Journal of American Science 2014;10(3) http://www.jofamericanscience.

org

Supplementation of Gluten-Free Bread with Some Germinated Legumes Flour

Yousif1, M.R.G. and Safaa, M. Faid2

1
Bread and Pasta Department, Food Technology Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt.
2
Home Economics Department, Faculty of Specific Education, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
[email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract: Legume flours, due to their amino acid composition and fiber content are ideal ingredients for improving
the nutritional value of gluten-free bread. In this study, the influence of the partial replacement of corn-rice flour by
chickpea and sweet lupine flours on the quality characteristics of gluten-free bread was analyzed. The content of
nutrients (protein, lipids, ash, dietary fiber and minerals content), amino acid composition, and antinutritional
components (tannin, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor's) were determined in control, germinated and dehulled
chickpea and sweet lupine flours. Germination caused increase in crude protein, total dietary fiber, soluble dietary
fiber, insoluble dietary fiber and amino acid contents of all the legume samples. Further increase in mentioned
parameters was observed after dehulling the germinated legumes. Tannin, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor's were
reduced on germination and more reduction was observed in dehulled over germinated samples. Addition of
chickpea or sweet lupine flour to corn-rice flour at 20% level somewhat retarded the increase in the rate of
retrogradation (staling) of gluten-free bread. This point was considered very important because of the major
economic losses that stale gluten-free bread may entail. The sensory evaluation data demonstrated that, the chickpea
or sweet lupine flour can successfully replace corn-rice flour in gluten-free bread up to 20%.
[Yousif, M.R.G. and Safaa, M. Faid. Supplementation of Gluten-Free Bread with Some Germinated Legumes
Flour. J Am Sci 2014;10(3):84-93]. (ISSN: 1545-1003). http://www.jofamericanscience.org. 11

Key words: Coeliac disease - Gluten-free bread - Lupin - Chickpeas - Germination.

1. Introduction which are low in fat and sodium and contain no

Coeliac disease is a chronic disorder of the cholesterol (Gomez et al., 2008). Legumes have been
small intestine caused by exposure to gluten in the identified as low glycaemic index foods (Bornet et al.,
genetically predisposed individuals (Laurin et al., 1997). Selecting foods of low glycaemic index is very
2002 and Hamer, 2005). It is characterized by a strong important in the dietary treatment of diabetes mellitus,
immune response to certain amino acid sequences increases satiety, facilitates the control of food intake
found in the prolamin fractions of wheat, barley, and and has other health benefits for healthy subjects in
rye (Hill et al., 2005), resulting in damage to the terms of post-prandial glucose and lipid metabolism
mucosa of the small intestine and leading to the (Rizkalla et al., 2002). Regular consumption of
malabsorption of nutrients, thus adversely affecting all legumes may have important protective effects on risk
systems of the body (Feighery, 1999). Recently, with for cardiovascular disease (Anderson and Major,
the development of sensitive serological tests, it has 2002). Moreover, legumes contain a rich variety of
become possible to evaluate the true prevalence of compounds, which, if consumed in sufficient
coeliac disease. It is now regarded as one of the most quantities, may help to reduce tumour risk (Mathers,
common genetic diseases, occurring in 1 of 130–300 of 2002). In fact, most health organizations encourage
the global population (Fasano and Catassi, 2001 and their frequent consumption (Leterme, 2002). These
Fasano et al., 2003). The gluten-free diet remains until nutritional benefits are related to the reduced
now the only treatment for coeliac disease (Sabanis et digestibility of legume starch and dietary fiber content
al., 2009). Gluten-free diet includes benefits such as of legumes, mainly located in their husk fractions. The
the recovery of the villi of the small intestine and low digestibility of legume starch has been attributed to
reduced risk of malignant complications (Seraphin its amylose, which is considerably branched and of
and Mobarhan, 2002). However there are growing high molecular weight (Tharanathan and
concerns over the nutritional adequacy of the gluten- Mahadevamma, 2003).
free dietary pattern because it is often characterized by The addition of legume to cereal-based
an excessive consumption of energy, and a reduced products could be a good alternative for increasing the
intake of proteins and dietary fiber (Thompson, 2001 intake of legumes. In addition, legume proteins are rich
and Thompson et al., 2005). in lysine and deficient in sulphur containing amino
Legumes have been known as "a poor man’s acids, whereas cereal proteins are deficient in lysine,
meat". They supply protein, complex carbohydrates, but have adequate amounts of sulphur amino acids
fiber and essential vitamins and minerals to the diet, (Minarro et al., 2012). Therefore, the combination of

