1.

Visualization of the Silicon Crystal

2. Conductivity
3. Temperature Dependence of Semiconductor Conductivity
4. Electron and Hole Concentrations
5. The Concept of Mobility , FIELD DEPENDENCE
6. complete ionization
7. Effective masses and Fermi distribution Function
8. Energy: Density of States
9. Compounds
10. Transparent Semiconductors
11. THE DRIFT CURRENT , THE DIFFUSION CURRENT
12. continuity equation
13. p-n junction theory
14. ideal and Nonideal p-n Junction
15. The transition capacitance , The diffusion capacitance
16. photoelectric effect
17. Schottky Diode
18. solar cell
 Part (1) Solved PROBLEMS
Visualization of the Silicon Crystal

Example (1):
Write the electronic configuration of silicon has 14 electrons in its atom,
determine in which sub shell and in which orbit and how many electrons in
the highest sub shell energy.

Solution:
The electronic configuration of silicon as follows,
1S2 2S2 2p6 3S2 3p2
The highest sub shell energy lies in (M) orbit, in the sub shell (p) which
is not fully occupied , it has only 2 electrons

Example (2):
Write the electronic configuration of iodine (I) has 53 electrons in its
atom, determine in which sub shell and in which orbit and how many
electrons in the highest sub shell energy.

Solution:
The electronic configuration of iodine (I) as follows,
1S2 2S2 2p6 3S2 3p6 3D10 4S2 4p6 4D10 4F7
The highest sub shell energy lies in (N) orbit, in the sub shell (F) is not
fully occupied, it has only seven electrons

Example (3):
Write the electronic configuration of Tantalum 73 has 73 electrons in its
atom, determine in which sub shell and in which orbit and how many
electrons in the highest sub shell energy.
Solution:
The electronic configuration of iodine (I) as follows,
1S2 2S2 2p6 3S2 3p6 3D10 4S2 4p6 4D10 4F14 5S2 5p6 5D5
The highest sub shell energy lies in (O) orbit, in the sub shell (D) which
is not fully occupied, it has only 5 electrons

Example (4) :
Write the electron configuration of silicon in its following energy states
+ +2 +3
14Si . 14Si , 14Si .

Solution:
From tables, the atomic number for silicon is 14, which means, it has 14
electrons in its steady state distributed among orbits and sub shells.
Therefore, the electron configuration in the following energy states
+ +2 +3
14Si . 14Si , 14Si can be represented as,

 +
14Si has 14-1=13 electrons
1s22s22p63s23p1

 +2
14Si has 14-2=12 electrons
1s22s22p63s2

 +3
14Si has 14-3=11 electrons
1s22s22p63s1

Problem 1
The expression for the Bohr radius can also be applied to the
hydrogen-like atom consisting of an ionized donor and the
electron provided by the donor. Modify the expression for the
Bohr radius so that it applies to this hydrogen-like atom.
Calculate the resulting radius of an electron orbiting around
the ionized donor in silicon. (𝝐𝒓 = 11.9 and µe* = 0.26 µ0)

Solution
The Bohr radius is obtained from:
 𝝐𝒐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐
𝒂𝒐 =
𝒑 𝝁𝟎 𝒒𝟐
However, since the electron travel through silicon one has to
replace the permittivity of vacuum with the dielectric
constant of silicon and the free electron mass with the
effective mass for conductivity calculations so that:
𝝐𝒓 𝟏𝟏. 𝟗
𝒂𝒐 , 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒐𝒏 = 𝒂𝒐 ∗ = 𝟓𝟐𝟗 𝒙 𝒑𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟐 𝒏𝒎
𝝁𝒆 𝝁𝟎 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔

Problem 2
Electron mobility in Si is 1400 cm2 V−1s−1. Calculate the mean
free time in scattering, (Relaxationszeit) of electrons.
Effective mass is m*e/m0 = 0.33.

Solution: (1.3)
From μ = eτ/m* we get that τ = 2.6 × 10−13 s.

Problem 3
Calculate thermal velocity of electrons and holes in GaAs at
room temperature. Effective masses are m*e/m0 = 0.063 and
m*h/m0 = 0.53.

Solution:
∞ 𝟐
∫𝟎 𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (– 𝒎∗ 𝒗 ⁄𝟐 𝑲𝑻) 𝒅𝟑 𝒗 𝟖 𝑲𝑻
𝒗𝒕 = ∞ 𝟐
= √
∫𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (– 𝒎∗ 𝒗 ⁄𝟐 𝑲𝑻) 𝒅𝟑 𝒗 𝝅 𝒎∗
Thermal velocities of electrons and holes are 4.3 × 107 and
1.5 × 107 cm/s, respectively.

Problem 4
Calculate dielectric relaxation time in p-type Ge at room
temperature. Assume that all acceptors are ionized. Na = 1015
cm−3, ε = 16, μp = 1900 cm2 V−1s−1.
Solution: (1.6)
τr = ε/4 πe Na μp = 4.7 × 10−12 s.

Problem 5
Calculate dielectric relaxation time in intrinsic Si at 300 K. ε =
12, μn = 1400 cm2 V−1s−1, μn = 3.1 μp.

Solution:
In this case,
𝝐
𝝉𝒕 = = 𝟑. 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒔
𝟒 𝝅 𝒆 𝒏𝒊 (𝝁𝒏 + 𝝁𝒑 )

Problem 6
Calculate the ambipolar diffusion coefficient of intrinsic
(undoped) Ge at 300 K. μn/μp = 2.1, μn = 3900 cm2 V−1s−1.

Solution:
D = 65 cm2/s.

Problem 7
Holes are injected into n-type Ge so that at the sample
surface Δp0 = 1014 cm−3. Calculate Δp at the distance of 4 mm
from the surface if τp = 10−3 s and Dp = 49 cm2/s.

Solution:
𝑳
∆ 𝒑 = ∆𝒑𝒐 𝒙 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ) = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
√𝑫 𝒑 𝝉𝒑

Problem 8
What is the width of an infinite quantum well if the second
lowest energy of a free electron confined to the well equals
100 meV?

Solution
The second lowest energy is calculated from
𝒉𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑬𝟐 = ∗
( ) = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟎 𝑱
𝟐 𝒎 𝟐 𝑰𝒙
One can therefore solve for the width, Lx, of the well,
yielding:
𝒉 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒
𝑰𝒙 = = = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟖 𝒏𝒎
∗
√𝟐 𝒎 𝑬𝟐 −𝟑𝟏
√𝟐 𝒙𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝒐 𝒙𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟐𝟎

Problem 9
Calculate the lowest three possible energies of an electron in
a hydrogen atom in units of electron volt. Identify all possible
electron energies between the lowest energy and -2 eV.

Solution
The three lowest electron energies in a hydrogen atom can
be calculated from
𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽
𝑬𝒏 = − 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒏 = 𝟏 . 𝟐 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟑
𝒏𝟐
resulting in:
E1 = –13.6 eV, E2 = -3.4 eV and E3 = -1.51 eV
The second lowest energy, E2, is the only one between the
lowest energy, E1, and –2 eV.

Problem 9
Calculate the maximum fraction of the volume in a simple
cubic crystal occupied by the atoms. Assume that the atoms
are closely packed and that they can be treated as hard
spheres. This fraction is also called the packing density.

Solution:
The atoms in a simple cubic crystal are located at the
corners of the units cell, a cube with side a. Adjacent atoms
touch each other so that the radius of each atom equals a/2.
There are eight atoms occupying the corners of the cube, but
only one eighth of each is within the unit cell so that the
number of atoms equals one per unit cell. The packing
density is then obtained from:
𝟒 𝟑 𝟒 𝐚 𝟑
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐩𝐫 𝐩( ) 𝛒
𝟑 𝟑 𝟐
= = = = 𝟓𝟐%
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐚𝟑 𝐚𝟑 𝟔
or about half the volume of the unit cell is occupied by the
atoms. The packing density of four cubic crystals is listed in
the table below.
Radius Atoms/ Packing density
unit
cell
Simple cubic 𝒂⁄ 1 𝝆
𝟐 ⁄𝟔 = 𝟓𝟐%
Body centered cubic √𝟑 𝒂⁄ 2 𝝆√𝟑⁄
𝟒 𝟖 = 𝟔𝟖%
Face centered cubic √𝟐 𝒂⁄ 4 𝝆√𝟐⁄
𝟒 𝟔 = 𝟕𝟒%
Diamond √𝟑 𝒂⁄ 8 𝝆√𝟑⁄
𝟖 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟑𝟒%

Problem 10
Calculate the packing density of the body centered cubic,
the face centered cubic and the diamond lattice, listed in
example 2.1 p 28.

Solution
The packing density is calculated as obtained from:
𝟒
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐩 𝐫𝟑
= 𝟑 𝟑
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐚
The correct radius and number of atoms per unit cell should
be used.
A body centered cubic lattice contains an additional atom in
the middle and therefore contains two atoms per unit cell.
The atoms touch along the body diagonal, which equals √𝟑
a. The radius is one quarter of the body diagonal.
A face centered cubic lattice contains six additional atoms in
the center of all six faces of the cube. Since only half of the
atoms is within the cube the total number of atoms per unit
cell equals four. The atoms touch along the diagonal of the
faces of the cube, which equals √𝟐a . The radius is one
quarter of the diagonal.
The diamond lattice contains two face centered cubic lattice
so that the total number of atoms per unit cell equals twice
that of the face centered lattice, namely eight. The atoms
touch along the body diagonal, where two atoms are one
quarter of the body diagonal apart or √𝟑 a/4 . The radius
equals half the distance between the two atoms.
The radius, number of atoms per unit cell and the packing
density are summarized in the table below.
Radius Atoms/ Packing density
unit
cell
Simple cubic 𝒂⁄ 1 𝝆
𝟐 ⁄𝟔 = 𝟓𝟐%
Body centered cubic √𝟑 𝒂⁄ 2 𝝆√𝟑⁄
𝟒 𝟖 = 𝟔𝟖%
Face centered cubic √𝟐 𝒂⁄ 4 𝝆√𝟐⁄
𝟒 𝟔 = 𝟕𝟒%
Diamond √𝟑 𝒂⁄ 8 𝝆√𝟑⁄
𝟖 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟑𝟒%

Problem 11
Electrons in undoped gallium arsenide have a mobility of
8,800 cm2/V-s. Calculate the average time between collisions.
Calculate the distance traveled between two collisions (also
called the mean free path). Use an average velocity of 10 7
cm/s.

Solution The collision time, tc, is obtained from:

 𝒎𝒏 𝒎𝒆∗ 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕 𝒙 𝟗. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟐
𝒕𝒄 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒 𝒑𝒔
𝒒 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
𝒍 = 𝝂𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒙 𝒐. 𝟑𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 = 𝟑𝟒 𝒏𝒎

Problem 12
Calculate dielectric relaxation time in p-type Ge at room temperature.
Assume that all acceptors are ionized. Na = 1015 cm−3, ϵ = 16, µp = 1900
cm2 V−1s−1.

Solution:
𝝐
𝝉𝒓 = = 𝟒. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒔
𝟒 𝝅 𝒆 𝑵𝒂 𝝁𝒑

Problem 13
Calculate dielectric relaxation time in intrinsic Si at 300 K. ϵ = 12, µn =
1400 cm2 V−1s−1, µn = 3.1µp.

Solution:
In this case
𝝐
𝝉𝒓 = = 𝟑. 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒔
𝟒 𝝅 𝒆 𝒏𝒊 (𝝁𝒏 + 𝝁𝒑 )

Part (2) Solved PROBLEMS

conductivity
Example (1)
Calculate the conductivity and the resistivity of n-type silicon wafer
which contains 1016 electrons per cubic centimeter with an electron
mobility of 1400 cm2/Vs.

Solution:
The conductivity is obtained by adding the product of the electronic
charge, q, the carrier mobility, and the density of carriers of each
carrier type, or:
𝝈 = 𝒒 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑 𝝁𝒑 )
As n-type material contains almost no holes, the conductivity equals:
 𝝈 = 𝒒 𝒏 𝝁𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒 𝟏𝛀𝒄𝒎
The resistivity equals the inverse of the conductivity or:
𝟏 𝟏
𝝆= =
𝝈 𝒒 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑 𝝁𝒑 )
and equals ρ = 1/ σ = 1/2.24 = 0.446 Ω cm.

Example (2)
An n-type piece of silicon of length L = 10 micron has a cross
sectional area A= 0.001 cm2. A voltage V = 10 Volts applied across the
sample yielding a current I = 100 mA. What is the resistance, R of the
silicon sample, its conductivity, σ , and electron density, n?
μn= 1400 cm2/Vs

Solution The resistance of the sample equals

R = V/I = 10/0.1 = 100 Ω.
Since R = L /(σA)the conductivity is obtained from:
σ = L/(R A) = 0.001/(100 x 0.001) = 0.01 1/ Ω cm.
The required electron density is related to the conductivity by:
σ = q n μn so that the density equals:
n = σ/(qμn) = 0.01/(1.6 x 10-19x 1400) = 4.46 x 1013cm-3.

