 x  12
 12 x 2  16 x  9 x  12
 4 x 3x  4  3 3 x  4
 3x  4 4 x  3

(e) Factorization using completing the square

Example 9: Factorize x 2  7 x 12
Answer: Consider x 2  7 x 12
2 2
1  1  49
adding  coeff.of x  i.e.  7
 to both sides, we get
2  2  4
49 49
x2  7 x    12
4 4
2
 7  97
 x  
 2 4
2
7   97 
2

  x     
 2   2 
 7 97  7 97 
  x    x   
 2 2 
 2 2 

7
(f) Factorization using Factor Theorem
Factor Theorem: If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n 1 and a is any real number,
(i ) x  a is a factor of p x ,if p a  0, and
then
(ii) p a  0 ,if x  a is a factor of p x

Factor theorem can be used to factorize some polynomials. For this purpose, we
try to find an integral zero of the polynomial. As soon as we get a zero of a
polynomial, we get one of the factors of the polynomial. We repeat this process
until we get a polynomial which can be further factorized easily.

Method

(i) Obtain the given polynomial p x .

(ii) Obtain the constant term in p x and find its all possible factors.

(iii) Take one factor, say a1 and replace x by a1 . If p a1  0, then x  a1 is one of the
factor of p x . Otherwise, take another factor say a2 and continue this process
till you get as many factors as degree of the polynomial. Let
x  a1 , x  a2 , x  a3 ,... are factors of p x .

(iv) Now, put p x  k x  a1 x  a2 x  a3 ..., where k is a constant term whose

value is to be determined.

(v) Substitute any value of x other than a1 , a2 , a3 ,... in the equation obtained in the
step (iv) and get the value of k .

(v) Substitute the value of k in p x  k x  a1 x  a2 x  a3 ...

Let us consider the following solved example.

Example 10: Factorize p x  x 2  2 x  15 using factor theorem.

Solution: Here coefficient of x2 is 1. Integral factors of  15 are 1,  3,  5,  15 .

We observe that p 3  32  2  3 15  0 x  3 is a factor of p x .

8
 2
Also, p 5  5  2  5 15  0 x  5 is also a factor of p x .

x 2  2 x  15  x  3 x  5

Example 11: Factorize f x  x3  6x 2 11x  6 using factor theorem.

Solution:
We shall now look for all the factors of constant term, which is 6 here. Factors of
6 are  1,  2 ,  3,  6 . Putting x 1 in f x , we have f 1  0 , so x 1 is a factor of

f x .

Dividing f x by x 1 , we get f x  x  1 x 2  5 x  6 . The expression

x 2  5 x  6 can now be factorized using splitting the middle term as x  2 x  3 .

So, f x  x 1 x  2 x  3

Example 12: Factorize p y  2 y3  y 2  2 y 1 using factor theorem.

Solution:

Here we observe that p 1  2 1  12  2 1  1  0 .  y  1 is a factor of p y .

3

Dividing p y by y 1 , we get

p y  y 1 2 y 2  3 y 1
 y 1 2 y 2  2 y  y  1
 y  1  2 y y  1  1 y  1 
 y 1 y  1 2 y  1

Equation
An Equation is an equality containing one or more variables which may be true for
some values of the variable. Solving the equation consists of determining the values of
the variables which when substituted for the variables make the equality true.

9
Linear Equation:
An algebraic equation in which the highest degree term in the variable or variables is of
the first degree. For example ax  b  0; a 0, ax  by  c ; at least one of a or b is non-zero.

Note that 2 x  5 y  3 xy  0 is not a linear equation as it contains the product of variables

x and y .

Quadratic Equation:
A quadratic equation is an equation of the second degree, meaning that the highest
exponent is 2. The standard form of a quadratic equation is ax 2  bx  c  0, a 0 with
a , b and c being constants, or numerical coefficients, and x is an unknown variable.

If we can factorize ax 2  bx  c , a 0 into a product of two linear factors, then the roots of
the quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0, a 0 can be found by equating each factor to zero.

Solution of a Quadratic Equation by the Method of Completion of Squares

Consider the following Quadratic Equation x2  3x 18  0

Now, x2  3x 18  0  x 2  3x 18

2 2
1  1  9
adding  coeff.of x  i.e.  3
 to both sides, we get
2  2  4

10
Now consider the quadratic equation in general form ax 2  bx  c  0, a 0
b c
Divide both sides by a , we get x 2  x  
a a
2 2
1   b 
Adding  coeff.of x  i.e.   to both sides, we ge
2   2a 

a a a

b  b 2  4ac b  b 2  4ac
Hence the roots of the given quadratic equation are x  , .
2a 2a
Here, d  b2  4ac is known as discriminant.

Solving Quadratic Equation

(a) Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Factorization:

Example 13: Find the roots of the equation x 2  7 x 12  0 by factorization.

Answer: x2  7 x 12  0  x  3 x  4  0  x  3, x  4

(b) Solution of a Quadratic Equation by the method of completing the squares

Example 14: Find the roots of 2 x 2  7 x  3  0 (if exists) by the method of completing
the squares.
Solution:

dividing both sides by 2

11
 x ie

Example 15: Find the roots of 2 x 2  x  4  0 (if exists) by the method of completing
the squares.
Solution:

2 x2  x  4  0

 2 x2  x  4
x
 x2   2
2
2 2
1  1 1
adding   coeff.of x  i.e.    , to both sides
2  2 2
x 1 1
 x2    2 
2 16 16
2
1   33 
2

  x     
 4   4 
1 33
x 
4 4
1  33
x
4
1  33 1  33
x or
4 4
Solution of a Quadratic Equation by using Quadratic Formula.

12
 ax 2  bx  c  0, then x  b  b  4ac
2
If
2a

Example 16: Solve x 2  3x  4  0 using quadratic formula.