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grain with legume proteins would provide better Instant active dry yeast (Saccharomyces
overall essential amino acid balance, helping to combat cerevisiae) processed by AKMAYA Co., Turkey, was
the world protein calorie malnutrition problem obtained from the local market. Sugar (sucrose),
(Livingstone et al., 1993). sunflower oil, and salt were obtained from local
Legumes play an important role in the market.
agriculture and diet of many developing countries and
are a major source of dietary nutrients for many people. Methods:
However, their role appears to be limited because of Germination:
several factors including low protein and starch Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and sweet
digestibility (Negi et al., 2001), poor mineral lupine (Ceratonia siliqua L.) seeds were cleaned from
bioavailability (Kamchan et al., 2004) and high all impurities including broken and diseased seeds,
antinutritional factors (Ramulu and Udayasekhara, washed and soaked in 4–5 volumes of water (22–25˚C)
1997 and Das et al., 1999). It has been reported that for 12 h under ambient laboratory conditions. At the
protein and thiamin (Sattar et al., 1989), mineral end of the period, the water was drained and the seed
bioavailability (Rao and Prabhavathi, 1982) and samples were allowed to germinate under a wet muslin
protein and starch digestibility (Preet and Punia, cloth at 22-25˚C, 99% relative humidity and in the dark
2000) increased, whereas phytic acid (Sattar et al., for 2 and 3 days. The maximum time of germination
1989 and Ayet et al., 1997) and tannin (Savelkoul et was fixed in accordance with achieving ~95% sprout
al., 1992 and Ayet et al., 1997) decreased during seeds. The germination process was evaluated by the
germination of legumes. percentage of germinated seeds and the sprouted seed
Germination appears to be an inexpensive and were collected and dried in an air dryer oven at 50±5
effective method of achieving desirable changes in ˚C for 16–18 h. A portion of germinated samples were
nutritious crops, and germinated seeds have become a dehulled. Ungerminated seeds served as control. All
widely accepted food item. Germination is known to the three samples, (1) control (ungerminated), (2)
cause important changes in the biochemical, nutritional germinated and (3) dehulled (after germination) were
and sensory characteristics, and has been claimed to milled to flour in a laboratory mill (3100, Perten
enhance the nutritive value of cereals and legumes. Instruments, Sweden). Then, sieved through a 50-mesh
Germination can be considered as a procedure for screen. The resultant flour was packed in polyethylene
improving legume digestibility and reducing flatulence bags and stored at (-18˚C) until used according to the
properties, which are some of the factors that limit method described by (Fernandez-Orozco et al., 2009).
consumption (Frias et al., 1997).
Germinated Legumes are a good source of Chemical analysis:
highly bioavailable proteins, starch, lipids and Crude protein, ash, crude fiber and lipid
minerals. Additionally, germinated seeds contain contents were estimated by standard AOAC methods
significant amounts of polyphenols with well- (AOAC, 2000). Total dietary fiber was determined
documented pro-health properties (Cevallos-Casals, according to A.O.A.C (2000), soluble and insoluble
and Cisneros-Zevallos, 2010). dietary fiber contents were determined by following the
The aim of the present study is to improve the enzymatic method Prosky et al. (1988).
quality and nutritional content of gluten-free bread by Mineral contents determined by wet acid-
using by chickpea and sweet lupine flours into gluten- digested, using a nitric acid and perchloric acid mixture
free formulation and examine the effects of its addition (HNO3: HClO4, 5:1 w/v) according to the method
on the quality parameters of the baked end product. described by Chapman and Pratt (1978). Then the
The results were compared to a control gluten-free total amounts of K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn and Mn in the
bread formulation without added Legumes flours. digested samples were determined were determined by
atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Whereas
2. Material and Methods phosphorus was determined by spectrophotometer
Material: according to the method of Astm (1975).
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and sweet Tannins was determined according to the
lupine (Ceratonia siliqua L.) seeds were obtained from method of Hagerman (1987), phytic acid was
local market. Yellow corn flour was obtained from determined according to the method of Mohamed et
Egyptian-Italian company for maize products (Maiza), al. (1986), and trypsin inhibitor's was determined
10th of Ramadan City, Cairo, Egypt. Rice flour was according to the method of Hamerstrand et al. (1981).
obtained from Sky Live Company for food industry, Amino acid analysis:
Giza, Egypt. Xanthan gum was obtained from Sigma Protein hydrolyzate was prepared by treating
chemical Co. (St. Louis, Mo), U.S.A. 300 mg from each treatment with 6N HC1 in an
evacuated test tube for 24 hrs at 105˚C. After

