CHAPTER

4
Statue of Persian
mathematician and poet
Omar Khayyám
(1048–1131), whose
algebra book written in
1070 contained the first
serious study of cubic
polynomials.

Polynomials
This short chapter contains material on polynomials that we will need to
understand operators. Many of the results in this chapter will already be
familiar to you from other courses; they are included here for completeness.
Because this chapter is not about linear algebra, your instructor may go
through it rapidly. You may not be asked to scrutinize all the proofs. Make
sure, however, that you at least read and understand the statements of all the
results in this chapter—they will be used in later chapters.
The standing assumption we need for this chapter is as follows:

4.1 Notation F
F denotes R or C.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS CHAPTER

Division Algorithm for Polynomials

factorization of polynomials over C
factorization of polynomials over R

© Springer International Publishing 2015 117

S. Axler, Linear Algebra Done Right, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-11080-6__4
118 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials

Complex Conjugate and Absolute Value

Before discussing polynomials with complex or real coefficients, we need to
learn a bit more about the complex numbers.

4.2 Definition Re z, Im z
Suppose z D a C bi , where a and b are real numbers.

 The real part of z, denoted Re z, is defined by Re z D a.

 The imaginary part of z, denoted Im z, is defined by Im z D b.

Thus for every complex number z, we have

z D Re z C .Im z/i:

4.3 Definition complex conjugate, zN , absolute value, jzj

Suppose z 2 C.

 The complex conjugate of z 2 C, denoted z,

N is defined by
zN D Re z  .Im z/i:

 The absolute value of a complex number z, denoted jzj, is defined

by q
jzj D .Re z/2 C .Im z/2 :

4.4 Example Suppose z D 3 C 2i. Then

 Re z D 3 and Im z D 2;

 zN D 3  2i ;
p p
 jzj D 32 C 22 D 13.

Note that jzj is a nonnegative number for every z 2 C.

You should verify that z D zN if and The real and imaginary parts, com-
only if z is a real number. plex conjugate, and absolute value have
the following properties:
 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials 119

4.5 Properties of complex numbers

Suppose w; z 2 C. Then

sum of z and zN
z C zN D 2 Re z;
difference of z and zN
z  zN D 2.Im z/i;
product of z and zN
z zN D jzj2 ;
additivity and multiplicativity of complex conjugate
w C z D wN C zN and wz D wNN z;
conjugate of conjugate
zN D z;
real and imaginary parts are bounded by jzj
j Re zj  jzj and j Im zj  jzj
absolute value of the complex conjugate
jzj
N D jzj;
z
multiplicativity of absolute value
jwzj D jwj jzj;
w
Triangle Inequality
jw C zj  jwj C jzj. wz

Proof Except for the last item, the routine verifications of the assertions
above are left to the reader. To verify the last item, we have
jw C zj2 D .w C z/.w
N C z/
N
D ww
N C z zN C wzN C z w
N
D jwj2 C jzj2 C wzN C wzN
D jwj2 C jzj2 C 2 Re.wz/
N
 jwj2 C jzj2 C 2jwzj
N
D jwj2 C jzj2 C 2jwj jzj
D .jwj C jzj/2 :
Taking the square root of both sides of the inequality jw C zj2  .jwj C jzj/2
now gives the desired inequality.
120 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials

Uniqueness of Coefficients for Polynomials

Recall that a function p W F ! F is called a polynomial with coefficients in F
if there exist a0 ; : : : ; am 2 F such that

4.6 p.z/ D a0 C a1 z C a2 z 2 C    C am z m

for all z 2 F.

4.7 If a polynomial is the zero function, then all coefficients are 0

Suppose a0 ; : : : ; am 2 F. If

a0 C a1 z C    C am z m D 0

for every z 2 F, then a0 D    D am D 0.

Proof We will prove the contrapositive. If not all the coefficients are 0, then
by changing m we can assume am ¤ 0. Let
ja0 j C ja1 j C    C jam1 j
zD C 1:
jam j

Note that z  1, and thus z j  z m1 for j D 0; 1; : : : ; m  1. Using the

Triangle Inequality, we have

ja0 C a1 z C    C am1 z m1 j  .ja0 j C ja1 j C    C jam1 j/z m1

< jam z m j:

Thus a0 C a1 z C    C am1 z m1 ¤ am z m . Hence we conclude that

a0 C a1 z C    C am1 z m1 C am z m ¤ 0.