Solution:
2
3 3  4 1 4 35
Here a  1, b   3, c   4 , so x    4 or  1
2 1 2

Difference between Zero and a Root

In general, we say that a zero of a polynomial p(x) is the number a such that p(a) = 0. You
must have observed that the zero of the polynomial x – 2 is obtained by equating it to 0,
i.e., x – 2 = 0, which gives x = 2. We say p(x) = 0 is a polynomial equation and 2 is the
root of the polynomial equation p(x) = 0. So we say 2 is the zero of the polynomial x – 2, or
a root of the polynomial equation x – 2 = 0.

In general, a real number D is called a root of the quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0, a 0

if aD 2  bD  c  0 . We also say that x  D is a solution of the quadratic equation, or that
D satisfies the quadratic equation. Note that the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
ax 2  bx  c and the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 are the same.

SOME USEFUL WEB LINKS

Factorization
Finding common factors and making use of standard identities:
https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/factoring.html

Quadratic Equation
Quadratic Equation – standard form and methods to solve it:
https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/quadratic-equation.html

Input a , b , c in ax 2  bx  c  0 to get its solution:

https://www.mathsisfun.com/quadratic-equation-solver.html

13
Factoring Quadratic Equation by observation and hence using formula:
https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/factoring-quadratics.html

Method of completing the square:

https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/completing-square.html

Solved examples using Quadratic Formula:

http://www.purplemath.com/modules/quadform.htm

Factoring Quadratic – Solved examples

http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/math/algebra/ae5/lfaceq.htm

Youtube Videos

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZQ-NRsWhOGI

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AMEau9OE6Bs

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ayhvAI3IeY

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iII7E1m6f9M

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1tIXSI-dxZQ

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fBwRstnyOq4

 Using factor theorem

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t9eKZG-QCZk

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SEfQWHwZcvU

DO IT YOURSELF
I. 1. Few quadratic polynomials are factorized into their linear factors as given
below. Complete the table given below:

S. No. Factor 1 Factor 2 Quadratic Polynomial

1 x5 x7

14
 2 x5 x 7
3 x5 x 7
4 x 5 x7

2. Few quadratic polynomials are given below. Find their factors (if possible)

S. No. Quadratic Polynomial Factor 1 Factor 2 Observation

1 x 2  7 x 12

2 x 2  7 x 12

3 x 2  7 x 12
4 x 2  7 x 12

II. Factorizing using method of common factors, grouping of terms and using
identities
Factorize the following:

(i) 4 x 2 y 12 xy 2 (ii) a 2  b2  a  b

(iii) x2  xy  7 x  7 y (iv) 15 xy  6 x  5 y  2

(v) 121x 2  81 (vi) x4  2 x2 y 2  y 4

x3
(vii) x3  27 y3 (viii)  y3
8

(ix) x4  4 x2  3
2
(x) 9 2x  y  4 2 x  y 13

III. Factorizing using splitting the middle term and factor theorem
Factorize the following:

(i) x2  7 x 18 (ii) x2  x  30

15
 (iii) x2 12 x  27 (iv) x2  2 x  99

(v) x2 12 x  20 (vi) 9 x 2  3x  2

(vii) 3x 2  5x  2 (viii) 6 x2  5x  6

(ix) 15 x2  x  28 (x) 4 x 2  4 3x  3

(xi) x3  3x 2  9 x  5 (xii) x3  6 x2  3x 10

(xiii) x3  4 x2 11x  30 (xiv) x3 13x 2  32 x  20

(xv) 2 x3  5x 2  x  6

IV. Solve the following equations:

(i) x2  3x  28  0 (ii) 3x2  x  4  0

(iii) x2  2 x  5  0 (iv) x2 12 x  35  0

(v) 4 x 2  5x  6  0 (vi) x2  5x  5  0

(vii) 4 x 2  7 x 15  0 (viii) 6 x2  x 12  0

(ix) 3x2 16x 12  0 (x) 10 x 2  27 x 18  0

(xi) 15 x2  4 x  3  0 (xii) 3x2 13x 10  0

(xiii) 4 x 2 11x  20  0 (xiv) 9 x2  6 x  7  0

(xv) 5x 2  3x  1 0

ANSWERS

I. 1. (i) x 2 12 x  35 (ii) x2 12 x  35

16
 (iii) x 2  2 x  35 (iv) x2  2 x  35

2. (i) x  3, x  4 (ii) x  3, x  4

 7 97   7 97   7 97   7 97 
(iii)  x    ,  x    (iv)  x    ,  x   
 2 2   2 2   2 2   2 2 

II. (i) 4 xy x  3 y (ii) a b a  b 1

(iii) x 7 x  y (iv) 3x  1 5 y  2

2 2
(v) 11x  9 11x 19 (vi) x y x y

x  x xy 
2
(vii) x  3 y x  9 y  3xy
2 2
(viii)   y   y  
2

2  4 2

(ix) x2  1 x2  3 (x) 2 x  y  1 18 x  9 y 13

III. (i) x  2 x 9 (ii) x  6 x 5

(iii) x3 x9 (iv) x  9 x 11

(v) x  2 x 10 (vi) 3 x  2 3x  1

 2  3  2
(vii) x 1  x   (viii)  x   x  
 3  2  3

 4  7  3  3
(ix)  x    x   (x)  x   x  
 3  5  2 
 2 

(xi) x  1 x 1 x  5 (xii) x 1 x  2 x  5

(xiii) x  2 x  3 x  5 (xiv) x  1 x  2 x  10

 3
(xv) x 1 x  2  x  
 2

17
 4
IV. (i) 7,  4 (ii) 1,
3

(iii) 1 6 , 1 6 (iv) 5,  7

3 5  5
(v) 2, (vi)
4 2

5 3 4
(vii) 3, (viii) ,
4 2 3

2 6 3
(ix) 6,  (x) ,
3 5 2

1 3 2
(xi) , (xii) 5,
3 5 3

5 1 2 2
(xiii) 4, (xiv)
4 3

(xv) No real roots

18
PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Dear Reader

An algebraic fraction or a rational fraction can be, often, expressed as the algebraic sum of
relatively simpler fractions called partial fractions. The application of partial fractions lies in
evaluating the antiderivative of the rational functions, which is dealt with in std. XII.
 