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evaporation, the dried residue was dissolved in citrate Data were analysis by Analysis of Variance
buffer (pH 2.2). Aliquots were analyzed in an LKB using General Liner Model (GLM) procedure
Biochrome automatic amino acid analyzer using a according to the procedure reported by Sendecor and
buffer system as described by Zarkdas et al. (1993). Cochran (1997). Means were separated using
Methionine and cystine + cysteine were analyzed Duncan’s test at a degree of significance (P≤ 0.05).
separately after performic acid oxidation and Statistical analyses were made using the producer of
subsequent hydrolysis with HCl (Khalil and Durani, the SAS software system program (SAS, 1997).
1990). Tryptophan was determined after alkali (NaOH)
hydrolysis by a calorimetric method (Freidman and 3. Results and Discussion
Finely, 1971). Chemical composition:
Rheological properties: The proximate composition of different flour
Rheological properties of the various blends samples are presented in Table (1). The results revealed
were determined by Barbender Visco-Amylograph that, the sweet lupine flour was recorded the highest
according to A.A.C.C (2000). value of crude protein, lipids and crude fiber contents.
Preparation of free-gluten bread: In compared with, yellow corn, rice and chickpea
Free-gluten bread was prepared according to flours. On the other hand, the highest value of nitrogen
the method described by (Sabanis et al., 2009) with free extract (NFE) was recorded for rice flour. While,
some modification. Preliminary baking was conducted sweet lupine flour had the lowest NFE value. Such data
evaluating the control bread formula which consisted are in the same line with those obtained by Yousif
of 225 g corn flour, 75 g rice flour, 4.5 g xanthan gum, (2003).
264 g water, 6 g dried yeast, 12 g sunflower oil, 12 g Also, the results in same table showed that
sucrose and 6 g of salt. In the trials dehulling crude protein in control legume flour samples ranged
germinated legumes flour were added at 10, 20 and 30 from 23.07 to 39.37 g/100 g. There was gradually
g/100 g of (corn, rice flour) weight, for the preparation increased in crude protein after germination and
of different bread samples. Bread doughs were dehulling, respectively. Fat content of control seeds
prepared by mixing all ingredients in a 300 g ranged from 5.55 g/100 g in chickpea flour to 8.06
farinograph bowl until they reached maximum g/100 g in sweet lupine flour. On germination, there
development. The yeast was dissolved in warm water was a decrease of fat content, which could be due to
(35˚C) and the resulted solution was added to the dry total solid loss during soaking prior to germination or
ingredients and finally the oil was added with mixing use of fat as an energy source in sprouting process. The
process for 3 min. The resulted doughs were let to rest results are comparable with findings of Venderstoep
for 20 min at 28 – 30˚C then the doughs were sheeted (1981) and Ghavidel and Prakash (2007). Crude
to 2 mm thickness with the help of an aluminium protein and lipids levels were improved after dehulling
platform. Circles cut of past pieces were done by using due to removal of hull portion and concentration of
of templates with an outer diameter of 20 cm and baked endosperm. The highest nitrogen free extract (NFE)
directly at 350 – 400˚C for 40-60 seconds in a pilot content of legume flour was recorded in chickpea flour
plant oven (Food Technology Research Institute, (62.12 g/100 g) and the lowest in sweet lupine flour
Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt). After (36.45 g/100 g). These results were in agreement with
baking, loaves were allowed to cool at room those reported by Venderstoep (1981) and Yousif
temperature before sealed in polyethylene bags to (2003). Leaching out of solid matter during pre
prevent moisture loss. germination soaking process could be the reason for
Evaluation of bread qualities: significant reduction of nitrogen free extract (NFE)
Measurement of staling rate: content on germination. These results are in agreement
The staling rates of free-gluten bread were with Ghavidel and Prakash (2007), Kohajdová et al.
determined by alkaline water retention capacity (2011) and Maghaydah et al. (2013).
(AWRC %) as described by Kitterman and Dietary fiber content:
Rubanthaler (1971). Concerning to the dietary fiber content, results
Organoleptic evaluation: presented in Table (2) showed that, sweet lupine flour
Fresh samples of free-gluten bread loaves contain the highest percentage of total dietary fiber
were organoleptically evaluated according to (TDF), soluble dietary fiber (SDF), and insoluble
Twillman and White (1988). The fresh samples were dietary fiber (IDF) which amounted in 37.94, 12.40 and
delivered to the panelists within 1 hr after baking. 25.54 g/100g dry basis, respectively. Followed by,
Bread loaves were organoleptically evaluated for 22.37, 2.46 and 19.91 g/100g dry basis for chickpea
rollability, firmness, dryness, teste, odor, color and flour. In contrast, rice flour had the lowest amounts of
overall acceptability. TDF, SDF and IDF being 1.46, 0.00 and 1.46 g/100g
Statistical analysis: dry basis, respectively. These results are in accordance