The result above implies that the coefficients of a polynomial are uniquely
determined (because if a polynomial had two different sets of coefficients,
then subtracting the two representations of the polynomial would give a
contradiction to the result above).
Recall that if a polynomial p can be written in the form 4.6 with am ¤ 0,
then we say that p has degree m and we write deg p D m.
The 0 polynomial is declared to The degree of the 0 polynomial is
have degree 1 so that excep- defined to be 1. When necessary, use
tions are not needed for various the obvious arithmetic with 1. For
reasonable results. For example, example, 1 < m and 1 C m D
deg.pq/ D deg p C deg q even if 1 for every integer m.
p D 0.
 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials 121

The Division Algorithm for Polynomials

If p and s are nonnegative integers, with s ¤ 0, then there exist nonnegative
integers q and r such that
p D sq C r
and r < s. Think of dividing p by s, getting quotient q with remainder r. Our
next task is to prove an analogous result for polynomials.
The result below is often called the Think of the Division Algorithm for
Division Algorithm for Polynomials, al- Polynomials as giving the remain-
though as stated here it is not really an der r when p is divided by s.
algorithm, just a useful result.
Recall that P.F/ denotes the vector space of all polynomials with co-
efficients in F and that Pm .F/ is the subspace of P.F/ consisting of the
polynomials with coefficients in F and degree at most m.
The next result can be proved without linear algebra, but the proof given
here using linear algebra is appropriate for a linear algebra textbook.

4.8 Division Algorithm for Polynomials

Suppose that p; s 2 P.F/, with s ¤ 0. Then there exist unique
polynomials q; r 2 P.F/ such that

p D sq C r

and deg r < deg s.

Proof Let n D deg p and m D deg s. If n < m, then take q D 0 and r D p

to get the desired result. Thus we can assume that n  m.
Define T W Pnm .F/  Pm1 .F/ ! Pn .F/ by
T .q; r/ D sq C r:
The reader can easily verify that T is a linear map. If .q; r/ 2 null T , then
sq C r D 0, which implies that q D 0 and r D 0 [because otherwise
deg sq  m and thus sq cannot equal r]. Thus dim null T D 0 (proving the
“unique” part of the result).
From 3.76 we have
 
dim Pnm .F/  Pm1 .F/ D .n  m C 1/ C .m  1 C 1/ D n C 1:
The Fundamental Theorem of Linear Maps (3.22) and the equation displayed
above now imply that dim range T D n C 1, which equals dim Pn .F/. Thus
range T D Pn .F/, and hence there exist q 2 Pnm .F/ and r 2 Pm1 .F/
such that p D T .q; r/ D sq C r.
122 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials

Zeros of Polynomials
The solutions to the equation p.z/ D 0 play a crucial role in the study of a
polynomial p 2 P.F/. Thus these solutions have a special name.

4.9 Definition zero of a polynomial

A number  2 F is called a zero (or root) of a polynomial p 2 P.F/ if
p./ D 0:

4.10 Definition factor

A polynomial s 2 P.F/ is called a factor of p 2 P.F/ if there exists a
polynomial q 2 P.F/ such that p D sq.

We begin by showing that  is a zero of a polynomial p 2 P.F/ if and

only if z   is a factor of p.

4.11 Each zero of a polynomial corresponds to a degree-1 factor

Suppose p 2 P.F/ and  2 F. Then p./ D 0 if and only if there is a
polynomial q 2 P.F/ such that

p.z/ D .z  /q.z/

for every z 2 F.

Proof One direction is obvious. Namely, suppose there is a polynomial

q 2 P.F/ such that p.z/ D .z  /q.z/ for all z 2 F. Then
p./ D .  /q./ D 0;
as desired.
To prove the other direction, suppose p./ D 0. The polynomial z  
has degree 1. Because a polynomial with degree less than 1 is a constant
function, the Division Algorithm for Polynomials (4.8) implies that there exist
a polynomial q 2 P.F/ and a number r 2 F such that
p.z/ D .z  /q.z/ C r
for every z 2 F. The equation above and the equation p./ D 0 imply that
r D 0. Thus p.z/ D .z  /q.z/ for every z 2 F.