Example (3)
A silicon wafer contains 1018cm-3phosphor atoms. Using the data in
the table;
Arsenic Phosphorus Boron
𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟏
μmin(𝒎 𝑽 𝒔 ) 52.2 68.5 44.9
𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟏
μmax(𝒎 𝑽 𝒔 ) 1417 1414 470.5
-3 16 16
Ni (cm ) 9.68 x 10 9.20 x 10 2.23 x 1017
α 0.68 0.711 0.719
Calculate the resistivity and conductivity of the material. Repeat for
arsenic and boron atoms.

Solution
Plugging the values from table into the following equation,
𝝁𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝁𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝁 = 𝝁𝒎𝒊𝒏 + 𝑵
𝟏 + (𝑵 ) 𝜶
𝒊
one obtains a mobility of 277 cm2/V-sec for phosphorus-doped
material, 284 cm2/V-sec for arsenic-doped material and 153 cm2/V-sec
for boron-doped material, corresponding to a resistivity of 22.6, 22.0
and 40.9 mΩ .cm and a conductivity of 44.3, 45.4 and 24.5 1/Ω cm.

Example 4
Estimate the electrical conductivity of intrinsic silicon at 300
K, given that the electron and hole motilities are0.15 m2 /V-s
and 0.05 m2 /V-s.

Solution
The conductivity arises due to both electrons and holes
𝝈 = 𝒒 𝒏𝒊 (𝝁𝒆 + 𝝁𝒉 )
The intrinsic carrier concentration was calculated to be at
300 K. Thus
𝝈 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝛀/𝒎

Exercise 5
A sample of an intrinsic semiconductor has a band gap of 0.7
eV, assumed independent of temperature.
Taking µh = 0.5 µe and µh = 2 µe, find the relationship between
the conductivity at 200 K and300 K.

(Ans. ratio of conductivity = 2014.6 eV)

EF (300 K) - EF (200 K) = 4.33 x 10-3 eV

Example 2.9
A piece of silicon doped with arsenic (Nd = 1017 cm-3) is 100
µm long, 10 µm wide and 1 µm thick. Calculate the resistance
of this sample when contacted one each end.

Solution
The resistivity of the silicon equals:
𝟏 𝟏
𝝆= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟔 𝛀 𝒄𝒎
𝒒 𝒏 𝒎𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝒙 𝟕𝟐𝟕
where the mobility was obtained from Table . The resistance
then equals
 𝑳 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝑹= 𝝆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟔 𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟔 𝑲𝛀
𝒘𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝝆 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟔
𝑹𝒔 = = = 𝟖𝟔𝟎 𝛀/𝒔𝒒
𝒕 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
From which one then obtains the resistance:
𝑳 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝑹 = 𝑹𝒔 = 𝟖𝟔𝟎 𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟔 𝑲𝛀
𝒘 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
Problem 2.13
The resistivity of a silicon wafer at room temperature is 5
Ωcm. What is the doping density? Find all possible

solutions.
Solution Starting with a initial guess that the conductivity is
due to electrons with a mobility of 1400 cm2/V-s, the
corresponding doping density equals:
𝟏 𝟏
𝑵𝑫 = 𝒏 = = −𝟏𝟗
= 𝟖. 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒒 𝝁𝒏 𝝆 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟓
The mobility corresponding to this doping density equals
𝝁𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝁𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟐
𝝁𝒏 = 𝝁𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟔 𝒄𝒎 /𝒗𝒔
𝑵
𝟏 + ( 𝑫)
𝑵𝝆
Since the calculated mobility is not the same as the initial
guess, this process must be repeated until the assumed
mobility is the same as the mobility corresponding to the
calculated doping density, yielding:
Nd = 9.12 x 1014 cm-3 and µn = 1365 cm2/V-s
For p-type material one finds:
Na = 2.56 x 1015 cm-3 and µp = 453 cm2/V-s
Example 2.11
Calculate the electron and hole densities in an n-type silicon wafer
(Nd = 1017 cm-3) illuminated uniformly with 10 mW/cm2 of red light
(Eph = 1.8 eV). The absorption coefficient of red light in silicon is 10 -
3
cm-1. The minority carrier lifetime is 10 ms.
Solution
The generation rate of electrons and holes equals:

𝑷𝑶𝑷𝑻 −𝟑
𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝑮𝒏 = 𝑮𝒑 = ∝ = 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 𝒔−𝟏
𝑬𝒑𝒉 𝒒 𝟏. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗

Where, α is absorption coefficient, Popt illumination power , Ept is the

red light , where the photon energy was converted into Joules. The
excess carrier densities are then obtained from:

𝜹𝒏 = 𝜹𝒑 = 𝝉𝒑 𝑮𝒑 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒙 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 𝒄𝒎−𝟑

The excess carrier densities are then obtained from: So that the
electron and hole densities equal:

𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐 + 𝜹𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 + 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 𝒄𝒎−𝟑

Problem 2.14
How many phosphorus atoms must be added to decrease the
resistivity of n-type silicon at room temperature from 1 Ω−cm
to 0.1 Ω−cm. Make sure you include the doping dependence
of the mobility. State your assumptions.

Solution
Starting with a initial guess that the conductivity is due to
electrons with a mobility of 1400 cm2/V-s, the corresponding
doping density corresponding to the initial resistivity of 1
Ω−cm equals:
𝟏 𝟏
𝑵𝑫 ≅ 𝒏 = = −𝟏𝟗
= 𝟒. 𝟒𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒒 𝝁𝒏 𝝆 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏
The mobility corresponding to this doping density equals

𝝁𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝁𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝁𝒏 = 𝝁𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟒 𝒄𝒎𝟐 /𝒗𝒔
𝑵𝑫
𝟏+ ( )
𝑵𝝆
Since the calculated mobility is not the same as the initial
guess, this process must be repeated until the assumed
mobility is the same as the mobility corresponding to the
calculated doping density, yielding:
Nd,initial = 4.94 x 1015 cm-3 and µn = 1265 cm2/V-s
Repeating this procedure for a resistivity of 0.1 Ω−cm one
find the final doping density to be
Nd,final = 8.08 x 1016 cm-3 and µn = 772 cm2/V-s
The added density of phosphorous atoms therefore equals
Nd, added = 4.94 x 1015 - = 7.59 x 1016 cm-3

Problem 2.26
A piece of silicon has a resistivity which is specified by the
manufacturer to be between 2 and 5 Ohm cm. Assuming that
the mobility of electrons is 1400 cm2/V-sec and that of holes
is 450 cm2/V-sec, what is the minimum possible carrier
density and what is the corresponding carrier type? Repeat
for the maximum possible carrier density.

Solution
The minimum carrier density is obtained for the highest
resistivity and the material with the highest carrier mobility,
i.e. the n-type silicon. The minimum carrier density therefore
equals:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒏= = −𝟏𝟗
= 𝟖. 𝟗𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒒 𝝁𝒏 𝝆𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒙 𝟓
The maximum carrier density is obtained for the lowest
resistivity and the material with the lowest carrier mobility,
i.e. the p-type silicon. The maximum carrier density therefore
equals:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒑= = −𝟏𝟗
= 𝟔. 𝟗𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒒 𝝁𝒑 𝝆𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝒙 𝟐

Problem 2.27
A silicon wafer has a 2-inch diameter and contains 1014 cm-3
electrons with a mobility of 1400 cm2/V-sec. How thick
should the wafer be so that the resistance between the front
and back surface equals 0.1 Ohm?

Solution
The resistance is given by
𝑳
𝑹= 𝝆
𝑨
Where A is the area of the wafer and L the thickness, so that
the wafer thickness equals:
𝑹𝑨 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒙 𝒑 𝒙 (𝟐. 𝟓𝟒)𝟐
𝑳= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝝆 𝟒𝟒. 𝟔
The resistivity, 𝝆, was obtained from:
𝟏 𝟏
𝝆= = = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟔 𝛀 𝒄𝒎
𝒒 𝒏 𝝁𝒏 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒
Part (3) Solved PROBLEMS
Temperature Dependence of Semiconductor Conductivity

Band gap of Si depends on the temperature as

Eg = 1.17 eV − 4.73 × 10−4 T2 / T + 636 . Find a concentration
of electrons in the conduction band of intrinsic (undoped) Si
at T = 77 K if at 300 K ni = 1.05 × 1010 cm−3.

Solution: (1.2)
𝑬𝒈 𝑬𝒈
𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− 𝟑
) ≈ 𝑻 𝐞𝐱𝐩 (− )
𝑲𝑻 𝑲𝑻
Therefore,

𝟑⁄
𝑻𝟐 𝟐 𝑬𝒈 𝑻𝟐 𝑬𝒈 𝑻𝟏
𝒏𝟏 (𝑻𝟐 ) = 𝒏𝟏 (𝑻𝟏 ) ( ) 𝐞𝐱𝐩 (− + )
𝑻𝟏 𝟐 𝑲 𝑻𝟐 𝟐 𝑲 𝑻 𝟏

Putting the proper values in the formula we obtain that

ni(77K) ≈ 10−20cm−3.

5. Hole mobility in Ge at room temperature is 1900 cm2 V−1s−1.

Find the diffusion coefficient.

Solution: (1.5)
From eD = μkT, it follows that D = 49 cm2/s.

Example 2.4b
Calculate the intrinsic carrier density in germanium, silicon
and gallium arsenide at 300, 400, 500 and 600 K.

Solution
The intrinsic carrier density in silicon at 300 K equals:
− 𝑬𝒈
𝒏𝒊 (𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑲) = √𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝟐 𝑲𝑻
− 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐
= √𝟐. 𝟖𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟖𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝟐 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟖
= 𝟖. 𝟕𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒎−𝟑
Similarly, one finds the intrinsic carrier density for
germanium and gallium arsenide at different temperatures,
yielding:

Germanium Silicon Gallium Arsenide

300 K 2.02 x 1013 8.72 x 109 2.03 x 106
400 K 1.38 x 1015 4.52 x 1012 5.98 x 109
500 K 1.91 x 1016 2.16 x 1014 7.98 x 1011
600 K 1.18 x 1017 3.07 x 1015 2.22 x 1013

Example 2.2 Calculate the energy band gap of germanium,

silicon and gallium arsenide at 300, 400, 500 and 600 K.

Solution The band gap of silicon at 300 K equals:

𝒂 𝑻𝟐 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒙 (𝟑𝟎𝟎)𝟐
𝑬𝒈 (𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒌) = 𝑬𝒈 (𝟎 𝒌) − = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔𝟔 −
𝑻+𝒃 𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝟔𝟑𝟔
= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐 𝒆𝑽

Similarly, one finds the energy band gap for germanium and
gallium arsenide, as well as at different temperatures,
yielding:
Germanium Silicon Gallium
Arsenide
T = 300 K 0.66 eV 1.12 eV 1.42 eV
T = 400 K 0.62 eV 1.09 eV 1.38 eV
T = 500 K 0.58 eV 1.06 eV 1.33 eV
T = 600 K 0.54 eV 1.03 eV 1.28 eV

Problem 2.2 At what temperature does the energy band gap

of silicon equal exactly 1 eV?

Solution
The energy band gap is obtained from:
𝒂 𝑻𝟐 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒙 𝑻𝟐
𝑬𝒈 (𝑻) = 𝑬𝒈 (𝟎 𝒌) − = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔𝟔 − = 𝟏 𝒆𝑽
𝑻+𝒃 𝑻 + 𝟔𝟑𝟔
The type equation here is quadratic equation can be solved
yielding
𝑬𝒈 (𝟎 𝒌) − 𝑬𝒈 (𝑻 𝒌)
𝑻=
𝟐𝒂
𝟐 𝒃 (𝑬𝒈 (𝟎 𝒌) − 𝑬𝒈 (𝑻 𝒌))
√ 𝑬 𝒈 (𝟎 𝒌) − 𝑬𝒈 (𝑻 𝒌)
+ ( ) +
𝟐𝒂 𝒂
= 𝟔𝟕𝟗 𝑲

Problem (6)
If no electron-hole pairs were produced in germanium (Ge) until the
temperature reached the value corresponding to the energy gap, at
what temperature would Ge become conductive? (Eth = 3/2 kT)

Solution
𝟑 𝑲𝑻
𝑬𝒕𝒉 = , 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
𝟐

𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟐
𝑻= −𝟐𝟑
= 𝟓𝟓𝟔𝟓 𝑲 = 𝟓. 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒐𝑪
𝟑 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
The temperature would have to be 5.3 x 103oC, about 4400oC above
the melting point of Ge.

Example (3)
Hole mobility in Ge at room temperature is 1900 cm2 V−1s−1. Find the
diffusion coefficient.

Solution:
From eD = µkT, it follows that D = 49 cm2/s.