Example 1:   
≡  , which can be resolved into partial fractions as :

2  1 5 3
 
  2  3 3 2
We will now explain how to carry out this process.

I) A Brief Recap
Definition: An algebraic fraction or a rational fraction is a fraction in which the
numerator and the denominator are both polynomial expressions.
   
Example 1:   
,     

The above fractions are called proper fractions as the degree of the polynomial in
the numerator is lower than the degree of the polynomial in the denominator.
Now consider the following fractions:
     
Example 2:    
,

In these cases, the degree of the polynomial in numerator is more than or equal to
the degree of the polynomial in the denominator.
Such fractions are called improper fractions.

II) Expressing a Rational Fraction as the sum of its Partial Fractions

CASE I
We shall consider the case where the denominator is expressed as product of its
linear factors.

19
 
Example: Express   as the sum of its partial fractions.

Ans. To express this algebraic fraction as sum of its partial fractions, we would
first express the polynomial in the denominator as product of its factors i.e.
2   5  3 ≡ 2  1  3.
 
Therefore,  ≡  



We may now write   as sum of its components (proper fractions) as

  
 
≡  +  , where A and B are non-zero constants to be determined.

  
Now,   ≡  +  (i)

  
  
≡  

As the denominators are same, we need to find the values of ‘A’ and ‘B’ for which

 4−1   3  2  1

 4−1    2  3  

Comparing the coefficients on both sides we get, 4 =   2; 1  3  


Solving the equations simultaneously we get,    and   

Substituting in (i), we get

 
 
≡ + ,

CASE II
We will now consider the case where the denominator in the fraction has a
repeated linear factor:

20
 
Example: Express    as sum of its partial fractions.

Solution: We would first express the denominator in terms of product of its

factors, if possible.

The possible factors of      2are  1    2

Therefore,   1     2 ≡   1   2

Therefore, the possible factors of the denominator are:   1,   1 ,   2.

Now we may write our algebraic fraction as the sum of its partial fractions as:
   
  
≡ 
   ; where A, B, C are non-zero constants to be
determined (i)

NOTE: If in case the denominator in the above expression was taken to be

  1      2, then its factors would have been  1,   1 ,  

1    2. and a fourth fraction 
would be added to the above, where D
would be another constant to be determined.

 

From (i) we get   ≡  

As the denominators are same we need to find the values of A and B for which

   1    1  2    2  !  1

(Note: We can also achieve the above equation by multiplying both sides of the
equation by   1   2

   1      !      2!  2  2  !

On comparing the coefficients we get,

A  C  0,     2!  1,  2  2  !  1

21
Solving the above equations we get,

1 2 1
 ,  , !
9 3 9

Substituting in (i) we get,

1 1 2 1

≡  

  1    2 9  1 3  1 9  2

CASE III
We will now consider the case in which the denominator is a quadratic term which
cannot be factorised further.

Example: Express   
as sum of its partial fractions.

Solution:
The two denominators of partial fractions would be   1   1.Here, the
quadratic polynomial can’t be resolved into further linear factors. We will now
express the given fraction as the following
  
  
≡ 
+  

Note: The numerator of the fraction having the quadratic polynomial is a linear
polynomial in x.

 "  #

= >    ≡
  

      1    !  1

           !    !

Comparing both sides, we get

 0= (i)

22
 1 =   ! (ii)
 0= A !
 Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously we get,
1 1 1
 ;   ;! 
2 2 2
Therefore,

 / //
  
≡ 
+  

   
  
≡      +   

CASE IV
We will now consider the case of improper fractions.

  $
Example: Express 
as sum of its partial fractions.

In the above case we note that the degree of the polynomial in the numerator is
more than the degree of the polynomial in the denominator.
Degree of the numerator is 3; Degree of the denominator is 2
In such cases where the degree of term in numerator is more than or equal to the
degree of the denominator, we need to perform the long division first.

  $ 
Therefore, 
≡ 2  1   (i)

  
Now, consider 
≡  +  (ii)

Therefore, 11+4  2  1  

 11+4  2    

23
Comparing the coefficients on both sides we get:   4; 2    11

On solving we get,   4; 3

Substituting in (ii) we get:

 

≡  + 

Therefore (i) can be expressed as

NOTE: In general, in case of improper partial fractions, for example, the case
above, we may split it into partial fractions as:

  $  
Ans. 
≡  + B + 
+ 

Then we may solve the above by comparing the coefficients on both the sides.
That is to say, that in case of improper fractions we can start writing the expression
in the decreasing powers of  to represent the quotient after division. In the case
mentioned above the degree of numerator is 3 and the degree of denominator is 2
so we start with the decreasing power of  starting with   as the difference in
the degrees of the polynomial in the numerator and the denominator is ‘1’ and
then solve the above.
Consider more such examples:

    
  
≡ + 
+ ;

In this case, the degree of the numerator and denominator is 2, which is same so
we start with a constant to represent the quotient.
Considering yet another case,

24
    %
  
≡      ! + 
+ ;

In this case, the degree of the numerator is 4 and the degree of the denominator is
2 so we start writing the expression in the decreasing powers of ′′ starting with
the degree 2.