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with those obtained by Ghavidel and Prakash (2007). results are comparable with findings of Ghavidel and
Also, there was gradually decreased in TDF, SDF and Prakash (2007) and Zielinska et al. (2008).
IDF after germination and dehulling, respectively. The

Table (1): Proximate composition of yellow corn, rice, chickpea and sweet lupine flours (% on dry weight basis).
*Chemical composition (%)
Samples **Crude Nitrogen free
Lipids Ash Crude fiber
protein extract (NFE)
Yellow corn flour 8.89 ± 0.02 2.45 ± 0.02 1.07 ± 0.01 1.21 ± 0.01 86.38 ± 0.02
Rice flour 6.96 ± 0.04 0.46 ± 0.03 0.32 ± 0.02 0.22 ± 0.06 92.04 ± 0.04
Chickpea
Raw 23.07 ± 0.02 5.55 ± 0.02 3.84 ± 0.16 5.42 ± 0.06 62.12 ± 0.14
Germinated 24.81 ± 0.03 5.45 ± 0.02 3.31 ± 0.01 5.04 ± 0.19 61.39 ± 0.32
Dehulled 27.24 ± 0.05 5.87 ± 0.04 2.99 ± 0.02 4.94 ± 0.03 58.96 ± 0.19
Sweet lupine
Raw 39.37 ± 0.01 8.06 ± 0.10 2.20 ± 0.15 13.92 ± 0.11 36.45 ± 0.45
Germinated 41.60 ± 0.02 7.67 ± 0.07 2.11 ± 0.10 13.35 ± 0.02 35.27 ± 0.02
Dehulled 43.58 ± 0.06 8.72 ± 0.33 1.67 ± 0.14 12.41 ± 0.56 33.62 ± 0.01
*Means of triplicate ± SD.
** Yellow corn and rice flour (N×5.70) while, chickpea and sweet lupine flour (N×6.25).
NFE: Calculated by difference.