8. How does the reverse current of a Si p-n junction change if

the temperature raises from 20 to 50 ◦C? The same for a Ge p-
n junction. Band gaps of Si and Ge are 1.12 and 0.66 eV,
respectively.

Solution: (3.8)
Since
𝑬𝒈
𝑱𝒔 ~ 𝒏𝟐𝒊 ~ 𝑻𝟑 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ),
𝑲𝑻
we get
𝑱𝒔 (𝑻𝟐 ) 𝑻𝟐 𝟑 𝑬𝒈 𝑬𝒈
= ( ) 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− + )
𝑱𝒔 (𝑻𝟏 ) 𝑻𝟏 𝑲 𝑻𝟐 𝑲 𝑻𝟏

From here the ratios of the reverse currents in the p-n

junctions made of Ge and Si are 15 and 82, respectively.

9. Estimate temperatures at which p-n junctions made of Ge,

Si, and GaN lose their rectifying characteristics. In all cases
Na = Nd = 1015 cm−3. Assume that Eg are independent of the
temperature and are 0.66, 1.12, and 3.44 eV for Ge, Si, and
GaN, respectively. Intrinsic carrier concentrations at room
temperature are nGei = 2 × 1013, nSii = 1010, and nGaNi = 10−9
cm−3.

Solution: (3.9)
p-n junction stops working when concentrations of electrons
 and holes equalize. It happens when Nd(Na) ≈ ni = √NcNv
exp(−Eg/2kT) ≈ T3/2 exp(−Eg/2kT).
From here and the parameters given we get that the
maximum temperatures are TGe ≈ 400 K, TSi ≈ 650 K, and TGaN
≈ 1700 K. That is, only wide band gap semiconductors are
suitable for extremely applications.

Part (4) Solved PROBLEMS

Electron and Hole Concentrations
Example 2.6a
A germanium wafer is doped with a shallow donor density of
3 ni/2. Calculate the electron and hole density.

Solution
The electron density is obtained from equation
+ 𝟐
𝑵𝑫 − 𝑵−
𝑨 𝑵+
𝑫 − 𝑵−
𝑨 𝟐
𝟑 𝟗
𝒏𝒐 = √
+ ( ) + 𝒏𝒊 = 𝒏𝒊 ( + √ + 𝟏)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟏𝟔
= 𝟐 𝒏𝒊
and the hole density is obtained using the mass action law:
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝒊
𝒑𝒐 = =
𝒏𝒐 𝟐

Example 2.6b
A silicon wafer is doped with a shallow acceptor doping of 10 16
cm-3. Calculate the electron and hole density.

Solution
Since the acceptor doping is much larger than the intrinsic
density and much smaller than the effective density of states, the
hole density equals: -
𝒑𝒐 ≅ 𝑵+ 𝟏𝟔
𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎
−𝟐

The electron density is then obtained using the mass action law
 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝒏𝒐 = + = 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝑵𝑫 𝟏𝟎

Problem 2.6
Calculate the effective density of states for electrons and
holes in germanium, silicon and gallium arsenide at room
temperature and at 100 °C. Use the effective masses for
density of states calculations.

Solution The effective density of states in the conduction

band for germanium equals:
𝟑⁄
𝟐 𝒑 𝒎𝒆∗ 𝑲𝑻 𝟐
𝑵𝒄 = 𝟐 ( )
𝒉𝟐
𝟑⁄
𝟐 𝒑 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝒙 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟐
=𝟐 ( )
(𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 )𝟐
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎−𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
Where, the effective mass for density of states is used.
Similarly, one finds the effective densities for silicon and
gallium arsenide and those of the valence band, using the
effective masses listed below:

Germanium Silicon Gallium Arsenide

me/m0 0.55 1.08 0.067
Nc (cm-3) 1.02 x 1019 2.81 x 1019 4.35 x 1017
Nv (cm-3) 5.64 x 1018 1.83 x 1019 7.57 x 1018
The effective density of states at 100 °C (372.15 K) are obtain
from:
𝟑⁄
𝑻 𝟐
𝑵𝒄 (𝑻) = 𝑵𝒄 (𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒌) ( )
𝟑𝟎𝟎
yielding:
T = 100°C Germanium Silicon Gallium Arsenide
Nc (cm-3) 1.42 x 1019 3.91 x 1019 6.04 x 1017
Nv (cm-3) 7.83 x 1018 2.54 x 1019 1.05 x 1018
Problem 2.7
Calculate the intrinsic carrier density in germanium, silicon
and gallium arsenide at room temperature (300 K). Repeat at
100 °C. Assume that the energy band gap is independent of
temperature and use the room temperature values.

Solution The intrinsic carrier density is obtained from:

𝑬𝒈
𝒏𝒊 (𝑻) = √𝑵𝒄 𝑽𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− )
𝟐𝑲𝑻
where both effective densities of states are also temperature
dependent. Using the solution of Problem 2.6 one obtains
T = 300 K Germanium Silicon Gallium Arsenide
ni (cm-3) 2.16 x 1013 8.81 x 109 1.97 x 106
T = 100°C Germanium Silicon Gallium Arsenide
ni(cm-3) 3.67 x 1014 8.55 x 1011 6.04 x 108

Example 2.11
Calculate the electron and hole densities in an n-type silicon
wafer (Nd = 1017 cm-3) illuminated uniformly with 10 mW/cm2
of red light (Eph = 1.8 eV). The absorption coefficient of red
light in silicon is 10-3 cm-1. The minority carrier lifetime is 10
µs.

Solution
The generation rate of electrons and holes equals:
𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒕 −𝟑
𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝑮𝒏 = 𝑮𝒑 = 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎
𝑬𝒑𝒉 𝑨 𝟏. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
= 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 𝒔−𝟏
where the photon energy was converted into Joules. The
excess carrier densities are then obtained from
𝒅𝒏 = 𝒅𝒑 = 𝒕𝒑 𝑮𝒑 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒙 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
So that the electron and hole densities equal:
𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐 + 𝒅𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 + 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒏𝟐𝒊 (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 )𝟐
𝒑= + 𝒅𝒑 = 𝟏𝟕
+ 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒏𝒐 𝟏𝟎

Problem 2.11
A silicon wafer contains 1016 cm-3 electrons. Calculate the
hole density and the position of the intrinsic energy and the
Fermi energy at 300 K. Draw the corresponding band
diagram to scale, indicating the conduction and valence
band edge, the intrinsic energy level and the Fermi energy
level. Use ni = 1010 cm-3.

Solution The hole density is obtained using the mass action

law:
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝒑= = 𝟏𝟔
= 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒏 𝟏𝟎
The position of the intrinsic energy relative to the midgap
energy equals:
𝑬𝒄 + 𝑬𝒗 𝟑 𝒎𝒉∗ 𝟑 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏
𝑬𝒊 − = − 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ∗ = 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟖 𝒍𝒏
𝟐 𝟒 𝒎𝒆 𝟒 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖
= 𝟓. 𝟓𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝑽
The position of the Fermi energy relative to the intrinsic
energy equals:
𝑵𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟖 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟑𝟓𝟕 𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎

Problem 2.12
A silicon wafer is doped with 1013 cm-3 shallow donors and 9
x 1012 cm-3 shallow acceptors. Calculate the electron and
hole density at 300 K. Use ni = 1010 cm-3.
Solution
Since there are more donors than acceptors, the resulting
material is n-type and the electron density equals the
difference between the donor and acceptor density or:
𝒏 = 𝑵𝒅 − 𝑵𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 − 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
The hole density is obtained by applying the mass action
law:
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝒑= = 𝟏𝟐
= 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒏 𝟏𝟎
Example (1)
A Si sample at room temperature is doped with 1011As atoms/cm3.
What are the equilibrium electron and hole concentrations at 300 K?

Solution Since the NAis zero we can write,

𝒏𝒐 𝒑𝒐 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝒐 + 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒑𝒐 + 𝑵𝑫
𝒏𝟐𝒐 − 𝑵𝑫 − 𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝒐
Solving this quadratic equation results in
n0= 1.02x1011[cm-3]
and thus,
p0= ni2/ n0= 2.25x1020/ 1.02x1011
p0= 2.2x109[cm-3]
Notice that, since ND>ni, the results would be very similar if we
assumed no=ND=1011cm-3, although there would be a slight error since
NDis not much greater than ni.

Question 2:
What are the carrier concentrations and Conductivity in
intrinsic Si?[For Si: g = 1.1 eV, me* = 0.25me, mh* = 0.5me, e
= 0.15 m2V-1s-1, h = 0.05 m2V-1s-1]

Solution:
For intrinsic material ,
nc = pv = ni, Obtain ni from:
 3

 kT    
ni = 2m m  
3 2

  
* * g
4
exp
    2kT 
e h 2

For Si: g = 1.1 eV, me* = 0.25me, mh* = 0.5me

So at room temperature (T = 300K):

𝟑⁄
𝟑⁄ 𝒌 𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝒏𝒊 = 𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒆 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎𝒆 ) 𝟒𝒙 { } 𝒙
𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒙𝒉𝟐
𝟏. 𝟏 𝒆𝑽
𝐞𝐱𝐩 {− } = 𝟗. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒎−𝟑
𝟐 𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒌

Conductivity  = ncee + pveh

   = niee + nieh
𝝈 = (𝟗. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒎−𝟑 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝟐 /𝐕𝐬)
+ (𝟗. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒎−𝟑 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝟐 /𝐕𝐬)

 = (2.3  10-4) + (7.8  10-5) -1m-1
= (2.3 + 0.78) x 10-4
 = 3.1  10-4-1m-1

Comparing answers for Q1 and Q2:

doping Si with 1 part in 106 (of P) has led to an increase in 

of a factor > than 106.
Example 10 (3)
Pure germanium has a band gap of 0.67 eV. It is doped with 3 x
1021/ m3 of donor atoms. Find the densities of electrons and holes
at 300 K. (effective masses me = 0.55 mo and mh = 0.37 mo).
 Solution:
For Ge , the intrinsic concentration is
− 𝑬𝒈
⁄
𝒏𝒊 = √𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆 𝟐𝒌𝑻
From tables, we find for pure germanium
NC = 1 x 1025 and NV = 6 x 1024 , Eg = 067 eV
Substituting
−𝟎.𝟔𝟕⁄
𝒏𝒊 = √𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟔𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒆 𝟐 𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟔
Given numerical values, ni = 2.4 x 1019 / m3
The density of donor atoms is ND = 3 x 1021/m3.
Thus the electron density is given by:
𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝟐𝒅 + 𝟒 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝒏= + √ ≅ 𝑵𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝑵𝒅 >> 𝒏𝒊
𝟐 𝟒
Substituting,
𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 𝟐𝟏 )𝟐 +𝟒 (𝟐.𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 )𝟐
(𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎
𝒏= + √
𝟐 𝟒
Thus, n = 3 x 1021/m3, using 𝒏𝟐𝒊 = n p , we get for the density of
holes (2.4 x 1019)2 = 3 x 1021p , then p =(2.4 x 1019)2/3 x 1021=
p = 1.92 x 1017/m3.

Problem (4)
The resistivity of a silicon wafer at room temperature is 5 Ω
cm. What is the doping density? Find all possible solutions.

Solution:
Starting with an initial guess that the conductivity is due to
electrons with a mobility of 1400 cm2/V-s, the corresponding
doping density equals:
 𝟏 𝟏
𝑵𝑫 ≅ 𝒏 = = −𝟏𝟗
= 𝟖. 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒒 𝝁𝒏 𝝆 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟓
The mobility corresponding to this doping density equals
𝝁𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝁𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝁𝒏 = 𝝁𝒎𝒊𝒏 +
𝑵 ∝
𝟏 + ( 𝒅)
𝑵𝒓
Since the calculated mobility is not the same as the initial
guess, this process must be repeated until the assumed
mobility is the same as the mobility corresponding to the
calculated doping density, yielding: Nd = 9.12 x 1014 cm-3 and
µn = 1365 cm2/V-s. For p-type material one finds: Na = 2.56 x
1015 cm-3 and µp = 453 cm2/V-s
Nd = 9.12 x 1014 cm-3 and µn = 1365 cm2/V-s For p-type
material one finds: Na = 2.56 x 1015 cm-3 and µp = 453 cm2/V-s

Problem (5)
Consider the problem of finding the doping density, which
results in the maximum possible resistivity of silicon at room
temperature. (ni = 1010 cm-3, µn = 1400 cm2/V-sec and µp = 450
cm2/V-sec.) Should the silicon be doped at all or do you
expect the maximum resistivity when dopants are added? If
the silicon should be doped, should it be doped with
acceptors or donors (assume that all dopant is shallow).
Calculate the maximum resistivity, the corresponding
electron and hole density and the doping density.