DO IT YOURSELF

Express the following as sum of its partial fractions:

  
1)   
Ans. 
+   

    
2)   
Ans. &
+  +& 

   
3)     
Ans. 
-  +

   
4)     
Ans. - +
      

   
5)   
Ans.    + 

REFERENCES
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_fraction_decomposition
 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Calculus/Integration.../Partial_Fraction_Decomp
osition

25
 SETS, INTERVALS, ABSOLUTE VALUE
FUNCTION AND INEQUALITIES

Dear Reader

In day to day life we speak of collection of objects such as the collection of the months in
a year, the collection of the novels written by the writer Mahadevi Verma, the collection
of the rivers of India and so on.
In mathematics too, we come across collections of numbers, functions etc., for example,
we have the collections of natural numbers, prime numbers, integers etc. The above
collections of objects / numbers are well defined as we can identify/ decide whether a
given particular object belongs to the collection or not.
Such a well-defined collection of objects is called a set.
Consider the cricket team of India comprising of 11 players.
It is a well-defined set as we can list the members of the team. But if asked to form a set
of the best batsmen that would not be possible as the degree of potential may be
measured in different spheres and vary from player to player.

26
NOTE: The following may not be considered as a set:

I. The collection of five most talented writers of the world, as the criterion for
determining the talented authors may vary from person to person.
II. The collection of five intelligent students in a given class is also not a well-defined
collection as intelligence of a student may be measured in different spheres which
may vary from student to student.
There are two symbolic methods of representing a set:

I. Roster or Tabular form

The objects/ elements/ members of a set are enclosed within the braces {},
separating them by commas.
Example: The set of Vowels, V = {a, e, i, o, u}. Here all the vowels are listed within
the braces.
NOTE: Sets are always denoted by capital letters.

II. Set- Builder form

In this form we represent the elements of the set by using the symbol x (or y, z),
followed by ‘:’ or ‘|’ and then mention the characteristic property possessed by the
elements of the set. The whole description is then enclosed within the braces.
Example The set of Vowels, V = {x: x is a vowel} or V = {x | x is a vowel}. Here
only the characteristic property possessed by the elements is stated within the
braces.
Let’s try out some questions related to the representation of the sets. Also
represent the information graphically.

Question 1: Write the solution set of the equation   − 3 + 2 = 0.

Solution:   − 3 + 2 = 0

• ( − 1)( − 2) = 0

•  = 1, 2

27
 Therefore, in the set notation the solution set is written as: A = {1, 2}.

On the real number line it may be represented as:

Question 2: Represent the set of all the integers from -1 to 3, both in the set
notation form and graphically on the number line.
Solution: Let us first form the set comprising of the above elements, which is,
A = {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3}.

Plotting on the number line, we get,

Let’s consider the following example of plotting the real numbers on the number
line from -1 to 3.
The set of real numbers from -1 to 3 is denoted by the set A = {y: -1 ≤ y≤ 3}.
In this set it is impossible to list the real numbers as, between any two real
numbers there lie infinite number of real numbers. Therefore, in order to denote
the above set we introduce the concept of intervals.
An interval is a set that consists of all real numbers between a given pair of
numbers. It can also be thought of as a segment of the real number line. An end
point of an interval is either of the two points that mark the end of the line
segment. An interval can include both end points (closed interval), neither of the
endpoints (open interval), one of the end points (semi closed or semi open
interval).

Types of Intervals
Open interval: An open interval does not include the end points and the exclusion of
the endpoints is indicated by round brackets ( ) in the interval notation, that is to say,
(a, b) where a<b. When represented on the real number line, the exclusion of the end
point is illustrated by an open dot.

28
Example: The interval of numbers between -1 and 3 is written as the open interval (-1, 3)
= {x: -1 <x < 3}.

As a segment of the real number line, the representation is given by:

Closed interval: A closed interval includes the end points and the inclusion of the
endpoints is indicated by square brackets [ ] in the interval notation, that is to say, [a, b]
where a<b. When represented on the real number line, the inclusion of the end point is
illustrated by a closed dot.
Example: The interval of numbers from -1 and 3 (both endpoints included) is written as
the closed interval [-1, 3] = {x: -1 ≤x ≤ 3}.
As a segment of the real number line, the representation is given by:

The above cases deal with the intervals where either both the end points are included or
both are excluded. But there may be intervals where one of the the endpoints is
included and the other is excluded.
Semi–Open/ closed interval: When one endpoint of an interval is included and the
other is excluded, then the interval may have any one of the following forms:
(a, b]- ‘a’ excluded and ‘b’ included

Example: (-1,3] = {x: -1<x≤ }.

As a segment of the real number line, the representation is given by:

[a, b)- ‘a’ included and ‘b’ excluded

Example: [-1,3) = {x: -1 ≤ x< }.

29
As a segment of the real number line, the representation is given by:

That is to say,

(a, b) a<x<b an open interval

[a, b) a≤x<b closed on left, open on right

(a, b] a<x≤b open on left, closed on right

[a, b] a≤x≤b a closed interval

These are intervals of finite length which is given by ‘b – a’.

We also have intervals of infinite length.
There are 4 possible "infinite ends":

Infinite intervals: Infinite intervals are those intervals that do not have an endpoint in
either the negative or positive direction. These intervals are given in the table below:

Interval Inequality

(a, +∞) x>a greater than a

[a, +∞) x≥a greater than or equal to a

(-∞, a) x<a less than a

(-∞, a] x≤a less than or equal to a

We could even show no limits by using this notation: (-∞, +∞)

We can also have two (or more) intervals together.