Table (2): Total, soluble, insoluble dietary fiber content of yellow corn, rice, chickpea and sweet lupine flours (% on dry
weight basis).
Total dietary fiber Soluble dietary fiber Insoluble dietary fiber
Samples
(TDF) (SDF) (IDF)
Yellow corn flour 10.9 ± 0.38 1.40 ± 0.06 9.50 ± 0.27
Rice flour 1.46 ± 0.14 0.00 ± 0.00 1.46 ± 0.14
Chickpea
Raw 22.37 ± 0.06 2.46 ± 0.02 19.91 ± 0.04
Germinated 20.81 ± 0.03 1.24 ± 0.08 19.57 ± 0.08
Dehulled 16.23 ± 0.02 0.54 ± 0.01 15.69 ± 0.02
Sweet lupine
Raw 37.94 ± 0.40 12.40 ± 0.11 25.54 ± 0.24
Germinated 34.16 ± 0.05 11.56 ± 0.02 22.60 ± 0.15
Dehulled 31.05 ± 0.09 9.78 ± 0.01 21.27 ± 0.32
*Means of triplicate ± SD.

Minerals content: Ghavidel and Prakash (2007) and Zielinska et al.

For the minerals content of yellow corn, rice, (2008).
chickpea and sweet lupine flours, results presented in Amino acid composition:
Table (3), it could be observed that, both of chickpea The amino acid requirements are the logical
and sweet lupine flours recorded the highest value for yard-sticks by which protein quality can be measured,
all minerals under investigation than yellow corn and and the relative quantities of the various amino acids,
rice flours. These results are in agreement with those in particular the essential amino acids, in the food
reported by Venderstoep (1981) and Ghavidel and could be used as reliable estimators of actual protein
Prakash (2007). In addition, the results in same table quality (Alsmeyer et al., 1974). Data presented in
showed that, there was gradually decreased found in K, Table (4) shows the amino acid composition of raw,
Ca, Mg, Na, P, Mn, Fe and Zn contents on germination germinated and dehulled chickpea and sweet lupine
as present in Table (3). This is easily observable in the flours. From the obtained data, it could be observed
lower ash contents obtained in the germinated samples that, both of chickpea and sweet lupine flour protein
(Table 1). This reduction could be due to leaching of was rich in essential amino acids such as lysine and
solid matter in soaking water. Further decline in the isoleucine. Therefore, chickpea and sweet lupine
above mentioned minerals levels after dehulling were protein could very well complement those protein
observed, which may be contributed to presence of sources that are low in lysine and tryptophan. The total
these minerals in hull portion. These results are in amino acid in chickpea flour was 86.91 g/100g protein
agreement with Giri et al. (1981), Das et al. (1999), while it was 86.44 g/100g protein in sweet lupine flour.

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Germination and dehulling caused a slight increase in accordance with those reported by Benchaar et al.
total essential amino acids. These results are in good (1994).

Table (3): Minerals content of yellow corn, rice, chickpea and sweet lupine flours (mg/100g on dry weight basis).

Phosphorus
Magnesium

Manganese
Potassium

Calcium

Sodium

(Mn)
(Mg)

Zinc
(Ca)

(Na)

Iron

(Zn)
(Fe)
(K)

(P)
Samples

Yellow corn flour 325.28 48.83 108.31 54.32 300.42 1.50 4.82 2.65
Rice flour 145.80 146.71 82.75 10.04 182.55 0.80 1.65 0.91
Chickpea
Raw 3436.29 145.38 136.67 1185.25 491.00 1.64 4.63 3.15
Germinated 2648.81 128.30 125.89 977.44 455.70 1.29 4.06 2.36
Dehulled 2065.54 69.77 105.32 913.63 425.35 1.26 3.48 2.43
Sweet lupine
Raw 987.39 232.41 172.55 174.35 315.78 1.98 4.10 3.89
Germinated 946.62 219.67 164.71 166.72 307.36 1.90 3.93 3.72
Dehulled 749.22 176.10 128.34 134.09 239.13 1.53 3.12 2.95