Solution
Since the mobility of electrons is larger than that of holes,
one expects the resistivity to initially decrease as acceptors
are added to intrinsic silicon. The maximum resistivity (or
minimum conductivity) is obtained from:
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝝁𝒑⁄
𝒅 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝒏)
𝒅𝝈 𝒅 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑𝝁𝒑 )
=𝒒 =𝒒 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒏 𝒅𝒏 𝒅𝒏
Which yields,
𝝁𝒑
𝒏 = 𝒏𝒊 √ = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟓. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝝁𝒏
The corresponding hole density equals
p = 1.76 ni = 1.76 x 109 cm-3
And the amount of acceptors one needs to add equals
Na = 1.20 ni = 1.20 x 109 cm-3.
The maximum resistivity equals:
𝟏 𝟏
𝝆𝒎𝒂𝒙 = =
𝒒 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑𝝁𝒑 ) 𝒒 𝒏𝒊 (𝝁𝒏 + 𝝁𝒑 )
𝟏
= = 𝟑𝟗𝟒 𝒌𝛀. 𝒄𝒎
𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 (𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟓𝟎)

Problem (6)
The electron density in silicon at room temperature is twice
the intrinsic density. Calculate the hole density, the donor
density and the Fermi energy relative to the intrinsic energy.
Repeat for n = 5 ni and n = 10 ni. Also repeat for p = 2 ni, p = 5
ni and p = 10 ni, calculating the electron and acceptor density
as well as the Fermi energy relative to the intrinsic energy
level.

Solution:
The hole density is obtained using the mass action law:
p = ni2/n
The doping density is obtained by requiring charge neutrality
Nd - Na = n - p
The Fermi energy is obtained from:
EF - Ei = kT ln(n/ni)
yielding:
n = 2 ni n = 5 ni n = 10 ni
p ni/2 ni /5 ni/10
Nd - Na 1.5 ni 4.8 ni 9.9 ni
 EF - Ei kT ln(2) kT ln(5)) kT ln(10)

p = 2 ni p = 5 ni p = 10 ni
n ni /2 ni /5 ni /10
Nd - Na -1.5 ni -4.8 ni -9.9 ni
EF - Ei -kT ln(2) -kT ln(5) -kT ln(10)

Exercise 7
A sample of Ge at 300 K is doped with 3 x 1021/m3 of donor
atoms and 4 x 1021/m3 acceptor atoms. Find the densities of
electrons and holes at 300 K.
(answer, n = 5.76 x 1017/m3 , p = 1021/m3 )

Problem (8)
(a) The lattice constant of GaAs is 5.65 A, Determine the
number of Ga atoms and As atoms per cm3. (b) Determine
the volume density of germanium atoms in a germanium
semiconductor. The lattice constant of germanium is 5.65 A.

Solution:
𝟒
(a) 4 Ga atoms per unit cell Density= 𝟑
(𝟓.𝟔𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 )
Density of Ga=2.22×1022cm−3 4 As atoms per unit cell, so that
Density of As=2.22×1022cm−3
𝟖
(b) 8 Ge atoms per unit cell Density= −𝟖 𝟑 (𝟓.𝟔𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 )
→ Density of Ge=4.44×1022cm−3

Problem (9)
Calculate the density of valence electrons in silicon.

Solution:
Density or silicon atoms= 5×1022cm−3 and 4 valence electrons
per atom,
So Density of Valence electrons = 4 x 5×1022cm−3= 2 x
1023cm−3
Problem 10
(a) Determine the amount (in grams) of boron (B) that,
substitution ally incorporated into 1 kg of germanium (Ge),
will establish a charge carrier density of 3.091 x 1017/cm3.
(b) Draw a schematic energy band diagram for this material,
and label all critical features.

Solution
(a) The periodic table gives the molar volume of Ge as 13.57
cm3 and 1 mole of Ge weighs 72.61 g, so set up the ratio
𝟕𝟐. 𝟔𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈
=
𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟕 𝒙
and solve for x to get 187.30 cm3 for the total volume.
The addition of boron gives 1 charge carrier/B atom.
B concentration in Si must be 3.091 x 1017 B/cm3
NA of B atoms weighs 10.81 g
 𝟑.𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕
∴ 𝟑. 𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝑩 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟏 =
𝟔.𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
𝟓. 𝟓𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒈
∴ for every 1 cm3 of Ge, add 5.55 x 10–6 g
for 187.30 cm3 of Ge, add 187.30 x 5.55 x 10–6 = 1.04 x 10–3 g B

Conduction band

Eg
B+ ….…….B+ ………….. B+ 3.091X1017B ions in the band

Acceptor level for B

Valance band3.091X1017holes in the V.B

Problem (11)
The number of electron-hole pairs in intrinsic germanium (Ge) is
 𝟑⁄ − 𝑬𝒈⁄ 𝟑
given by: 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟗. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝑻 𝟐𝒆 𝟐 𝑲𝑻𝒄𝒎 (𝑬𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝒆𝑽)

(a) What is the density of pairs at T = 20°C?

(b) Will undoped Ge be a good conductor at 200°C? If so, why?

Solution
(a) Recall: T in thermally activated processes is the absolute
temperature: T oK = (273.16 + t oC); Boltzmann’s constant = k =
1.38 x 10–23 J/oK

T = 293.16K:
−𝟏𝟗
𝟏𝟓 𝟑⁄ − 𝟎.𝟕𝟐 𝒙 𝟏.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 ⁄ 𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝒏𝒊 = 𝟗. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 (𝟐𝟗𝟑. 𝟏𝟔) 𝒆𝟐 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏.𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝒙 𝟐𝟗𝟑.𝟏𝟔
𝟏𝟓 −𝟕 𝟏𝟑 𝟑
= 𝟗. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟓𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟔. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 / 𝒄𝒎

(b) 200 oC = 473.16 K

𝟑 − 𝟎.𝟕𝟐 𝒙 𝟏.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗⁄ 𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝒏𝒊 = 𝟗. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 (𝟒𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟔) ⁄𝟐 𝒆
𝟏𝟓 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏.𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝒙 𝟒𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟔
= 𝟗. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟏, 𝟎𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 / 𝒄𝒎𝟑

The number of conducting electrons (in the conduction band) at

200oC is by about five orders of magnitude less than that of a good
conductor. The material will not be a good conductor. (There are
additional factors which contribute to the relatively poor conductivity
of Ge at this temperature.)

Problem (12)
Band gap of Si depends on the temperature as
𝑻𝟐 −𝟒
𝑬𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕 𝒆𝑽 − 𝟒. 𝟕𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
𝑻 + 𝟔𝟑𝟔
Find a concentration of electrons in the conduction band of intrinsic
(un doped) Si at T = 77 K if at 300 K ni = 1.05×1010 cm−3.

Solution:
𝑬𝒈 𝑬𝒈
𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ) ≈ 𝑻𝟑 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ) , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆
𝑲𝑻 𝑲𝑻
 𝟑⁄ 𝑬𝒈 (𝑻𝟐 ) 𝑬𝒈 (𝑻𝟏 )
𝒏𝒊 (𝑻𝟐 ) = 𝒏𝒊 (𝑻𝟏 ) 𝟐 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− + )
𝟐𝑲𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑲𝑻𝟏

Putting the proper values in the formula we obtain that ni(77K) ≈

10−20cm−3.

Problem (13)
(a) Assume the mobility ratio µn / µp = b in Si is a constant
independent of impurity concentration. Find the maximum
resistivity p, in terms of the intrinsic resistivity pi at 300 K. If
b = 3 and the hole mobility of intrinsic Si is 450 cm2/V-s,
calculate ρi and pn.
(b) Find the electron and hole concentration, mobility, and
resistivity of a GaAs sample at 300 K with 5X1015 zinc
atoms/cm3, 1017 sulfur atoms/cm3, and 1017 carbon
atoms/cm3.

Problem (14)
Consider a compensated n-type silicon at T= 300 K, with a
conductivity of σ= 16 S/cm and an acceptor doping
concentration of 10I7cm-3. Determine the donor concentration
and the electron mobility. (A compensated semiconductor is
one that contains both donor and acceptor impurity atoms in
the same region.)

Exercise (2)
For a two band model of silicon, the band gap is 1.11 eV.
Taking the effective masses of electrons and holes as me =
1.08 mo and mh = o.81 mo , calculate the intrinsic carrier
concentration in silicon at 300 K. (KT=0.026 eV)

Solution:
Applying the equation
𝟑⁄
𝟏 𝟐 𝑲𝑻 𝟐 𝟑⁄ −𝚫
𝒏𝒊 = ( ) (𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝒉 ) 𝟒 𝒆 ⁄𝟐 𝑲𝑻 (𝑫)
𝟒 𝝅 𝒉𝟐
 Then,
𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 ⁄𝟐 𝟑⁄ −𝟏.𝟏𝟏⁄
𝒏𝒊 = ( ) (𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒐 𝐱 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏 𝒎𝒐 ) 𝟒𝒆 𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟔
𝟒 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒉𝟐
= 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒎−𝟑

Example (4) Carrier Concentrations

What is the hole concentration in an N-type semiconductor with 1015cm–
3
of donors? (ni is a strong function of Eg and T according to Eq. 𝒏𝒊 =
− 𝑬𝒈
⁄
√ 𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆 𝟐𝑲𝑻 , but is independent of the dopant concentration. ni at room
temperature is roughly 1010cm–3 for Si and 107cm–3 for GaAs, which has a
larger band gap than Si. For silicon, the np product is therefore 1020cm–6
regardless of the conductivity type (P type or N type) and the dopant
concentrations).

Solution: For each ionized donor, an electron is created.

Therefore, n = 1015cm–3.
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒑= = 𝟏𝟓 −𝟑
= 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒏 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎
With a modest temperature increase of 60°C, n remains the
same at 1015cm–3, while p increases by about a factor of 2300
because ni2 increases according to Eq.
− 𝑬𝒈
⁄
𝒏𝒊 = √𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆 𝟐𝑲𝑻
Example (5)
What is n if p = 1017cm–3 in a P-type silicon wafer?

Solution:
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒏= = 𝟏𝟕 −𝟑
= 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒑 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎

Part (5) Solved PROBLEMS

The Concept of Mobility , FIELD DEPENDENCE

Problem 2.28 –(1)

Electrons in silicon carbide have a mobility of 1000 cm2/V-
sec. At what value of the electric field do the electrons reach
a velocity of 3 x 107 cm/s? Assume that the mobility is
constant and independent of the electric field. What voltage
is required to obtain this field in a 5 micron thick region?
How much time do the electrons need to cross the 5 micron
thick region?

Solution:
The electric field is obtained from the mobility and the
velocity:
𝝁 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝜺= = = 𝟑𝟎 𝒌𝑽/𝒄𝒎
𝝂 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟕
Combined with the length one finds the applied voltage.
V = εL = 30,000 x 5 x 10-4 = 15 V
The transit time equals the length divided by the velocity:
tr = L/v = 5 x 10-4 /3 x 107 = 16.7 ps

1 Thermal Velocity
EXAMPLE 2
What are the approximate thermal velocities of electrons and holes in
silicon at room temperature?

SOLUTION:
Assume T = 300 K and recall mn = 0.26 m0.
1 2
3
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑛 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝐾𝑇
2 2

1⁄
3 𝐾𝑇 −23 𝐽⁄ ) 𝑥 (
300 𝐾 2
𝑉𝑡ℎ = √ 𝑚 = [(3 𝑥 1.38 𝑥 10 𝐾 𝑥 9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑘𝑔)]
0.26
= 2.3 𝑥 𝑚5 𝑚⁄𝑠 = 2.3 𝑥 107 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠
Note that 1 J = 1 kg·m2/s2. Using mp = 0.39 m0 instead of mn, one would
find the hole thermal velocity to be 2.2 × 107cm/s. So, the typical thermal
velocity of electrons and holes is 2.5 × 107cm/s, which is about 1000 times
slower than the speed of light and 100 times faster than the sonic speed.

Part (6) Solved PROBLEMS

complete ionization

8. Find Debye length in p-type Ge at 300 K if Na = 1014 cm−3.

Assume that all acceptors are ionized, ε = 16.

Solution: (1.8)
LD = 0.48 μm.