Example:  ≤ −1   > 1

On the number line it may be represented as:

30
In the interval notation it is expressed as: (−∞, −] ∪ (, ∞)

NOTE: One must be very careful with the inequalities as above. The most common
mistake committed by students is that they may combine the inequality into one as:
− ≥  ≥  (  )
This is meaningless as ‘’ cannot be less than -1 and greater than 1 at the same time.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE CONTEXT DISCUSSED ABOVE

INTERVAL NUMBER LINE SET- BUILDER

NOTATION NOTATION

(a, b) {:  <  < }

(a, b] {:  <  ≤ }

[a, b) {:  ≤  < }

[a, b] {:  ≤  ≤ }

(−∞, ) ∪(b, {:  <

∞) } ∪{:  > }

(-∞, a] ∪ [b, {:  ≤

∞) } ∪{:  ≥ }

(-∞, a) ∪ [b, {:  <

∞) } ∪{:  ≥ }

(-∞, a] ∪ (b, {:  ≤

∞) } ∪{:  > }

(-∞,∞) R (The set of

Real numbers)

31
Absolute Value or Modulus of a Real Number
We would like to recall what you mean by the absolute value of a real number!

Absolute value of a real number describes the distance of the point from 0 on the real
number line without considering the direction from zero on the number line.

The absolute value of a number a is denoted by |a| and is a non- negative number..
Example: |-54| = 54, |25|=25, |0|=0. The sign of the number depicts the direction of
the number from 0 on the number line, that is to say that -54, 25 and 0 are placed at a
distance of 54, 25 and 0 to the left, right and at 0 respectively on the number line.

Absolute Value Function

The absolute value function is the function f given by f() = | | and defined as:

 ℎ  > 0
f(x)=  0 ℎ  = 0
− ℎ  < 0

That is to say that the absolute value of  equals:

: when  is greater than zero(e.g. |4| = 4 as 4> 0)

0: when  equals 0

− : when is less than zero

(This "flips" the number back to positive, e.g. |-5| = -(-5) = 5, which is again positive)

Alternately, the modulus function can also be defined as: () = √ , where, x ∈

R, the set of real numbers and f(x) is the corresponding non-negative real number.

Note: √ =   ! ± .

Graphically f(x) = |x| or y = |x| is represented as:

32
 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
f(x) 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

We observe that the graph is V-shaped.

(1) The vertex of the graph is (0, 0).
(2) The axis of symmetry is the line x=0 or y-axis. (Axis of symmetry is the line that
divides the graph into two congruent halves)
(3) The domain of the absolute value function is the set of all real numbers.
(4) The range is the set of all non-negative real numbers (greater than or equal to 0).
(5) The x-intercept and the y-intercept are both 0, that is, the points where the graph
cuts both the axes is origin.

Some useful properties of the modulus

Here are some properties of absolute values that can be useful:
i. |a| ≥ 0
ii. |a| = √
iii. |a × b| = |a| × |b|
iv. |u| = a is the same as u = ±a and vice versa; which is often the key to solving most
absolute value questions, i.e. if |u| = 4, then it would mean u = ± 4, as both u = 4
and u = -4 would give the absolute value as 4.

33
Vertical Shift
To obtain the graph of the function g(x)=f(x)+k, where f(x) =|x|, you can translate the
graph of the absolute value function f(x) =|x|vertically.

i. When k>0, the graph of f(x) is translated k units up.

Example: Plot the graph of the function g(x) = |x| + 3

ii. When k<0, the graph of f(x) is translated |k| units down.

Example: Plot the graph of the function g(x) = |x| - 3

34
Horizontal Shift
To obtain the graph of g(x) = f (x−h), where f(x) = |x| translate the graph of the
absolute value function f(x) = |x| horizontally.

i. When h > 0, the graph of f(x) is translated h units to the right to get g(x)!
Example: g (x) = |x-3|; the graph of |x| is translated 3 units to the right.

ii. When h < 0, the graph of f(x) is translated |h| units to the left to get g(x)!
Example: " ( ) = | + 3|
=> "( ) = | − (−3)|
The graph of |x| is translated 3 units to the left.

35
 Let us consider the following example with both the vertical and horizontal shift:

Example: Solve |x+2| = 4 and graph y = |x+2| - 4

Solution: |x+2| = 4
• x + 2 =± 4
• x + 2 = 4; x + 2 = -4
• x = 2 ; x =-6
• The graph would intersect the x- axis at 2 and -6.

And here is the plot of y=|x+2|−4, but just for fun let's make the graph by shifting
it around:

Start with |x| Then shift it left to make it |x+2|Then shift it down to make it
|x+2|-4

Absolute Value Inequalities

Case I: Linear Inequalities Involving <, ≤

We start off with a simple inequality, say, solve: || ≤ 3.
| | ≤ 3 means that  must have a distance of not more than 3 from the origin. This
means that x must be somewhere in the range from -3 to 3, i.e.

36
|| ≤ 3 => −3 ≤  ≤ 3.

Similarly with the inequality ′ < ′ we get a similar result:

| | < 3 => −3 <  < 3.

Solve the following inequalities:

a) |2x – 3| <11
• − 11 < 2 − 3 < 11

Adding ‘3’ throughout, we get

• −8 < 2 < 14
• −4 <  < 7
The interval notation for this solution - set is (-4, 7).