Table (4): Amino acid composition of chickpea and sweet lupine flour (g/100g protein)
Chickpea Sweet lupine
Amino acids
Raw Germinated Dehulled Raw Germinated Dehulled
Essential Amino Acid
Lysine 5.04 5.28 5.95 4.57 4.60 5.43
Leucine 7.40 7.44 7.59 7.00 7.21 7.62
Phenyl alanin 4.42 4.61 4.85 2.40 3.57 3.70
Threonine 3.10 3.23 3.78 3.31 3.87 3.98
Isoleucine 4.16 4.18 4.40 3.36 4.00 4.10
Valine 3.55 3.60 3.98 3.34 4.14 4.27
Methionine 1.20 1.54 2.03 1.44 1.53 2.19
Cystine 0.80 0.99 1.42 1.02 1.10 1.40
Tryptophan 0.75 0.88 1.00 0.87 0.89 0.95
Histidine 2.42 2.55 2.61 3.00 3.39 3.45
Tyrosine 1.97 2.65 3.00 3.53 4.43 4.74
Total essential amino acid 34.81 36.95 40.61 33.84 38.73 41.83
Non-Essential Amino Acid
Glutamic 17.10 17.33 17.51 16.94 17.27 17.50
Aspartic 12.34 13.18 13.86 10.73 10.96 11.35
Proline 4.35 4.75 4.87 4.60 4.78 4.87
Arginine 5.94 6.57 6.81 8.49 8.84 9.14
Glycine 3.70 4.01 4.20 4.16 4.52 4.85
Alanine 4.12 4.59 5.06 3.30 3.91 4.04
Serine 4.55 4.60 5.22 4.38 5.68 6.00
Total non-essential amino acid 52.10 55.03 57.53 52.60 55.96 58.12
Total amino acid 86.91 91.98 98.14 86.44 94.69 99.95

Antinutritional factors: acid content, it could be observed that, control samples

The antinutritional factors of raw, germinated contained considerable amounts of phytic acid being
and dehulled chickpea and sweet lupine flours are 258.55 and 235.40 mg/100 g for chickpea and sweet
shown in Table (5). From the obtained data, it could be lupine flours, respectively. Also, there was gradually
observed that, tannin levels in control samples ranged decreased in phytic acid content in germinated
from 201.24 mg/100 g in chickpea flour to 335.73 chickpea and sweet lupine flour samples. The
mg/100 g in sweet lupine flour. Germination reduced decreased in phytic acid content during germination
the tannin contents of chickpea and sweet lupine flours could be due to increase in phytase activity as reported
as previously observed by Savelkoul et al. (1992) and by Kyriakidis et al. (1998), Egli et al. (2002) and
Ghavidel and Prakash (2007). Concerning to phytic Ghavidel and Prakash (2007). After dehulling, there

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was little phytic acid and tannin detectable in activity, results presented in the same table show that,
cotyledons, indicating that most of the phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor activity was decreased by germination
tannin are present in seed coat. These results are in treatment. Similar results were obtained by Khattak et
agreement with Egli et al. (2002) and Ghavidel and al. (2007).
Prakash (2007). Concerning the trypsin inhibitor

Table (5): Effect of germination and dehulling on antinutritional factors in legume flours (mg/100 g on dry weight basis).
Chickpea Sweet lupine
Antinutrional factor
Raw Germinated Dehulled Raw Germinated Dehulled
201.24 ± 113.35 ± 60.75 ± 335.73 ± 181.89 ± 94.25 ±
Tannins
2.64 1.58 1.92 3.28 2.33 0.98
258.55 ± 121.43 ± 75.62 ± 235.40 ± 108.22 ± 73.06 ±
Phytic acid
1.20 2.42 1.74 1.09 1.46 2.12
21.80 ± 17.09 ± 12.41 ± 98.18 ± 72.41 ± 41.69 ±
Trypsin inhibitor's content
1.83 2.11 1.54 3.59 1.18 3.34
*Means of triplicate ± SD.