Example 2.5
Calculate the ionization energy for shallow donors and
acceptors in germanium and silicon using the hydrogen-like
model.
Solution
Using the effective mass for conductivity calculations
(Appendix 3) one finds the ionization energy for shallow
donors in germanium to be:
∗
𝒎𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐
𝑬𝒄 − 𝑬𝑫 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽 = 𝟔. 𝟒 𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝒎𝟎 𝒆𝟐𝒓 (𝟏𝟔)𝟐
The calculated ionization energies for donors and acceptors
in germanium and silicon are provided below.
Germanium Silicon
donors 6.4 meV 13.8 meV
acceptors 11.2 meV 20.5 meV
Note that the actual ionization energies differ from this value
and depend on the actual donor atom
Example (1)
A Si sample is doped with 10-4 atomic% of P donors. Assuming
complete ionization of donors at room temperature, calculate the
charge carrier concentration and conductivity at room temperature.
[For Si: ρ= 2330 kg m-3, atomic weight = 28, μe= 0.15 m2V-1s-1 , μh= 0.05
m2V-1s-1, ni= 1.5x1010carriers per cm3]

Solution:
1) Calculate the fraction of donor atoms (phosphorus atoms per
silicon atom) where NSi–number of Si atoms per unit volume
𝑵𝑫
= 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝑵𝑺𝒊
Calculate the number of silicon atoms per unit volume
𝝆 𝟐𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝒌𝒈 𝒎−𝟑
𝑵𝑺𝒊 = 𝒙 𝑵𝑨𝒗𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒐 = 𝒙 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔. 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏
𝑨𝑺𝒊 𝟐𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏
= 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝑺𝒊 − 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒎𝟑
3) Calculate the number of donors atoms (phosphorus)
𝑵𝑫 = 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒑 − 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒎𝟑

4) As NA=0 and ND>>ni, then we can safely assume that no=ND and po is
very small ~ zero
𝝈 = 𝒏𝒐 𝒙 𝒒 𝒙 𝝁𝒆
𝝈 = (𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝒑 − 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒎𝟑 ) 𝒙 (𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪) 𝒙 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏 )
𝟐𝟐

= 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝛀−𝟏 𝒎−𝟏

Example (2)
A Si sample is doped with 10-4 atomic% of P donors.
Assuming complete ionisation of donors at room
temperature, calculate the charge carrier concentration and
conductivity at room temperature. [For Si:  = 2330 kg m-3,
atomic weight = 28, e = 0.15 m2V-1s-1, Avogadro’s No= 6 x
1023]

Answer 1
 N
 10 d 6

N Si

Where NSi – number of Si atoms per unit volume

Obtain NSi from

NSi = Resistivity x Avogadro’s No. / Atomic weight

N   6  10 23

28  10 3
Si

𝟐𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝑵𝑺𝒊 = −𝟑
𝒙 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
𝟐𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎

This gives NSi = 5 × 1028 m-3

So Nd =NSi x 10-4 % = 5 × 1028 m-3 x 10-6
Nd = 5 × 1022 m-3.
Complete ionisation, n-type semiconductor:

So charge carrier concentration is

nc = Nd = 5 × 1022 m-3
(Neglect pv) , then Conductivity 
 = nc e e[hole contribution negligible]
So
 = 5 × 1022 1.6  10-19 0.15 -1m-1= 1200 -1m-1

Example (6)
Find Debye length in p-type Ge at 300 K if Na = 1014 cm−3. Assume that
all acceptors are ionized, ϵ = 16.

Solution:
LD = 0.48 µm.
9. Calculate the ambipolar diffusion coefficient of intrinsic (un doped)
Ge at 300 K. µn/µp = 2.1, µn = 3900 cm2 V−1s−1.
 Solution:
D = 65 cm2/s.

10. Holes are injected into n-type Ge so that at the sample surface ∆p0
= 1014 cm−3. Calculate ∆p at the distance of 4 mm from the surface if τp
= 10−3 s and Dp = 49 cm2/s.

Solution:
𝑳
𝚫𝒑 = 𝚫𝒑𝒐 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ) = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
√𝑫𝒑 𝝉𝒑

Problem 2.20
The expression for the Bohr radius can also be applied to the
hydrogen-like atom consisting of an ionized donor and the
electron provided by the donor. Modify the expression for the
Bohr radius so that it applies to this hydrogen-like atom.
Calculate the resulting radius of an electron orbiting around
the ionized donor in silicon. (𝝐𝒓 = 11.9 and µe* = 0.26 µ0)

Solution
The Bohr radius is obtained from:
𝝐𝒐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐
𝒂𝒐 =
𝒑 𝝁𝟎 𝒒𝟐
However, since the electron travel through silicon one has to
replace the permittivity of vacuum with the dielectric
constant of silicon and the free electron mass with the
effective mass for conductivity calculations so that:
𝝐𝒓 𝟏𝟏. 𝟗
𝒂𝒐 , 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒐𝒏 = 𝒂𝒐 ∗ = 𝟓𝟐𝟗 𝒙 𝒑𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟐 𝒏𝒎
𝝁𝒆 𝝁𝟎 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔

Example (1)
Complete Ionization of the Dopant Atoms In a silicon sample
doped with 1017cm–3 of phosphorus atoms, what fraction of the
donors are not ionized (i.e., what fraction are occupied by the
“extra” electrons)?

Solution:
First, assume that all the donors are ionized and each donor
donates an electron to the conduction band.
N = ND = 1017 cm-3
From, previous example, EF is located at 146 meV below Ec.
The donor level Ed is located at 45 meV below Ec for phosphorus
(see Table).

The probability that a donor is not ionized, i.e., the probability

that it is occupied by the “extra” electron, according to Eq. 𝒇(𝑬) =
𝟏
(𝑬− 𝑬 )
, is :
𝑭
𝟏+ 𝒆 ⁄
𝑲𝑻
𝟏
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒐𝒏 − 𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ≈
(𝑬𝒅 −𝑬𝒇 )⁄
𝟏 + 𝟏⁄𝟐 𝒆 𝑲𝑻
𝟏
= (𝟏𝟒𝟔−𝟒𝟓)𝒎𝒆𝑽⁄
= 𝟑. 𝟗 %
𝟏 + 𝟏⁄𝟐 𝒆 𝟐𝟔𝒎𝒆𝑽

(The factor 1/2 in the denominators stems from the

complication that a donor atom can hold an electron with upspin
or downspin. This increases the probability that donor state
occupied by an electron.) Therefore, it is reasonable to assume
complete ionization, i.e., n = Nd.

Ec 45m eV 146 m eV
ED
Ef

Ev
Location of EF and Ed. Not to scale.
Part (7) Solved PROBLEMS
Effective masses and Fermi distribution Function
Problem (1)

Consider the general exponential expression for the concentration of

electrons in the CB, n= Ncexp −(Ec −EF) /kT, and the mass action law,
np = ni2.
What happens when the doping level is such that n approaches Nc
and exceeds it?
Can you still use the above expressions for n and p?
Consider an n-type Si that has been heavily doped and the electron
concentration in the CB is 1020 cm-3. Where is the Fermi level?
Can you use np = ni2 to find the hole concentration?
What is its resistivity?
How does this compare with a typical metal?
What use is such a semiconductor?

Solution
Consider n = Ncexp[−(Ec − EF)/kT] (1)
2
and np = ni ( 2 )
These expressions have been derived using the Boltzmann tail
(E > EF + a few kT) to the Fermi − Dirac (FD) function f(E) as in (in the
textbook).
Therefore, the expressions are NOT valid when the Fermi level is
within a few kT of Ec.
In these cases, we need to consider the behavior of the FD function
f(E) rather than its tail and the expressions for n and p are
complicated.
It is helpful to put the 1020 cm-3 doping level into perspective by
considering the number of atoms per unit volume (atomic
concentration, nSi) ,in the Si crystal:
nat = (Density)NA / Mat
= (2.33×103 kg m-3)(6.022×1023 mol−1) (28.09 ×10-3 kg mol )
i.e.
nat = 4.995 × 1028 m-3 or 4.995 × 1022 cm-3
Given that the electron concentration n = 1020 cm-3 (not necessarily
the donor concentration!), we see that
n/nat = (1020 cm-3) / (4.995 × 1022 cm-3) = 0.00200
which means that if all donors could be ionized we would need 1 in
500 doping or 0.2% donor doping in the semiconductor (n is not
exactly Nd for degenerate semiconductors). We cannot use Equation
(1) to find the position of EF. The Fermi level will be in the conduction
band. The semiconductor is degenerate (see Figure 5Q7-1).

EFn CB

EC EC

EV VB EV
EFp

(a) Degenerate n-type semiconductor. Large number of donors form a

band that overlaps the CB.
(b) Degenerate p-type semiconductor.

Drift
m 2000
O
B 1000
I
L
I
T 100
y
(cm2 50
V-1 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
S-1) Dopant concentration (cm-3)

The variation of the drift mobility with dopant concentration in Si for

electrons and holes at 300 K.
Take T = 300 K, and µe ≈ 900 cm2 V-1 s-1 from Figure.
The resistivity is ρ = 1/(en µe)
= 1/[(1.602 × 10-19 C)(1020 cm-3)(900 cm2 V-1 s-1)]
∴ ρ = 6.94 × 10-5 Ω cm or 694 × 10-7 Ω m
Compare this with a metal alloy such as nichrome which has
ρ = 1000 nΩ m = 10 × 10-7 Ω m.
The difference is only about a factor of 70.
This degenerate semiconductor behaves almost like a “metal”.
Heavily doped degenerate semiconductors are used in various MOS
(metal- oxide- semiconductor) devices where they serve as the gate
electrode (substituting for a metal) or interconnect lines.

Problem (2)
Gold in Si has two energy levels in the band gap: EC - EA =
0.54 eV, ED – EF = 0.29 eV. Assume the third level ED– EF =
0.35 eV is inactive. (a) What will be the state of charge of the
gold levels in Si doped with high concentration of boron
atoms? Why?
(b) What is the effect of gold on electron and hole
concentrations?

Problem (3)
For an n-type silicon sample doped with 2.86x 10l6cm-3
phosphorous atoms, find the ratio of the neutral to ionized
donors at 300 K. (EC - ED) = 0.045 eV.

Example (9)
Show that
𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝑫 −𝟏
𝑵+
𝑫 = 𝑵𝑫 [𝟏 + 𝟐 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )]
𝑲𝑻
[Hint: The probability of occupancy is
𝒉 𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 −𝟏
𝑭 (𝑬) = [𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )]
𝒈 𝑲𝑻
where h is the number of electrons that can physically
occupy the level E, and g is the number of electrons that can
be accepted by the level, also called the ground-state
degeneracy of the donor impurity level (g = 2).]
Pr0blem (7)

1. (a) Derive an expression for the total number of states in a

semiconductor material (per unit volume) between Ec and
Ec + kT, where Ec is the conduction band edge (bottom of
the conduction band), k is Boltzmann’s constant and T is
the temperature. by integrating the density of states over
the energy range given in this problem.

Solution: The density of states represents the number of

states per unit volume. For this problem, we simply need
to integrate the density of states, g(E)
𝟑⁄
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎𝒆∗ 𝟐
𝒈(𝑬) = ( ) √𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄
𝟐 𝝅𝟐 𝒉𝟐

From EC to EC + KT
𝑬𝒄 +𝑲𝑻 𝟑⁄ 𝑬𝒄 +𝑲𝑻
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎∗𝒆 𝟐 𝟏⁄
∫ 𝒈𝒆 (𝑬) 𝒅𝑬 = ( ) ∫ (𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄 ) 𝟐 𝒅𝑬
𝑬𝒄 𝟐 𝝅𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝑬𝒄

𝟑⁄ 𝑲𝑻
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎∗𝒆 𝟐 𝟏⁄
= ( ) ∫ 𝒙 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟐 𝝅𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝟎

𝟑⁄
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎∗𝒆 𝟐𝟐 𝟑⁄
= ( ) (𝑲𝑻) 𝟐
𝟐 𝝅𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝟑
𝟑⁄
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎𝒆∗ 𝑲𝑻 𝟐
= ( )
𝟑 𝝅𝟐 𝒉𝟐

𝟑⁄ 𝟑⁄
𝒎𝒆∗ 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝒎∗𝒆 𝑲𝑻 𝟐
= ( ) 𝒙 ( )
𝒎𝒐 𝟑 𝝅𝟐 𝒉𝟐
 For values of,
mo = 9.11 x 10-31 kg ,
KT = 0.026 x 1.6 x 1o-19 J,
h = 1.05 x 10-34 J.s

we find:
𝑬𝒄 +𝑲𝑻
∫ 𝒈𝒆 (𝑬) 𝒅𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎−𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝑬𝒄

(b) Evaluate the expression you derived in (a) for GaAs and
Si.

Solution: For GaAs, using me=0.067 m0, we find 3.41×1017

cm−3. For Si, using me=1.08 m0, we find 2.21×1019 cm−3.

Example (3)
Silicon crystal is doped with 5 x 1020/m3 atoms per m3 . The
donor level is 0.05 eV from the edge of the conduction band.
Taking the band gap to be 1.12 eV, calculate the position of
the Fermi level at 200 K.

Solution
The intrinsic carrier concentration can be obtained from the
known carrier concentration in Si at 300 K. As the carrier
concentration at 300K is 1.5x1016/m3, the carrier
concentration at 200 K is
𝟑
𝟐𝟎𝟎 ⁄𝟐
( ) 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝐦𝟑
𝟑𝟎𝟎
As the doping concentration is much larger than ni. we can
take,
𝒏 ≈ 𝑵𝑫 = 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 /𝒎𝟑 , 𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒔
𝑬𝒏𝑭 − 𝑬𝒊𝑭 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 𝒏⁄𝒏𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟑 𝒆𝑽
Exercise (4)
Germanium has ionized acceptor density of𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 /𝒎𝟑 and
donor density of 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 /𝒎𝟑 .Taking the band gap to be 0.67
eV, calculate the equilibrium density of majority and minority
carriers at 450 K and also the Fermi energy.