Graphically it may be plotted as

b) |5 − 3y| ≤ 7
−7 ≤ 5 − 3# ≤ 7
• −12 ≤ −3# ≤ 2 (subtracting 5 throughout the equation)

• −4 ≤ −# ≤
$

• 4 ≥# ≥ −
$

(Negative sign reverses the sign of inequality for e.g.3 < 4 => −3 > −4)

The interval notation for this solution - set is [− , 4].
$

Graphically it may be represented as:

37
Case II: Linear Inequalities Involving >, ≥

We start off with a simple inequality, say, solve: || ≥ 3.

| | ≥ 3 means that  must be at least at a distance of 3 from the origin. This means that
x must be somewhere in one of the following two ranges,

 ≤ −   ≥

|| ≥  %&'*%-  ≤ −   ≥

Note: The most common mistake committed by the students in the problems related to
this inequality in particular is that they combine these into a single double inequality
as:−3 ≥  ≥ 3, which isn’t valid as ‘x’ cannot be simultaneously both less than -3 and
greater than 3.
Similarly with the inequality ′ > ′ we get a similar result:

|| > 3 %&'*%-  < −3   >3

Solve the following inequalities:

We may consider the above equations with different inequality:
a) |2x – 3| > 11

• 2 − 3 < −11  2 − 3 > 11

• 2 < −8  2 > 14

•  < −4  >7

The interval notation for this is given by(−∞, −4) ∪ (7, ∞).

The graphical representation is given by:

b) |4 − 3/| ≥ 12

38
 • 4 − 3/ ≤ −12  4 − 3/ ≥ 12

• −3/ ≤ −16  − 3/ ≥ 8
9; ?
• / ≥  /≤ −
$ $

8 16
In the interval notation it is given by , or , .
3 3

Graphically it is represented as:

NOTE:
i) Solving the inequality | 2x + 5 | < -2 is not possible as the absolute value can
never be negative or less than a negative number.
ii) On the other hand solving the inequality | x+5 | > -2 would always be true
for all real numbers x as the absolute value is always a non-negative number,
so is greater than every negative number.

Case III: Inequalities involving Poynomials of degree greater than 1:

Example: Solve   − 12 < .

Step 1: Get a zero on one side of the inequality, i.e.

  −  − 12 < 0 (a)

Step 2: If possible factorise the polynomial, which might not always be possible, but
that won’t change things. (This step is only to simplify the process). We get

( − 4)( + 3) < 0 (b)

Step 3: Determine the points where the polynomial is zero.

We get the points as -3 and 4.

39
Step 4: Mark these points on the number line. We observe that the line gets divided into
three regions which are as follows:
i. (−∞, −3)
ii. (−3, 4)
iii. (4, ∞)

Step 5: Now pick up a test point from each of these regions. We’ll observe that the test
points either satisfy the inequality or they don’t. If the test point from a region satisfies
the original inequality, then that region is a part of the solution.
If the test point doesn’t satisfy the inequality then that region, to which this test point
belongs to, is not the part of the solution.

NOTE 1: If a point in the region satisfies (or doesn’t satisfy) the given inequality, then
all the points in the region will satisfy (or not satisfy) the inequality.
NOTE 2: When we pick a test point make sure that an easy number is picked to work
with. So, don’t choose large numbers or rational numbers other than integers unless the
problem itself forces you to do so.
NOTE 3: We should not be bothered about the value of the polynomial at the test
points; we just need to check the sign of the polynomial at the test points, e.g. the
product of two negatives is a positive etc. That is to say,

Zeroes of the polynomial: -3, 4 Testing Point Verification

x <-3 (-∞, -3) x = -4 positive
-3 < x < 4 (-3, 4) x=0 negative
x> 4 (4, ∞) x =5 positive

40
As we need the interval which gives the values of ‘x’ where the inequality is negative,
therefore the solution of the above problem both in the interval notation form and
graphically is given by:

Ans. x ∈ (-3, 4)

Example: Solve:   − 7 ≥ −6

Solution:   − 7 + 6 ≥ 0

• ( − 1)( − 6) ≥ 0

The polynomial will be zero at x=1 and x=6.

Zeroes of the polynomial: 1, 6 Testing Point Verification

x≤1 (-∞, 1] x=0 positive

1≤x≤ 6 [1, 6] x=2 negative

x≥ 6 [6, ∞) x=7 positive

Note: Choose the test point which belongs to the corresponding open interval. The test
point must not be any of the end points of the corresponding interval.
As we need the interval which gives the values of ‘x’ where the inequality is non-
negative, the solution of the above inequality both in the interval notation form and
graphically is given by:

41
On the number line we may identify the solution to the above problem as:

In the interval notation the solution is: (−∞, ] ∪ [@, ∞)

Example: Solve:  A +  $ − 6  ≤ 0

Solution:  A +  $ − 6  ≤ 0

•   (  +  − 6) ≤ 0

•   ( − 2)( + 3) ≤ 0

The polynomial is zero at x=-3, x=0 and x=2.

On the number line we may identify the solution to the above problem as:

In the interval notation the solution is: [-3, 2].

DO IT YOURSELF

Solve following inequalities and plot them graphically:

1) | + 3 | > 4 Ans. (-∞, -7) ∪ (1, ∞)

42
2) |2 + 5| ≤ 7 Ans. [-6, 1]
9B
3) |5 − 3| + 2 < 7 Ans. (0, )
$

4)  −  − 2 ≥ 0 Ans. (-∞, -1) ∪ (2, ∞)

9
5) 2  −  ≤ 0 Ans. [0, ]


REFERENCES
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value

• www.purplemath.com/modules/ineqsolv.htm

• https://www.purplemath.com/modules/absineq.htm

43
 WHAT IS FUNCTION?

Dear Reader

You desire to purchase school bags for winners of races held on the Annual Sports Day
of school. Cost of each bag is Rs.250. Total amount Rs. a to be spent on purchase will
depend on number of bags n required.

When n=1, a= 250

When n=2, a = 2(250) = 500

When n= 3, a= 3(250) = 750

So we can say that

a = n (250), where Rs. a is the amount spent and ‘n’ is the number of bags purchased.

So the relationship between amount and number of bags indicate that if in a machine
input of number of bags is processed it will come out as output in the form of amount to
be spent.

This machine mathematically is termed as Function.