Bread staling: chickpea or sweet lupine flours caused a considerable

Fig. (1) Shows the staling of gluten- free improvement in bread freshness in compared to control
bread samples. It could be observed that, there was a sample. This may be due to the high water binding
gradual decrease in AWRC% (low freshness) for all capacity of legumes flour. The increased in moisture
different bread samples during storage periods. The content of bread samples makes it more tenderness,
lower reduction in staling value (high freshness) was improved in bread freshness and caused higher AWRC
noticed in bread sample which prepared by partial ration. These observations are in agreement with those
replacement of corn-rice flour with 30% of sweet obtained by Maleki et al. (1980) reported that bread
lupine and chickpea flours, respectively, since the with high moisture content was initially softer and
AWRC% reduced from 426 to 242 for bread sample retained softer up to three days of storage than did
which contained 10% chickpea flour; from 471 to 299 bread containing lower moisture. Also, Rogers et al.
for bread sample contained 20% chickpea flour and (1988) mentioned that, the higher water absorption
from 480 to 326 for bread sample contained 30% level results in a softer crumb and a slower rate of
chickpea flour after 2 days in comparison to control bread firming. In the same trend, Stauffer (2000)
sample, where its AWRC% reduced from 378 to 215 mentioned that, increasing the moisture content of
during the same storage period. These means that bread increases its shelf life by later the rate of bread
replacement of corn-rice flour by 10, 20 or 30% of firming.

Control sample
Alkaline water retention capacity (%)

600
10% Chickpea
20% Chickpea
500 30% Chickpea
10% Sweet lupine
400 20% Sweet lupine
30% Sweet lupine

300

200

100

0
0 1 2
Storge periods (days)
Fig. (1): Alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC %) of gluten-free bread prepared by partial replacement
of corn-rice flour by chickpea and sweet lupine flours.

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Rheological analysis: of chickpea flour, respectively. In the same time, the

From the results presented in Table (6). It maximum viscosity was gradually decreased with
could be observed that, with the increasing the level of increasing the levels of replacement, it was recorded
replacement of corn-rice flour with chickpea or sweet 420, 360 and 290 B.U for 10, 20 and 30% of sweet
lupine flour, the transition temperature was slightly lupine flour, respectively. In compared with 500 B.U
increased from 67.5˚C for control sample to 69.0, 72.0 for control sample.
and 75.0˚C for 10, 20 and 30% of chickpea flour, In addition, the viscosity at 50˚C was recorded
respectively. Also, the transition temperature was 870, 770 and 590 B.U for 10, 20 and 30% of chickpea
recorded 70.5, 74.0 and 76.5˚C, respectively, for 10, 20 flour, respectively. In the same time, the maximum
and 30% replacement with sweet lupine flour. In viscosity was gradually decreased with increasing the
addition, the temperature at maximum viscosity was levels of replacement, it was recorded 810, 680 and
gradually increased with increasing the transition 460 B.U for 10, 20 and 30% of sweet lupine flour,
temperature. Concerning to the maximum viscosity, it respectively. In compared with 960 B.U for control
was recorded 460, 400 and 360 B.U for 10, 20 and 30% sample. Concerning to the set-back viscosity which
of chickpea flour, respectively. In the same time, the reflected the degree of retrogradation of amylose. It
maximum viscosity was gradually decreased with could be observed that, the control sample had the
increasing the levels of replacement, it was recorded highest set-back value being 440 B.U followed by 10
430, 380 and 300 B.U for 10, 20 and 30% of sweet and 20% of chickpea and sweet lupine flour,
lupine flour, respectively. In compared with 520 B.U respectively. While, 30% sweet lupine flour had the
for control sample. Meanwhile, the viscosity at 95˚C lower set-back value being 160 B.U.
was recorded 440, 390 and 350 B.U for 10, 20 and 30%

