Quality Control CH.

10
What is Quality Control?
— A process that evaluates output relative to a standard and takes
corrective action when output doesn’t meet standards
— If results are acceptable no further action is required
— Unacceptable results call for correction action

Phases of Quality Assurance

Inspection

— Inspection issues:
1. How much to inspect and how often
2. At what points in the process to inspect
3. Whether to inspect in a centralized or on-site location
4. Whether to inspect attributes or variables

Where to Inspect in the Process

— Typical Inspection Points:
— Raw materials and purchased parts
— Finished products
— Before a costly operation
— Before an irreversible process
— Before a covering process
Centralized vs. On-Site Inspection
— Effects on cost and level of disruption are a major issue in selecting
centralized vs. on-site inspection
— Centralized
— Specialized tests that may best be completed in a lab
— More specialized testing equipment
— More favorable testing environment
— On-Site
— Quicker decisions are rendered
— Avoid introduction of extraneous factors
— Quality at the source

Statistical Process Control (SPC)

— Quality control seeks
— Quality of Conformance
— A product or service conforms to specifications
— A tool used to help in this process:
— SPC
— Statistical evaluation of the output of a process
— Helps us to decide if a process is “in control” or if
corrective action is needed

Process Variability
— Two basic questions: concerning variability:
1. Issue of Process Control
— Are the variations random? If nonrandom variation is
present, the process is said to be unstable.
2. Issue of Process Capability
— Given a stable process, is the inherent variability of the
process within a range that conforms to performance
criteria?

Variation
— Variation
— Random (common cause) variation:
— Natural variation in the output of a process, created by
countless minor factors
— Assignable (special cause) variation:
— A variation whose cause can be identified.
 — A nonrandom variation
Sampling and Sampling Distribution
— SPC involves periodically taking samples of process output and
computing sample statistics:
— Sample means
— The number of occurrences of some outcome
— Sample statistics are used to judge the randomness of process
variation

— Sampling Distribution
— A theoretical distribution that
describes the random variability of
sample statistics
— The normal distribution is commonly
used for this purpose
— Central Limit Theorem
— The distribution of sample averages
tends to be normal regardless of the
shape of the process distribution

Control Process
— Sampling and corrective action are only a
part of the control process
— Steps required for effective control:
— Define: What is to be controlled?
— Measure: How will measurement be
accomplished?
— Compare: There must be a standard of
comparison
— Evaluate: Establish a definition of out of control
— Correct: Uncover the cause of nonrandom variability and fix it
— Monitor: Verify that the problem has been eliminated

Control Charts:
The Voice of the Process
— Control Chart
— A time ordered plot of representative
sample statistics obtained from an
 ongoing process (e.g. sample means), used to distinguish
between random and nonrandom variability

— Control limits
— The dividing lines between random and nonrandom
deviations from the mean of the distribution
— Upper and lower control limits define the range of
acceptable variation

Errors
— Type I error
— Concluding a process is not in control when it actually is.
— The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when the
null hypothesis is true.
— Manufacturer’s Risk
— Type II error
— Concluding a process is in control when it is not.
— The probability of failing to reject the null hypothesis
when the null hypothesis is false.
— Consumer’s Risk

Control Charts for Variables

— Variables generate data that are measured
— Mean control charts
— Used to monitor the central tendency of a process.
— “x- bar” charts
— Range control charts
— Used to monitor the process dispersion
— R charts

Establishing Control Limits

 k

å xi k

x = i =1 å Ri
k R = i =1

w h e re k
x = A v e ra g e o f s a m p le m e a n s
w h e re
x i = m ea n o f s am p le i R = A v e ra g e o f sa m p le ra n g e s
k = n u m b er o f s am p les R i = R an g e o f sa m p le i

Factors for 3-s control limits for x, and R charts

X-Bar Chart: Control Limits
— Used to monitor the central tendency of a process

x - c h a r t C o n t r o l L im it s
U C L x
= x + A 2 R
L C L x
= x - A 2 R
w h e re
A 2 = a c o n t r o l c h a r t f a c t o r b a s e d o n s a m p le s iz e , n

Range Chart: Control Limits

— Used to monitor process dispersion

R C h a r t C o n t r o l L im it s
U C L R = D 4 R
L C L R = D 3 R
w h e re
D 3 = a c o n t r o l c h a r t f a c t o r b a s e d o n s a m p le s iz e , n
D 4 = a c o n t r o l c h a r t f a c t o r b a s e d o n s a m p le s iz e , n

Using Mean and Range Charts

— To determine initial control limits:
— Obtain 20 to 25 samples
— Compute appropriate sample statistics
— Establish preliminary control limits
— Determine if any points fall outside of the control limits
 — If you find no out-of-control signals, assume the process is
in control
— If you find an out-of-control signal, search for and correct
the assignable cause of variation
— Resume the process and collect another set of observations on
which to base control limits
— Plot the data on the control chart and check for out-of-control
signals

Control Charts for Attributes

— Attributes generate data that are counted.
— p-Chart
— Control chart used to monitor the proportion of defectives
in a process
— c-Chart
— Control chart used to monitor the number of defects per
unit
Use a p-chart:
— When observations can be placed into two categories.
— Good or bad
— Pass or fail
— Operate or don’t operate
— When the data consists of multiple samples of several observations
each

p-chart Control Limits

T o t a l n u m b e r o f d e f e c t i v e s
p =
T o t a l n u m b e r o f o b s e r v a t i o n s

p (1 - p )
U C L p = p + z ( )
n

p (1 - p )
L C L p = p - z ( )
n

Use a c-chart:
 — Use only when the number of occurrences per unit of measure can be
counted; non-occurrences cannot be counted.
— Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
— Cracks or faults per unit of distance
— Breaks or Tears per unit of area
— Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
— Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time

U C L c = c + z c
L C L c = c - z c

Managerial Considerations
— At what points in the process to use control charts
— What size samples to take
— What type of control chart to use
— Variables
— Attributes

Process Capability

— Once a process has been determined to be stable, it is necessary to

determine if the process is capable of producing output that is within
an acceptable range
— Tolerances or specifications
— Range of acceptable values established by engineering
design or customer requirements
— Process variability
— Natural or inherent variability in a process
— Process capability
— The inherent variability of process output (process width)
relative to the variation allowed by the design
specification (specification width)
Cp : Process Capability Ratio
U TL - LTL
C p =
6
w h e re
U T L = u p p e r t o l e r a n c e ( s p e c i f i c a t io n ) l im i t
L T L = l o w e r t o l e r a n c e ( s p e c i f i c a ti o n ) l im i t

• For a process to be deemed to be capable, it must

have a capability ratio of at least 1.33.
(30 parts/million are not within specifications)
• 6s has a process capability ratio of 2.
(3 parts/million are not within specifications)

Cpk : Process Capability Index

— Used when a process is not centered at its target, or nominal, value

C pk = m i n {C pu ,C pl }
ìU T L - x x - L T L ü
= m in í , ý
î 3 3 þ
Improving Process Capability
— Simplify
— Standardize
— Mistake-proof
— Upgrade equipment
— Automate

Operations Strategy
— Quality is a primary consideration for nearly all customers
— Achieving and maintaining quality standards is of strategic
importance to all business organizations
— Product and service design
— Increase capability in order to move from extensive use of
control charts and inspection to achieve desired quality
outcomes