Now we can prove that polynomials do not have too many zeros.
 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials 123

4.12 A polynomial has at most as many zeros as its degree

Suppose p 2 P.F/ is a polynomial with degree m  0. Then p has at
most m distinct zeros in F.

Proof If m D 0, then p.z/ D a0 ¤ 0 and so p has no zeros.

If m D 1, then p.z/ D a0 C a1 z, with a1 ¤ 0, and thus p has exactly
one zero, namely, a0 =a1 .
Now suppose m > 1. We use induction on m, assuming that every
polynomial with degree m  1 has at most m  1 distinct zeros. If p has no
zeros in F, then we are done. If p has a zero  2 F, then by 4.11 there is a
polynomial q such that

p.z/ D .z  /q.z/

for all z 2 F. Clearly deg q D m  1. The equation above shows that if

p.z/ D 0, then either z D  or q.z/ D 0. In other words, the zeros of p
consist of  and the zeros of q. By our induction hypothesis, q has at most
m  1 distinct zeros in F. Thus p has at most m distinct zeros in F.

Factorization of Polynomials over C

So far we have been handling polynomials with complex coefficients and
polynomials with real coefficients simultaneously through our convention that
F denotes R or C. Now we will see some differences between these two cases.
First we treat polynomials with complex coefficients. Then we will use our
results about polynomials with complex coefficients to prove corresponding
results for polynomials with real coefficients.
The next result, although called the The Fundamental Theorem of Al-
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, uses gebra is an existence theorem. Its
analysis its proof. The short proof pre- proof does not lead to a method for
sented here uses tools from complex finding zeros. The quadratic for-
analysis. If you have not had a course in mula gives the zeros explicitly for
complex analysis, this proof will almost polynomials of degree 2. Similar
but more complicated formulas ex-
certainly be meaningless to you. In that
ist for polynomials of degree 3 and
case, just accept the Fundamental The- 4. No such formulas exist for poly-
orem of Algebra as something that we nomials of degree 5 and above.
need to use but whose proof requires
more advanced tools that you may learn
in later courses.
124 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials

4.13 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every nonconstant polynomial with complex coefficients has a zero.

Proof Let p be a nonconstant polynomial with complex coefficients. Sup-

pose p has no zeros. Then 1=p is an analytic function on C. Furthermore,
jp.z/j ! 1 as jzj ! 1, which implies that 1=p ! 0 as jzj ! 1. Thus
1=p is a bounded analytic function on C. By Liouville’s theorem, every such
function is constant. But if 1=p is constant, then p is constant, contradicting
our assumption that p is nonconstant.

Although the proof given above is probably the shortest proof of the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, a web search can lead you to several other
proofs that use different techniques. All proofs of the Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra need to use some analysis, because the result is not true if C is
replaced, for example, with the set of numbers of the form c C d i where c; d
are rational numbers.
The cubic formula, which was Remarkably, mathematicians have
discovered in the 16th century, proved that no formula exists for the ze-
is presented below for your ros of polynomials of degree 5 or higher.
amusement only. Do not memorize But computers and calculators can use
it. clever numerical methods to find good
approximations to the zeros of any poly-
Suppose
nomial, even when exact zeros cannot
3 2
p.x/ D ax C bx C cx C d; be found.
For example, no one will ever be
where a ¤ 0. Set able to give an exact formula for a zero
9abc  2b 3  27a2 d of the polynomial p defined by
uD
54a3 p.x/ D x 5 5x 4 6x 3 C17x 2 C4x7:
and then set However, a computer or symbolic cal-
 3ac  b 2 3 culator can find approximate zeros of
v D u2 C : this polynomial.
9a2
The Fundamental Theorem of Alge-
Suppose v  0. Then
bra leads to the following factorization
q q
b 3 p 3 p result for polynomials with complex co-
 C uC vC u v
3a efficients. Note that in this factorization,
is a zero of p. the numbers 1 ; : : : ; m are precisely
the zeros of p, for these are the only
values of z for which the right side of
the equation in the next result equals 0.
 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials 125

4.14 Factorization of a polynomial over C

If p 2 P.C/ is a nonconstant polynomial, then p has a unique factoriza-
tion (except for the order of the factors) of the form

p.z/ D c.z  1 /    .z  m /;

where c; 1 ; : : : ; m 2 C.