Table (6):*Visco-Amylogram parameters of corn-rice flour and its blends with chickpea and sweet lupine flours.
Temperature at
Transition Maximum Viscosity Viscosity at
maximum Set-back
Samples temperature viscosity at 95˚C 50˚C
viscosity (B.U)
(˚C) (B.U) (B.U) (B.U)
(˚C)
Control sample 67.5 520 91.5 500 960 440
10% Chickpea 69.0 460 92.0 440 870 410
20% Chickpea 72.0 400 93.0 390 770 370
30% Chickpea 75.0 360 93.5 350 590 230
10% Sweet lupine 70.5 430 93.0 420 810 380
20% Sweet lupine 74.0 380 94.5 360 680 300
30% Sweet lupine 76.5 300 95.0 290 460 160
* on 50 g weight basis.
B.U: Barabender unit.

Sensory evaluation: which substituted with 20 and 30% substitution with

The effects of substitution of corn-rice flour chickpea or sweet lupine flour. On the other hand, there
with chickpea or sweet lupine flour on gluten-free were no significant differences (p >0.05) between
bread sensory properties and overall acceptability score control sample and bread samples which substituted
are presented in Table (7). The results in this Table with 10 and 20% chickpea or sweet lupine flour for
showed that, there were no significant differences (p bread odor, but there was significant difference (p
>0.05) in rollability and firmness of produced bread <0.05) with bread sample which substituted with 30%
between the control sample and 10, 20% level of sweet lupine flour. Also, the obtained results indicated
substitution with chickpea or sweet lupine flour. On the that, there were no significant differences (p >0.05)
other hand, significant differences (p <0.05) in between control bread sample and all bread samples for
rollability and firmness between the control sample and bread color. The total scores values were a reflection of
30% substitution level were recorded. Concerning the all the tested quality attributes and acceptability of the
dryness, no significant difference (p >0.05) was studied bread. These values were calculated from 100
recorded between control sample and bread sample as a sum of received sensory score. The results
which substituted with 10% chickpea or sweet lupine demonstrated that, the mean total score values of
flour, but there were significant differences (p <0.05) control bread sample which produced by using 100%
between control sample and bread samples contained corn-rice flour was higher than those of other samples
20 and 30% substitution level. For taste, the obtained and decreased gradually with non significant
results indicated that there were significant differences differences compared with control sample until 20%
(p <0.05) between control sample and bread sample substitution level with chickpea or sweet lupine flour.

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These results are in agreement with those obtained by Maghaydah et al. (2013).

Table (7): Sensory evaluation of fresh gluten-free bread prepared by substitution of corn-rice flour with chickpea or
sweet lupine flour.
Control Chickpea flour Sweet lupine flour
Treatments Score
sample 10 20 30 10 20 30
Rollability (10) 9.5a 9.2a 8.8a 7.3b 9.0a 8.7a 7.0b
Firmness (10) 9.0a 9.0a 8.6a 7.5b 8.8a 8.2a 6.8b
Dryness (10) 9.2a 8.8a 7.5b 6.8c 8.6a 7.3b 6.5c
a a b c a b
Taste (20) 19.2 19.0 18.2 16.5 19.0 17.8 16.0c
Odor (20) 19.5a 19.2a 19.0a 19.0a 19.3a 19.0a 18.7b
a a a a a a
Color (20) 19.5 19.5 19.5 19.2 19.5 19.2 19.0a
a a a b a a
Overall acceptability (10) 9.2 9.0 8.8 7.9 9.0 8.7 7.6b
Total Score (100) 95.1a 93.7a 90.4a 84.2b 93.2a 88.9a 81.6b
* Means followed by different letters in the same column are significantly different by Duncan's multiple test (p<0.05).

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