[Hint: Using the intrinsic concentration at 300 K, find ni at 450

K and use the expression for n]
Ans, n = 2.02 x 1021/m3, p = 9.62 x 1017/m3, 𝑬𝒏𝑭 − 𝑬𝒊𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝒆𝑽

Problem (5)
2. Consider a silicon crystal whose band gap energy is Eg
=1.12 eV and whose temperature is kept at T=300◦K.
(a) If the Fermi level, Ef, is located in the middle of the band
gap, what is the probability of finding an electron (or
equivalently, the probability of a state being occupied) at E =
Ec + kT.

Solution: The probability is given by the Fermi-Dirac

function. Since Ef = Ec−Eg/2,
𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) =
𝑬
(𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄 + 𝒈⁄𝟐)
𝒆𝒙𝒑 [ ⁄ ]+𝟏
𝑲𝑻

As E = EC + KT , we find :
𝟏
𝒇 (𝑬𝒄 + 𝑲𝑻) =
𝑬
(𝑲𝑻 + 𝒈⁄𝟐)
𝒆𝒙𝒑 [ ⁄ ]+𝟏
𝑲𝑻

𝟏
= = 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (−𝟐𝟐. 𝟔)
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔)⁄
𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔) + 𝟏
≅ 𝟏. 𝟓𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
(b) If the Fermi level, Ef is located at the conduction band
edge, EF = Ec, what the probability of finding an electron at E
= Ec + kT.

Solution: The probability is given by evaluating the Fermi-

Dirac probability density, with Ef = Ec
𝟏
𝑭(𝑬) =
(𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄 )⁄
𝒆𝒙𝒑 [ 𝑲𝑻] + 𝟏
With E = Ec + kT we find,
𝟏
𝑭 (𝑬𝒄 + 𝑲𝑻) = ≅ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕
𝒆𝒙𝒑 (𝟏) + 𝟏

Problem (6)
The equilibrium electron concentration is given by the
product of the density of states and the probability function,
n(E) = gc (E) F(E). If E −EF>> kT, the Fermi-Dirac probability
function can be approximated with the Maxwell-Boltzmann
function
𝟏 (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 )⁄
𝒇(𝑬) = ≅ 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− 𝑲𝑻]
(𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 )⁄
𝒆𝒙𝒑 [ 𝑲𝑻] + 𝟏
(a) Using this approximation, find the energy relative to
the conduction band edge, E−Ec, at which the electron
concentration becomes maximum.

Solution:
The electron density, n(E) = g(E)f(E), can be written in the
form

𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒙 √𝒙 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (−𝒙)

Where x = (E−Ec)/kT, for purposes of finding the maxima.

Taking the derivative and setting equal to zero
 𝒅𝒏 (𝒙) 𝟏
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒙 ( − √𝒙) 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (−𝒙) = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝟐√𝒙
We find that the distribution peaks at E −Ec = kT/2.

(b) Using this approximation, calculate the electron

concentration per unit energy interval (in units of cm−3 eV−1)
in silicon at energy E = Ec −kT. Assume the Fermi level is
located at the center of the band gap, EF = Ec −Eg/2.

Solution: We want to evaluate

𝒏 (𝑬) = 𝒈(𝑬)𝒇(𝑬)
𝟑⁄
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎𝒆∗ 𝟐
( )
= ( ) √(𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄 )𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− 𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 ⁄𝑲𝑻]
𝟐 𝝅𝟐 𝒉𝟐

at E = Ec + kT for Ef = εg/2.
The result is n(Ec + kT) = g(E)f(E)
𝒏 (𝑬) = 𝒈(𝑬)𝒇(𝑬)
𝟑 𝑬𝒈
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎∗𝒆 ⁄𝟐 ( 𝑲𝑻 + ⁄ )
𝟐⁄
= ( ) √𝑲𝑻 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− 𝑲𝑻]
𝟐 𝝅𝟐 𝒉𝟐

𝒏 (𝑬) = 𝒈(𝑬)𝒇(𝑬)
𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎𝒆∗ ⁄𝟐 ( )
= 𝟐
( 𝟐 ) √𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔 ⁄𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔]
𝟐𝝅 𝒉
= 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 𝒆𝑽−𝟏
Repeat the calculation in (b) without using the
approximation.

Solution: The answer is really close, to within a part in

roughly 10−10.

Problem (7)
If a silicon sample is doped with 1016 phosphorous
impurities/cm3, find the ionized donor density at 77 K.
Assume that the ionization energy for phosphorous donor
impurities and the electron effective mass are independent of
temperature. (Hint: First select a N+D value to calculate the
Fermi level, then find the corresponding N+D . If they don’t
agree, select another N+D value and repeat the process until a
consistent N+D is obtained.)

Problem (8)

Using graphic method to determine the Fermi level for a

boron-doped silicon sample with an impurity concentration
of 1015 cm-3 at 300 K (note ni = 9.65x104 crn-3).

Problem (9)
The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is given by
𝟏
𝒇 (𝑬) =
(𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 )⁄
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝑲𝑻
The differentiation of F(E) with respect to energy is F’(E).
𝟏
Find the width of F’(E), i.e., 𝟐 [𝑬 (𝒂𝒕 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) − 𝑬 (𝒂𝒕 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 )],
𝟐
where 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 is the maximum value of F‘(E).

Problem (10)
Find the position of the Fermi level with respect to the
bottom of the conduction band (Ec– EF) for a silicon sample
at 300 K, which is doped with 2x 1010cm-3 fully ionized
donors.

Problem (11)
The Gamma Function is defined as
𝒏
𝚪(𝒏) = ∫ 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (−𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
𝟎
(a) Find 𝚪(1/2), and (b) show that 𝚪(n) = (n - I)𝚪(n - I).
Example 1.5
Calculate the energy relative to the Fermi energy for which
the Fermi function equals 5%. Write the answer in units of kT.

Solution:
The problems states that
𝟏
𝒇 (𝑬) = 𝑬− 𝑬𝑭
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝑲𝑻
Which can be solved yielding?
𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 = 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏𝟗) 𝑲𝑻 = 𝟑 𝑲𝑻

Problem 1.9
Prove that the probability of occupying an energy level below
the Fermi energy equals the probability that an energy level
above the Fermi energy and equally far away from the Fermi
energy is not occupied.

Solution
The probability that an energy level with energy ∆E below the
Fermi energy EF is occupied can be rewritten as:
𝚫𝑬
𝟏 𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝑲𝑻
𝒇(𝑬𝑭 − 𝚫 𝑬) = 𝑬𝑭 − 𝚫𝑬− 𝑬𝑭 = 𝚫𝑬
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝒆𝒙𝒑 +𝟏
𝑲𝑻 𝑲𝑻
𝟏 𝟏
=𝟏− 𝚫𝑬 = 𝟏 − 𝑬 +𝚫𝑬− 𝑬𝑭
𝒆𝒙𝒑 +𝟏 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝑭
𝑲𝑻 𝑲𝑻
(
= 𝟏 − 𝒇 𝑬𝑭 + 𝚫 𝑬 )
so that it also equals the probability that an energy level with
energy ∆E above the Fermi energy, EF, is not occupied.

Problem 2.3
Prove that the probability of occupying an energy level below
the Fermi energy equals the probability that an energy level
above the Fermi energy and equally far away from the Fermi
energy is not occupied.

Solution
The probability that an energy level with energy ∆E below the
Fermi energy EF is occupied can be rewritten as
∆𝑬
𝟏 𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝑲𝑻
𝒇 (𝑬𝑭 ∆𝑬) = 𝑬𝑭 − ∆𝑬− 𝑬𝑭
= ∆𝑬
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝒆𝒙𝒑 +𝟏
𝑲𝑻 𝑲𝑻
𝟏 𝟏
=𝟏− ∆𝑬 = 𝟏 − (
𝑬𝑭 − ∆𝑬− 𝑬𝑭 = 𝟏 − 𝒇 𝑬𝑭 + ∆ 𝑬
)
𝒆𝒙𝒑 +𝟏 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝑲𝑻 𝑲𝑻
so that it also equals the probability that an energy level with
energy ∆E above the Fermi energy, EF, is not occupied.

Problem 2.4 At what energy (in units of kT) is the Fermi

function within 1 % of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
function? What is the corresponding probability of
occupancy?

Solution
The Fermi function can be approximated by the
MaxwellBoltzmann distribution function with an approximate
error of 1 % if
𝒇𝒎𝑩 − 𝒇𝑭𝑩 𝟏 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝒐𝒓 =
𝒇𝑭𝑫 𝒇𝑭𝑫 𝒇𝒎𝑩
using x = (E - EF)/kT,
this condition can be rewritten as:
1 + exp (x) = 1.01 exp(x)
from which one finds
x = ln(100) = 4.605
so that
E = EF + 4.605 kT
and fFD(EF + 4.605 kT) = 0.0099

Problem 2.5
Calculate the Fermi function at 6.5 eV if EF = 6.25 eV and T =
300 K. Repeat at T = 950 K assuming that the Fermi energy
does not change. At what temperature does the probability
that an energy level at E = 5.95 eV is empty equal 1 %.

Solution The Fermi function at 300 K equals:

𝟏
𝒇(𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝒆𝑽) = 𝟔.𝟓−𝟔.𝟐𝟓
= 𝟔. 𝟐𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟖
The Fermi function at 950 K equals:
𝟏
𝒇(𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝒆𝑽) = 𝟔.𝟓−𝟔.𝟐𝟓
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟓
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟖
The probability that the Fermi function equals 1 % implies:
𝟏
𝒇(𝟓. 𝟗𝟓 𝒆𝑽) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 =
𝟓.𝟗𝟓−𝟔.𝟐𝟓
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( 𝑲𝑻 )
⁄𝒒
resulting in
𝒒
𝟎. 𝟑
𝑲
𝑻= 𝟏
= 𝟒𝟖𝟒. 𝟕 𝒐𝑪
𝒍𝒏 ( − 𝟏)
𝟎.𝟗𝟗

Example 2.7
A piece of germanium doped with 1016 cm-3 shallow donors is
illuminated with light generating 1015 cm-3 excess electrons
and holes. Calculate the quasi-Fermi energies relative to the
intrinsic energy and compare it to the Fermi energy in the
absence of illumination.

Solution
The carrier densities when illuminating the semiconductor
are: -
𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐 + 𝒅𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 + 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒑 = 𝒑𝒐 + 𝒅𝒑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
and the quasi-Fermi energies are:
𝒏 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝑭𝒏 − 𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒙 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟑 𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝒊 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑
𝒏 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝑭𝒑 − 𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒙 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝒊 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑
In comparison, the Fermi energy in the absence of light
equals
𝒏𝒐 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝑭𝑭 − 𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒙 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟏 𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝒊 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑
which is very close to the quasi-Fermi energy of the majority
carriers.

Problem 2.8
Calculate the position of the intrinsic energy level relative to
the midgap energy Emid gap = (Ec + Ev)/2 in germanium, silicon
and gallium arsenide at 300 K. Repeat at T = 100 °C.

Solution:
The intrinsic energy level relative to the midgap energy is
obtained from:
𝟑 𝒎𝒉∗
𝑬𝒊 = 𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒅 𝒈𝒂𝒑 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ∗
𝟒 𝒎𝒆
where the effective masses are the effective masses for
density of states calculations as listed in the table below. The
corresponding values of the intrinsic level relative to the
midgap energy are listed as well.

45.92 meV Germanium Silicon Gallium arsenide

me*/m0 0.55 1.08 0.067
mh*/m0 0.37 0.81 0.45
T = 300 K 7.68 meV 5.58 meV 36.91 meV
T = 100 C 9.56 meV 6.94 meV 45.92 meV

Problem 2.9
Calculate the electron and hole density in germanium, silicon
and gallium arsenide if the Fermi energy is 0.3 eV above the
intrinsic energy level. Repeat if the Fermi energy is 0.3 eV
below the conduction band edge. Assume that T = 300 K.

Solution
The electron density, n, can be calculated from the Fermi
energy using:
𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒊 𝟎. 𝟑
𝒏 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆𝒙𝒑 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝑲𝑻 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟖
and the corresponding hole density equals
𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝒑=
𝒏
the resulting values are listed in the table below.

If the Fermi energy is 0.3 eV below the conduction band

edge, one obtains the carrier densities using:
𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒄 𝟎. 𝟑
𝒏 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝑲𝑻 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟖
and the corresponding hole density equals:
𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝒑=
𝒏
the resulting values are listed in the table below.
Germanium Silicon Gallium
Arsenide
 ni (cm-3) 2.03 x 1013 1.45 x 1010 2.03 x 106
Nc (cm-3) 1.02 x 1019 6.62 x 1019 4.37 x 1017
EF - Ei n (cm- 2.24 x 1018 1.60 x 1015 2.23 x 1011
= 0.3 eV p (cm-3) 1.48 x 108 1.32 x 105 18.4
EF - Ei n (cm-3) 9.27 x 1013 6.02 x 1014 3.97 x 1012
= - 0.3 eV p (cm-3) 4.45 x 1012 3.50 x 105 1.04

Problem 2.10
The equations
𝟐
𝑵+ −
𝒅 − 𝑵𝒂 𝑵+
𝒅 − 𝑵−
𝒂
𝒏𝒐 = + √( ) + 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝑵𝒂− − 𝑵+
𝒅 𝑵𝒂− − 𝑵+
𝒅
𝒑𝒐 = + √( ) + 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝟐 𝟐

are only valid for non-degenerate semiconductors (i.e. Ev +

3kT < EF<Ec - 3kT). Where exactly in the derivation was the
assumption made that the semiconductor is non-
degenerate?