Proof Let p 2 P.C/ and let m D deg p. We will use induction on m. If

m D 1, then clearly the desired factorization exists and is unique. So assume
that m > 1 and that the desired factorization exists and is unique for all
polynomials of degree m  1.
First we will show that the desired factorization of p exists. By the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (4.13), p has a zero . By 4.11, there is a
polynomial q such that

p.z/ D .z  /q.z/

for all z 2 C. Because deg q D m  1, our induction hypothesis implies that

q has the desired factorization, which when plugged into the equation above
gives the desired factorization of p.
Now we turn to the question of uniqueness. Clearly c is uniquely deter-
mined as the coefficient of z m in p. So we need only show that except for the
order, there is only one way to choose 1 ; : : : ; m . If

.z  1 /    .z  m / D .z  1 /    .z  m /

for all z 2 C, then because the left side of the equation above equals 0 when
z D 1 , one of the  ’s on the right side equals 1 . Relabeling, we can assume
that 1 D 1 . Now for z ¤ 1 , we can divide both sides of the equation
above by z  1 , getting

.z  2 /    .z  m / D .z  2 /    .z  m /

for all z 2 C except possibly z D 1 . Actually the equation above holds

for all z 2 C, because otherwise by subtracting the right side from the left
side we would get a nonzero polynomial that has infinitely many zeros. The
equation above and our induction hypothesis imply that except for the order,
the ’s are the same as the ’s, completing the proof of uniqueness.
126 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials

Factorization of Polynomials over R

The failure of the Fundamental A polynomial with real coefficients may

Theorem of Algebra for R accounts have no real zeros. For example, the
for the differences between oper- polynomial 1 C x 2 has no real zeros.
ators on real and complex vector To obtain a factorization theorem
spaces, as we will see in later over R, we will use our factorization
chapters. theorem over C. We begin with the fol-
lowing result.

4.15 Polynomials with real coefficients have zeros in pairs

Suppose p 2 P.C/ is a polynomial with real coefficients. If  2 C is a
N
zero of p, then so is .

Proof Let
p.z/ D a0 C a1 z C    C am z m ;
where a0 ; : : : ; am are real numbers. Suppose  2 C is a zero of p. Then

a0 C a1  C    C am m D 0:

Take the complex conjugate of both sides of this equation, obtaining

a0 C a1 N C    C am N m D 0;

where we have used basic properties of complex conjugation (see 4.5). The
equation above shows that N is a zero of p.

Think about the connection be- We want a factorization theorem for

tween the quadratic formula and polynomials with real coefficients. First
4.16. we need to characterize the polynomi-
als of degree 2 with real coefficients
that can be written as the product of
two polynomials of degree 1 with real
coefficients.

4.16 Factorization of a quadratic polynomial

Suppose b; c 2 R. Then there is a polynomial factorization of the form

x 2 C bx C c D .x  1 /.x  2 /

with 1 ; 2 2 R if and only if b 2  4c.

 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials 127

Proof Notice that

 b 2  b2 
x 2 C bx C c D x C C c :
2 4
First suppose b 2 < 4c. Then clearly The equation above is the basis
the right side of the equation above is of the technique called completing
positive for every x 2 R. Hence the the square.
polynomial x 2 C bx C c has no real
zeros and thus cannot be factored in the
form .x  1 /.x  2 / with 1 ; 2 2 R.
Conversely, now suppose b 2  4c. Then there is a real number d such
2
that d 2 D b4  c. From the displayed equation above, we have
 b 2
x 2 C bx C c D x C  d2
2
 b  b 
D xC Cd xC d ;
2 2
which gives the desired factorization.

The next result gives a factorization of a polynomial over R. The idea of

the proof is to use the factorization 4.14 of p as a polynomial with complex
coefficients. Complex but nonreal zeros of p come in pairs; see 4.15. Thus
if the factorization of p as an element of P.C/ includes terms of the form
.x  / with  a nonreal complex number, then .x  / N is also a term in the
factorization. Multiplying together these two terms, we get
 2 
x  2.Re /x C jj2 ;

which is a quadratic term of the required form.