A function is a special relationship where each input has a unique output.

That means a Function is an association between members of two sets A and B so that
for every member of set A there exists a unique member in set B.
A Function is generally represented as f(x) and we write y = f(x).

44
This means that for every value of x inserted in equation y =f(x) we get a unique value
of y.

For example
For y = 3x + 1
When x = 0, y = 3(0) + 1=1
When x = 1, y = 3(1) + 1=4
When x = 2, y = 3(2) + 1=7
When x = 3, y = 3(3) + 1=10
Thus we can see that

• x and y vary, so they are called variables.

• Value of y depends on the chosen value of x. So x is called independent variable
and y is called dependent variable.
• Collection of all possible values of x (the independent variable) is called Domain.
• Collection of all values of y (the dependent variable) obtained is called Range.

In case of bag –amount function discussed above

• The Collection of all natural numbers 1, 2, 3, ...., m is the domain as bags can be
counted as 1, 2, 3, ............, m
• The Collection of all values obtained as amount to be given on purchase of bags
250, 500, 750……..is the range.
Domain = {1, 2, 3, ………, m}
Range = {250, 500, 750, 1000, ….., 250 m}

Is function an equation?
A Function always represents the relation between two variables through sign of
equality so we can say that function is an equation containing at least two variables
with real coefficients.

45
Does every equation represent a function?
Observe the equation x2 +y2 = 2
For x =1, y = ± √ (2 – x2) = ± 1
Here for one value of x we are getting two values of y i.e. +1 and -1. This violates the
definition of a function. But, this equation represents two functions y = √(2-x2) and
y = -√(2-x2) Can we represent function graphically?

For a function y = f(x)

For all values of x in the domain of function we can find the corresponding value of f(x).

So, a function can be thought of a set of elements in the form of ordered pairs.

In above example y = 3x+1

For x = 0, y = 1

For x=1, y = 4 and so on.

So above function can be represented as { (0,1), (1,4), (2,7)……..}

These ordered pairs can be represented on a Cartesian plane.

Why is the graphical representation of a function required?

With the help of graphical representation we can

• Locate all points satisfying the functional relationship.

• Identify the domain and range.

• Predict the nature and properties of function.

Before drawing the graph of a function it is important to understand some relevant

terms.
1. Line of symmetry: line of symmetry divides the graph in two congruent parts.
Portion on one side of line of symmetry looks the mirror image of the portion on
the other side.

46
Observe the axis of symmetry in the following graphs.

Figure 1 Figure 2

In figure 1 y-axis is the axis of symmetry while in figure 2 x-axis is the axis of symmetry.

Figure 3

47
In figure 3 Graph is symmetrical about the line y=x.
Recall: In earlier classes you have learnt the drawing of graphs of linear equations.
CDEF
For drawing graph you used to express linear equation ax+by +c =0 as y = .
G

Actually you were converting the equation in terms of function y = f(x). Review some of
them.

Function Graph Remark

y=x Graph is line

passing through
origin (0,0) and
lies in I and III
quadrant.

X 1 2 - 0
3

y 1 2 - 0
3

DO IT YOURSELF

I. Draw the graph of following functions:

1. x=3 2. y=0

3. x=-5 4. y=7

5. y= -x 6. y = 2x

48
 7. y = -2x 8. y = x/2

9. x = 3y 10. Y = x+ 5

11. y = 2x+5 12. Y = -2x +5

II. Steps of drawing graph of a function y = f (x)

1. Find the x- intercept and y intercept of y= f(x) :

• x intercept can be determined by putting y =0 .
• y intercept can be determined by putting x = 0

For example for function y = x2 -2

For x=0, y= -2 , so y intercept is -2 , which means that the curve passes
through ( 0,-2)
For y=0, x = ±√2, so x intercept is ±√2 , which means that the curve passes
through the points ( √2, 0) and ( -√2,0)

2. Identify the Axis of Symmetry

• If the power of x is even then graph of function y=f(x) is symmetrical
about y-axis.
For example,
Consider the function y= f(x) =3x2 + 2
When x is replaced by –x,
f (-x)= 3(-x)2 + 2= 3x2 + 2 = f(x)
This type of functions are called even functions.
We can say that

• Even functions are symmetric about y- axis.

• For even functions f(x) = f(-x) for all values of x in the domain of
function f(x)
• For even functions power of x is always even in expression of function.

49
• If the power of y is even then graph of function y=f(x) is symmetrical about x-
axis. For example the graph of x= y 2 + 3 is symmetrical about x–axis

• If in an equation representing the function y=f(x), x is replaced by y and y is

replaced by x and the resulting equation is same then graph of equation is
symmetrical about the line y= x

• If in an equation representing the function x is replaced by -y and y is

replaced by -x and the resulting equation is same then graph of equation is
symmetrical about the line y=- x

50
TRIGONOMETRY

Dear Reader

In your previous classes you have read about triangles and trigonometric ratios. A
triangle is a polygon formed by joining least number of points i.e., three non-collinear
points.
You also know that a triangle has six basic measures three sides and three angles. Based
on the measure of sides and angles you can construct triangles using geometrical tools
like foot rule, compass and protractor.
Also for the construction of a triangle all measures are not required. With the help of
some of the measures the construction could be possible.
With time it was found that in a right angled triangle by defining the ratios of different
sides of triangle a whole new branch of mathematics came into existence this branch is
known as Trigonometry.
You have learned in class IX and X about trigonometric ratios, identities and its
applications.
In class XI, we will now use the terms trigonometric functions and also extend our
understanding of trigonometry from right angled triangles to any triangle.
In this chapter you will learn the following:
(i) Trigonometric functions as circular functions.
(ii) Difference between trigonometric ratios and trigonometric functions.
(iii) Drawing of graphs of sine and cosine functions.
(iv) Advance applications of Trigonometry.