Solution
The above two Equations were derived using charge
neutrality and the mass action law. Of those two
assumptions, the use of the mass action law implies that the
semiconductor is nondegenerate.
The mass action law was
∞
𝟖 𝝅 √𝟐 ∗𝟑⁄𝟐 (𝑬𝑭 −𝑬) (𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒄 )
𝒏𝒐 ≅ ∫ 𝟑
𝝁𝒆 √𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄 𝒆 𝑲𝑻 𝒅𝑬 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆 𝑲𝑻
𝑬𝒄 𝒉
𝟑
𝟐 𝝅𝝁∗𝒆 𝑲𝑻 ⁄𝟐
𝑵𝒄 = 𝟐 ( )
𝒉𝟐
These equations, representing a closed form solution for the
thermal equilibrium carrier densities as a function of the
Fermi energy, were in turn obtained by solving the Fermi
integral and assuming that:
Ev + 3kT < EF<Ec - 3kT
i.e. that the Fermi energy must be at least 3kT away from
either bandedge and within the bandgap.
Problem 2.31
Find the equilibrium electron and hole concentrations and
the location of the Fermi energy relative to the intrinsic
energy in silicon at 27 oC, if the silicon contains the following
concentrations of shallow dopants.
a) 1 x 1016 cm-3 boron atoms
b) 3 x 1016 cm-3 arsenic atoms and 2.9 x 1016 cm-3 boron
atoms.

Solution
a) Boron atoms are acceptors, therefore Na = 1016 cm-3 Since
these are shallow acceptors and the material is not
compensated, degenerate or close to intrinsic, the hole
density equals the acceptor density: p ≈ 1016 cm-3 Using the
mass action law we then find the electron density n = n2i/p =
1 x 104 cm-3 The Fermi energy is then obtained from:
𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟒
𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒏 = −𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎
b)
Arsenic atoms are donors, therefore Na = 2.9 x 1016 cm-3 and
Nd = 3 x 1016 cm-3 Since these are shallow acceptors and the
material is not degenerate or close to intrinsic, the electron
density approximately equals the difference between the
donor and acceptor density n ≈ Nd – Na = 1015 cm-3 Using the
mass action law we then find the hole density p = n2i/n = 1 x
105 cm-3 The Fermi energy is then obtained from:
𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎
 Example (2) 1–2
Oxygen Concentration versus Altitude , We all know that there
is less oxygen in the air at higher altitudes. What is the ratio of
the oxygen concentration at 10 km above sea level, Nh, to the
concentration at sea level, N0, assuming a constant temperature
of 0°C?

SOLUTION: There are fewer oxygen molecules at higher

altitudes because the gravitational potential energy of an oxygen
molecule at the higher altitude, Eh, is larger than at sea level, E0.
According to Equation
−(𝑬− 𝑬𝑭 )⁄
𝒇(𝑬) ≈ 𝒆 𝑲𝑻

𝑬
− 𝒈⁄𝑲𝑻
𝑵𝒉 𝒆 𝑬 − 𝑬𝟎⁄
−( 𝒉
= = 𝒆 𝑲𝑻)
𝑵𝟎 𝑬 𝟎
𝒆− ⁄𝑲𝑻

E0 –Eh is the potential energy difference, i.e., the energy needed

to lift an oxygen molecule from sea level to 10 km.
Eh E0= altitude x weight of O2 molecule x acceleration of gravity
= 104 m x O2 molecular weight atomic mass unit x 9.8 m s-2
= 104 m x 32 x1.66 x1027 kgx 9.8 m s-2= 5.2 x 10-21 J
𝑵𝒉 − 𝟓.𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏⁄
∴ = 𝒆 𝟏.𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝑱. 𝑲−𝟏 𝒙 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑲 = 𝒆−𝟏.𝟑𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
𝑵𝟎

Therefore, the oxygen concentration at 10 km is 25% of the sea

level concentration. This example and the sand-in-a-dish analogy
presented to demystify the concept of equilibrium, and to
emphasize that each electron energy state has a probability
occupied that governed by the Fermi function.

Example (3)
Finding the Fermi Level in Si Where is EF located in the energy
band of silicon, at 300K with n = 1017cm–3? In addition, for p =
1014cm–3?

Solution:
From Eq.
−(𝑬𝒄 −𝑬𝑭 )⁄
𝒏 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆 𝑲𝑻
𝑵𝒄⁄
𝑬𝒄 − 𝑬𝒇 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( 𝒏)
𝟏𝟗
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝒍𝒏 (𝟐. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 ⁄ 𝟏𝟕 ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝒆𝑽
𝟏𝟎
Therefore, EF is located at 146 meV below Ec, as shown in
Figure. For p = 1014cm–3, from Equation,
𝑵
𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒗 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( 𝒗⁄𝒑)
𝟏𝟗
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏. 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 ⁄ 𝟏𝟒 ) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝒆𝑽
𝟏𝟎
Therefore, EF is located at 0.31 eV above Ev.

0.146 Ec
EF

EF 0.31
Ev

Example (1)
Complete Ionization of the Dopant Atoms In a silicon sample
doped with 1017cm–3 of phosphorus atoms, what fraction of the
donors are not ionized (i.e., what fraction are occupied by the
“extra” electrons)?

Solution:
First, assume that all the donors are ionized and each donor
donates an electron to the conduction band.
N = ND = 1017 cm-3
From, previous example, EF is located at 146 meV below Ec.
The donor level Ed is located at 45 meV below Ec for phosphorus
(see Table).
 The probability that a donor is not ionized, i.e., the probability
that it is occupied by the “extra” electron, according to Eq. 𝒇(𝑬) =
𝟏
(𝑬− 𝑬 )
, is :
𝑭
𝟏+ 𝒆 ⁄
𝑲𝑻
𝟏
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒐𝒏 − 𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ≈
(𝑬𝒅 −𝑬𝒇 )⁄
𝟏 + 𝟏⁄𝟐 𝒆 𝑲𝑻
𝟏
= (𝟏𝟒𝟔−𝟒𝟓)𝒎𝒆𝑽⁄
= 𝟑. 𝟗 %
𝟏
𝟏 + ⁄𝟐 𝒆 𝟐𝟔𝒎𝒆𝑽

(The factor 1/2 in the denominators stems from the

complication that a donor atom can hold an electron with upspin
or downspin. This increases the probability that donor state
occupied by an electron.) Therefore, it is reasonable to assume
complete ionization, i.e., n = Nd.

Ec 45m eV 146 m eV
ED
Ef

Ev
Location of EF and Ed. Not to scale.

Part (8) Solved PROBLEMS

Energy: Density of States
Example 2.3
Calculate the number of states per unit energy in a 100 by
100 by 10 nm piece of silicon (m* = 1.08 m0) 100 meV above
the conduction band edge. Write the result in units of eV-1.
Solution
The density of states equals:
𝟖 𝒑 √𝟐 ∗𝟑⁄
𝒈(𝑬) = 𝒎 𝟐 √𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄
𝒉𝟑
𝟑
𝟖 𝒑 √𝟐(𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 𝒙 𝟗. 𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 ) ⁄𝟐
= − 𝟑𝟒 𝟐
√𝟎. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
(𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 )
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝒎−𝟑 𝑱−𝟏
So that the total number of states per unit energy equals
𝒈 (𝑬) 𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟐 𝑱−𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒆𝑽−𝟏

Example (7)
Derive the density of states in the conduction band as given
by Eq.
𝟑⁄ 𝟏⁄
√𝟐 𝒎𝒅𝒆𝟐 (𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄 ) 𝟐
𝑵 (𝑬)𝑴𝒄 𝟐
𝝅 𝒉𝟑
(Hint: The wavelength ʎ of a standing wave is related to the
length of the semiconductor L by vʎ = nx where nx is an
integer. The wavelength can be expressed by de Broglie
hypothesis ʎ = h/px. Consider a three-dimensional cube of
side L)

Example (8)
10. Calculate the average kinetic energy of electrons in the
conduction band of an n-type non- degenerate
semiconductor. The density of states is given by Eq.
𝟑⁄ 𝟏⁄
√𝟐 𝒎𝒅𝒆𝟐 (𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄 ) 𝟐
𝑵 (𝑬)𝑴𝒄 𝟐
𝝅 𝒉𝟑

Exercise (1 )
Derive the expression.
 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎𝒉 𝑲𝑻 ⁄𝟐 (𝑬𝒗− 𝑬𝑭)⁄ (𝑬𝒗 − 𝑬𝒄𝑭 )⁄
𝒑= ( ) 𝒆 𝑲𝑻 = 𝑵𝒗 𝒆 𝑲𝑻
𝟒 𝝅 𝒉𝟐
For an intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in
the conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the
valence band since a hole is left in the valence band only
when an electron makes a transition to the conduction band,
n=p
Using this and assuming that the effective masses of the
electrons and holes are the same one gets,
(𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒄 )⁄ (𝑬𝒗 − 𝑬𝑭 )⁄
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆 𝒌𝑻

Conduction Band

EC
Energy

Fermi Level

EV
Valance Band

Giving :
𝑬𝑪 + 𝑬𝑽
𝑬𝑭 = (𝑪)
𝟐
i.e. the Fermi level lies in the middle of the forbidden gap.
Note that there is no contradiction with the fact that no state
exists in the gap as is only an energy level and not a state.
By substituting the above expression for Fermi energy in(A)
or (B),
𝟑⁄
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎𝒆 𝑲𝑻 𝟐 (𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝑪 )⁄ (𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒄 )⁄
𝒏= ( ) 𝒆 𝑲𝑻 = 𝑵𝑪 𝒆 𝑲𝑻 (𝑨)
𝟒 𝝅 𝒉𝟐
 𝟑⁄
𝟏 𝟐 𝒎𝒉 𝑲𝑻 𝟐 (𝑬𝒗 − 𝑬𝑭 )⁄ (𝑬𝒗 − 𝑬𝒄𝑭 )⁄
𝒑= ( ) 𝒆 𝑲𝑻 = 𝑵𝒗 𝒆 𝑲𝑻 (𝑩)
𝟒 𝝅 𝒉𝟐

We obtain an expression for the number density of electrons

or holes (n = p = ni)
𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝑲𝑻 ⁄𝟐 𝟑⁄ −𝚫
𝒏𝒊 = ( ) (𝒎 𝒆 𝒎𝒉 ) 𝟒 𝒆 ⁄𝟐 𝑲𝑻 (𝑫)
𝟒 𝝅 𝒉𝟐
Where Δ is the width of the gap

Example 2.4
Calculate the effective densities of states in the conduction
and valence bands of germanium, silicon and gallium
arsenide at 300 K.

Solution
The effective density of states in the conduction band of
germanium equals:
𝟑⁄
𝟐 𝒑 𝒎𝒆∗ 𝑲𝑻 𝟐
𝑵𝒄 = 𝟐 ( )
𝒉𝟐
𝟑⁄
−𝟑𝟏 −𝟐𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝒑 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝒙 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎
=𝟐 ( )
(𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 )𝟐
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎−𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
where the effective mass for density of states was. Similarly,
one finds the effective density of states in the conduction
band for other semiconductors and the effective density of
states in the valence band:

Germanium Silicon Gallium Arsenide

-3
Nc (cm ) 1.02 x 1019 2.81 x 1019 4.35 x 1017
Nv (cm-3) 5.64 x 1018 1.83 x 1019 7.57 x 1018
Note that the effective density of states is temperature
dependent and can be obtain from:
 𝟑
𝑻 ⁄𝟐
𝑵𝒄 (𝑻) = 𝑵𝒄 (𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑲) ( )
𝟑𝟎𝟎
where Nc(300 K) is the effective density of states at 300 K.

Part (9) Solved PROBLEMS

Compounds
Problem (1)
Consider the GaAs crystal at 300 K.
a. Calculate the intrinsic conductivity and resistivity.
b. In a sample containing only 1015 cm-3 ionized donors, where is the
Fermi level? What is the conductivity of the sample?
c. In a sample containing 1015 cm-3 ionized donors and 9 × 1014 cm-3
ionized acceptors, what is the free hole concentration?