The idea sketched in the paragraph above almost provides a proof of the
existence of our desired factorization. However, we need to be careful about
one point. Suppose  is a nonreal complex number and .x  / is a term in
the factorization of p as an element of P.C/. We are guaranteed by 4.15 that
N also appears as a term in the factorization, but 4.15 does not state that
.x  /
these two factors appear the same number of times, as needed to make the
idea above work. However, the proof works around this point.
In the next result, either m or M may equal 0. The numbers 1 ; : : : ; m
are precisely the real zeros of p, for these are the only real values of x for
which the right side of the equation in the next result equals 0.
128 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials

4.17 Factorization of a polynomial over R

Suppose p 2 P.R/ is a nonconstant polynomial. Then p has a unique
factorization (except for the order of the factors) of the form

p.x/ D c.x  1 /    .x  m /.x 2 C b1 x C c1 /    .x 2 C bM x C cM /;

where c; 1 ; : : : ; m ; b1 ; : : : ; bM ; c1 ; : : : ; cM 2 R, with bj 2 < 4cj for

each j .

Proof Think of p as an element of P.C/. If all the (complex) zeros of p are

real, then we are done by 4.14. Thus suppose p has a zero  2 C with  … R.
By 4.15, N is a zero of p. Thus we can write
N
p.x/ D .x  /.x  /q.x/
 2 
D x  2.Re /x C jj2 q.x/

for some polynomial q 2 P.C/ with degree two less than the degree of p.
If we can prove that q has real coefficients, then by using induction on the
degree of p, we can conclude that .x  / appears in the factorization of p
N
exactly as many times as .x  /.
To prove that q has real coefficients, we solve the equation above for q,
getting
p.x/
q.x/ D 2
x  2.Re /x C jj2
for all x 2 R. The equation above implies that q.x/ 2 R for all x 2 R.
Writing
q.x/ D a0 C a1 x C    C an2 x n2 ;
where n D deg p and a0 ; : : : ; an2 2 C, we thus have

0 D Im q.x/ D .Im a0 / C .Im a1 /x C    C .Im an2 /x n2

for all x 2 R. This implies that Im a0 ; : : : ; Im an2 all equal 0 (by 4.7). Thus
all the coefficients of q are real, as desired. Hence the desired factorization
exists.
Now we turn to the question of uniqueness of our factorization. A factor
of p of the form x 2 C bj x C cj with bj 2 < 4cj can be uniquely written
as .x  j /.x  j / with j 2 C. A moment’s thought shows that two
different factorizations of p as an element of P.R/ would lead to two different
factorizations of p as an element of P.C/, contradicting 4.14.
 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials 129

EXERCISES 4

1 Verify all the assertions in 4.5 except the last one.

2 Suppose m is a positive integer. Is the set

f0g [ fp 2 P.F/ W deg p D mg

a subspace of P.F/?

3 Is the set
f0g [ fp 2 P.F/ W deg p is eveng
a subspace of P.F/?

4 Suppose m and n are positive integers with m  n, and suppose

1 ; : : : ; m 2 F. Prove that there exists a polynomial p 2 P.F/ with
deg p D n such that 0 D p.1 / D    D p.m / and such that p has no
other zeros.

5 Suppose m is a nonnegative integer, z1 ; : : : ; zmC1 are distinct elements

of F, and w1 ; : : : ; wmC1 2 F. Prove that there exists a unique polynomial
p 2 Pm .F/ such that
p.zj / D wj
for j D 1; : : : ; m C 1.
[This result can be proved without using linear algebra. However, try to
find the clearer, shorter proof that uses some linear algebra.]

6 Suppose p 2 P.C/ has degree m. Prove that p has m distinct zeros if

and only if p and its derivative p 0 have no zeros in common.

7 Prove that every polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients has a
real zero.

8 Define T W P.R/ ! RR by
8
< p  p.3/
ˆ
if x ¤ 3;
Tp D x3
:̂p 0 .3/ if x D 3:

Show that Tp 2 P.R/ for every polynomial p 2 P.R/ and that T is a

linear map.
130 CHAPTER 4 Polynomials

9 Suppose p 2 P.C/. Define q W C ! C by

N
q.z/ D p.z/p.z/:

Prove that q is a polynomial with real coefficients.

10 Suppose m is a nonnegative integer and p 2 Pm .C/ is such that there

exist distinct real numbers x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xm such that p.xj / 2 R for
j D 0; 1; : : : ; m. Prove that all the coefficients of p are real.

11 Suppose p 2 P.F/ with p ¤ 0. Let U D fpq W q 2 P.F/g.

(a) Show that dim P.F/=U D deg p.

(b) Find a basis of dim P.F/=U.