Meaning
The word “Trigonometry” is derived from two Greek words ”Trigon” meaning
triangle, and “metron” meaning measure. Hence, trigonometry means measurement of
triangles.

51
Note: A triangle has six meassures: the sides of lengths a, b and c and thee angles A, B, C
in degrees or radians.

Question: Given some of thesse measures, find the others.

Method 1: Construct the trian ngle on the basis of the given measures (it is
i assumed that
the given measures are enough for the purpose) and then find the other measures by
using isometric tools foot rulee, protractor D.

Method 2: Use trigonometry ----------- which is all about triangles

A big part of trigonom metry consists of solving triangles, when wew say solving
measures of the triangle we m
mean finding the missing sides and angles off the triangle.

Look at the following examplee in triangle ABC, ∠A=64r∠B=43r , side c = 8 cm.

Whereas angle C can be found d by using ∠A  ∠B  ∠C  180r we neeed trigonometry

to find the measures of sides A
AC and BC

52
Question: what is the minimum number of measures of a triangle that must be known
to find the other measures of the triangle?
Three, however they should not be all angles
(Why? Hint: Think of similar triangles).

Trigonometric Identities
Equations that are true for all permissible values of the unknown/s are called
Trigonometric identities.
Some of trigonometric identities are as follows:

tan

Law of Sines

or

Law of Cosines

or cos A
2bc

53
Law of Tangents

Note: Here a, b, c and A, B, C haave their usual meaning as mentioned earlier.

Why Do We Need to Study T

Trigonometry?
Trigonometry finds its app plication in real life, most importantly, in navigation
especially in sea for ships and
d boats.

Trigonometry is used in meassuring distance of a shot put or spear throw

ws by an athlete
in a sports competition.

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OA, AB and ∠A becomes known. Now use trigonometry to find OB. (using computers
it becomes an instantaneous solution)

Advanced Use: Trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine, tangent) are used as functions and
then manipulated using algebra.

Applications: Trigonometry is applied in Electronic circuits and mechanical

engineering. Graphs are drawn and used to analyze things like motion and waves. For
example, a radio or sound wave can be described by an equation of the type Y = A sin
(Bx + C).

Circular functions: We begin with any circle and then introduce unit circle. The
advantage with unit circle is that we can measure sine, cosine, and tangent directly; the
radius being 1. As we move along the circle we get different angles and the process
continues even after we complete one full round.

The values now start replicating to what we have already got, i.e. we get repeating
pattern.

When we move anti-clock wise along the circle the angle is positive and as we move
clock wise the angle measure is negative.

It  is more than 3600 (2π radian) we subtract 3600 (or one full rotation ) or as many full
rotations as needed to make it less than 360 0(but more than 00). sin  will have the
same value as sine of new angle thus obtained.

It , to begin with is negative we add as many full rotations needed to make it more
than 00 ( but less than 3600 ) to calculate its sines and cosines.

Graphs of sine and cosine functions

Let T be a unit circle i.e, a circle with radius 1 unit. Let R be the real line. Let us observe
the following:
1 : The positive side of the real line from O to +∞ can be wrapped around the unit circle
in the anticlock wise direction infinite number of times with point O of the real line
coinciding with point A of the circle.

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2: The negative side of the reaal line from O to - ∞ can be wrapped around
d the unit circle
in the clockwise direction with point O of the real line coinciding withh point A of the
unit circle.

sin (2  ) = sin x where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,……

Hence the value of sine of all n

numbers on the real line can be obtained this and its graph
can be drawn.

The graph looks like as shown

n

similarly the graphs of cosine and tangent functions can also be drawn.

Applications: Recall that wee have used a right angled triangle (also o called a right
triangle) to define sine, cosinee tangent etc. it is natural to ask, can we use these to find to
side length of a right triangle??

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In case we are given or wee know two of the sides of right triang
gle we can use
pythagoras’ theorem to find th
he third side

if we know two of these valuees a,b,c we can use (1) to find the third
what happens in case we kno ow only one of the sides and one of the ang
gles (and hence
all the angles ) of a right trian
ngle. We can’t use the pythagoras’ theorem now. However
we can use trignomentric ratio os to find the remaining sides.

units and one angle is 47 0 as shown we can find x and y as

For example if one side is 5 u
follows:
sin 470 = 5/y so y = 5/sin4470, But sin 470 = 0.73135 approx hence y=
y 5/ 0.73135 =
6.83667, we can now find x ussing x/y = cos 470 or 5/x = tan 470

Example: If you are standing at a distance of 30 ft from the base of a building and if you
have to look up at 57° (called
d the angle of elevation) to see the top of thhe building can
you find the height of the buillding?

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The answer is yes. we consid der the right triangle ABC. Here h/30 = tan n 57 0 = 1. 0723
approx. so h = 30 x 1.0723 so h
height of the building is 32.169 ft approxim
mately.
Example: With dimensions as shown in the figure and with AD perpen
ndicular to BC,
find the value of x

Example: If the shadow of a bbuilding increases by 20 meters when the an ngle of elevation
m 750 to 600. What is the height of the building
of the Sun rays decrease from g?
Example: Pushpendra is froliccking in a hot air balloon. He can enjoy the ride for half an
hour more if he can tell the diistance between a flag pole and a car parked
d on the ground
below. He asks the pilot to ccome directly over the flag pole and start rising
r vertically
upward. He observes the follo owing:
At some point during his ridde the angle of depression of the car is 30 0. He allows the
balloon to rise further 60 meeters and observes that the angle of depreession has now
become 350. He thinks he hass sufficient data to answer the question. Draw
D a diagram
and solve the problem for pusshpendra.

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