Solution:
a - Given temperature, T = 300 K, and intrinsic GaAs.
From Tables,
ni = 1.8 × 106 cm-3, µe ≈ 8500 cm2 V-1 s-1 and µh ≈ 400 cm2 V-1 s-1.
Thus, σ = eni( µe + µh)
∴σ = (1.602 × 10-19 C)(1.8 × 106 cm-3)(8500 cm2 V-1 s-1 + 400 cm2 V-1 s-1)
∴σ = 2.57 × 10-9Ω-1 cm-1
∴ρ = 1/ σ = 3.89 × 108Ω cm

B - Donors are
now introduced.
At room temperature, n = Nd = 1015 cm-3>>ni>> p.
σ n = eNdµe≈(1.602 ×10-19 C)(1015 cm-3)(8500 cm2 V-1 s-1) = 1.36 Ω-1 cm-
1
∴ρn = 1/ σn = 0.735 Ω cm
In the intrinsic sample,
EF = EFi, ni = Ncexp[−(Ec − EFi)/kT] (1)
In the doped sample,
n = Nd, EF = E=, n = Nd = Ncexp[−(Ec − EFn)/kT] (2)
Eqn. (2) divided by Eqn. (1) gives,
Nd/ni = exp (EFn − EFi)/ kT ( 3 )
∴∆EF = EFn − EFi = kT ln(Nd/ni) (4)
Substituting we find,
∆EF = (8.617 × 10-5 eV/K)(300 K)ln[(1015 cm-3)/(1.8 × 106 cm-3)]
∴∆EF = 0.521 eV above EFi (intrinsic Fermi level)

c The sample is further doped with Na = 9 × 1014 cm-3 = 0.9 × 1015 cm-3
acceptors. Due to compensation, the net effect is still an n-type
semiconductor but with an electron concentration given by,
n = Nd − Na = 1015 cm-3 − 0.9 × 1015 cm-3 = 1 × 1014 cm-3 (>>ni)
The sample is still n-type though there are less electrons than before
due to the compensation effect. From the mass action law, the hole
concentration is:
p = ni2 / n = (1.8 × 106 cm-3)2 / (1 × 1014 cm-3) = 0.0324 cm-3
On average there are virtually no holes in 1 cm3 of sample. We can
also calculate the new conductivity. We note that electron scattering
now occurs from Na + Nd number of ionized centers though we will
assume that
µe ≈ 8500 cm2 V-1 s-1.
σ = en µe≈ (1.602 × 10-19 C)(1014 cm-3)(8500 cm2 V-1 s-1) = 0.136 Ω-1 cm-1

Problem (2)
AlN and GaSb are compounds, solid at room temperature. On the
basis of bonding considerations and data provided in the periodic
table, attempt to predict differences in the properties of these solids.
Solution
Both compounds are of the III–V family, which hybridize and form
“adamantine” (diamond–like) structures which places them into the
category of semiconductor.
AlN ΔEN = 1.43. The covalent radii of the constituents are small and,
combined with the large EN, the bonds (polar covalence’s) are very
strong – the semiconductor is expected to exhibit a large band gap
(likely transparent).
GaSb ΔEN = 0.24. The covalent radii of both constituents are
significantly larger (than those of AlN), the ionic contribution to
bonding is small – the semiconductor is expected to exhibit a much
smaller band gap than AlN.
AlN: Eg = 3.8 eV ,GaSb: Eg = 0.8 eV
Problem (4)
Calculate thermal velocity of electrons and holes in GaAs at room
temperature. Effective masses are m∗e/m0 = 0.063 and m∗h/m0 = 0.53.

Solution:
∞ ∗ 𝟐
∫𝟎 𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− 𝒎 𝒗 ⁄𝟐𝑲𝑻) 𝒅𝟑 𝒗 𝟖𝑲𝑻
𝒗𝒕 = ∗ 𝟐
= √
∞
∫𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− 𝒎 𝒗 ⁄𝟐𝑲𝑻) 𝒅𝟑 𝒗 𝝅 𝒎∗

Thermal velocities of electrons and holes are 4.3×107 and 1.5×107

cm/s, respectively.

Part (10) Solved PROBLEMS

Transparent Semiconductors

1. Which of the following semiconductors are transparent,

partially transparent, nontransparent for visible light (λ = 0.4
– 0.7 μm): Si, GaAs, GaP, and GaN?

Solution: (1.1)
1. It follows from Table 2 that Si and GaAs are not
transparent, GaP is partially transparent, and GaN is
transparent for the visible light.

Problem (3)
1. Which of the following semiconductors are transparent, partially
transparent, non transparent for visible light (λ = 0.4–0.7 µm): Si,
GaAs, GaP, and GaN?

Solution:
1. It follows from Table 2 that Si and GaAs are not transparent, GaP is
partially transparent, and GaN is transparent for the visible light.
 Example (1) Measuring the Band-Gap Energy if a
semiconductor is transparent to light with a wavelength longer
than 0.87 µm, what is its band-gap energy?

SOLUTION: Photon energy of light with 0.87 µm wavelength is,

with c being the speed of light
𝒄 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 (𝒋. 𝒔) 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
𝒉𝒗= 𝒉 =
𝝀 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕 𝝁𝒎
−𝟏𝟗
𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒋 𝝁𝒎
=
𝒐. 𝟖𝟕 𝝁𝒎
𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒆𝑽 𝝁𝒎
=
𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝒐. 𝟖𝟕 𝝁𝒎

𝟏. 𝟐𝟒 𝒆𝑽 𝝁𝒎
= = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝒆𝑽
𝒐. 𝟖𝟕 𝝁𝒎

Therefore, the band gap of the semiconductor is 1.42 eV. The

semiconductor is perhaps GaAs (Table).

Band-gap energies of selected semiconductors.

Semiconductor InSb Ge Si GaAs GaP ZnSe Diamond
Eg (eV) 0.18 0.67 1.12 1.42 2.25 2.7 6.0
Part (11) Solved PROBLEMS
THE DRIFT CURRENT , THE DIFFUSION CURRENT
Example 1.5
Calculate the built-in potential barrier of a pn junction. Consider a
silicon pn junction at T = 300 K, doped at Na = 1016 cm−3 in the p-region
and Nd = 1017cm−3 in the n-region.

Solution:
We have ni = 1.5 × 1010cm−3 for silicon at room temperature. We then
find
𝐍𝐝 𝐧𝐀 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕
𝐕𝐛𝐢 = 𝐕𝐓 𝐥𝐧 ( 𝟐 ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝐥𝐧 [ ] = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟕 𝐕
𝐧𝐢 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 )𝟐
Comment: Because of the log function, the magnitude of Vbi is not a
strong function of the doping concentrations. Therefore, the value of
Vbi for silicon pn junctions is usually within 0.1 to 0.2 V of this
calculated value.

Exercise 1.5
Calculate Vbi for a GaAs pn junction at T = 300 K for Na = 1016 cm−3 and
Nd = 1017 cm−3 (b) Repeat part (a) for a Germanium pn junction with the
same doping concentrations.

Solution: (a) Vbi = 1.23 V, (b) Vbi = 0.374 V).

Example 2.10
The hole density in an n-type silicon wafer (Nd = 1017 cm-3)
decreases linearly from 1014 cm-3 to 1013 cm-3 between x = 0
and x = 1 µm. Calculate the hole diffusion current density.

Solution
The hole diffusion current density equals:
𝟏𝟑
𝒅𝒑 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
𝑱𝒑 = 𝒒 𝑫𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟖. 𝟐 𝒙 −𝟒
= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝑨/𝒎𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝟏𝟎
 𝟐
𝑫𝒑 = 𝑽𝒕 𝒎𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒙 𝟑𝟏𝟕 = 𝟖. 𝟐 𝒎 ⁄𝒔
and the hole mobility in the n-type wafer was obtained from
Table as the hole mobility in a p-type material with the same
doping density.

Problem 2.18
Consider the problem of finding the doping density, which
results in the maximum possible resistivity of silicon at room
temperature. (ni = 1010 cm-3, µn = 1400 cm2/V-sec and µp = 450
cm2/V-sec.) Should the silicon be doped at all or do you
expect the maximum resistivity when dopants are added? If
the silicon should be doped, should it be doped with
acceptors or donors (assume that all dopant is shallow).
Calculate the maximum resistivity, the corresponding
electron and hole density and the doping density.

Solution
Since the mobility of electrons is larger than that of holes,
one expects the resistivity to initially decrease as acceptors
are added to intrinsic silicon. The maximum resistivity (or
minimum conductivity) is obtained from:
𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝒅𝒔 𝒅 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑 𝝁𝒑 ) 𝒅 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝝁𝒑 )
𝒏
=𝒒 = 𝒒 =𝟎
𝒅𝒏 𝒅𝒏 𝒅𝒏
which yields:
𝝁𝒑
𝒏= √ 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟓. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝝁𝒏
The corresponding hole density equals p = 1.76 ni = 1.76 x
109 cm-3 and the amount of acceptors one needs to add
equals Na = 1.20 ni = 1.20 x 109 cm-3. The maximum resistivity
equals:
𝟏 𝟏
𝝆𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = = 𝟑𝟗𝟒 𝑲𝛀 𝒄𝒎
𝒒 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑 𝝁𝒑 ) 𝒒 𝒏𝒊 𝒙 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟕
Problem 2.30
Phosphorous donor atoms with a concentration of 1016 cm-3
are added to a piece of silicon. Assume that the
phosphorous atoms are distributed homogeneously
throughout the silicon. The atomic weight of phosphorous is
31.
a) What is the sample resistivity at 300 K?
b) What proportion by weight does the donor impurity
comprise? The density of silicon is 2.33 gram/cm3.
c) If 1017 atoms cm-3 of boron are included in addition to
phosphorous, and distributed uniformly, what is the resulting
resistivity and type (i.e., p- or n-type material)?
d) Sketch the energy-band diagram under the condition of
part c) and show the position of the Fermi energy relative
to the valence band edge.

Solution
a) The electron mobility in the silicon equals
𝝁𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝁𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟒 − 𝟔𝟖. 𝟓
𝝁𝒏 = 𝝁𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂 = 𝟔𝟖. 𝟓 + 𝟎.𝟕𝟏𝟏
𝑵𝑫 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝟏+ ( ) 𝟏+ ( 𝟏𝟔 )
𝑵 𝝆 𝟗.𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
𝟐
= 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟒 𝒄𝒎 /𝒗𝒔
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝆= = =
𝒔 𝒒 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑 𝝁𝒑 ) 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟒𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 𝛀 𝒄𝒎

b)
 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
|
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒑 𝑴𝒎 𝑨 𝑵𝒅 𝟑𝟏 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
= =
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
| | 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊 𝟐𝟗𝟐𝟖
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒑+𝒔𝒊
= 𝟐. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
c)
The semiconductor is p-type since Na>Nd The hole density is
obtained from:
− 𝟐
𝑵+
𝒂 − 𝑵𝒅 𝑵+ −
𝒂 − 𝑵𝒅
𝒑= + √( ) + 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
= √
+ ( ) + (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 )𝟐 = 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
and the mobility is calculated from the sum of the donor and
acceptor densities
𝝁𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝁𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝟕𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝟒𝟒. 𝟗
𝝁𝒑 = 𝝁𝒎𝒊𝒏 + 𝒂 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟗 + 𝟎.𝟕𝟏𝟏
𝑵 𝟏𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝟏+ ( ) 𝟏+ ( 𝟏𝟕 )
𝑵 𝝆 𝟐.𝟐𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
𝟐
= 𝟑𝟏𝟎. 𝟔 𝒄𝒎 /𝒗𝒔
leading to the conductivity of the material:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝆= = =
𝒔 𝒒 (𝒏 𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑 𝝁𝒑 ) 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟑𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝒙 𝟗𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 𝛀 𝒄𝒎
d)
𝑵𝒗 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒
𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒗 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟑 𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝒑 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔

Problem 2.32
The electron concentration in a piece of lightly doped, n-type
silicon at room temperature varies linearly from 1017 cm-3 at x
= 0 to 6 x 1016 cm-3 at x = 2 µm. Electrons are supplied to keep
this concentration constant with time. Calculate the electron
current density in the silicon if no electric field is present.
Assume µn = 1000 cm2/V-s and T = 300 K.

Solution
The diffusion current is obtained from:
𝒅𝒏 −𝟏𝟗
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟕 − 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝑱𝒏 = 𝒒 𝑫 𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟐𝟓. 𝟖 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
= 𝟖𝟐𝟖 𝑨/𝒎𝟐
where the diffusion constant Dn is obtained from:
Dn = µn x Vt = 1000 x 0.0258 = 25.8 cm2
Example 4.1
An abrupt silicon p-n junction consists of a p-type region
containing 2 x 1016 cm-3 acceptors and an n-type region
containing also 1016 cm-3 acceptors in addition to 1017 cm-3
donors.
a. Calculate the thermal equilibrium density of electrons and
holes in the p-type region as well as both densities in the n-
type region.
b. Calculate the built-in potential of the p-n junction.
c. Calculate the built-in potential of the p-n junction at 400 K.

Solution a.
The thermal equilibrium densities are:
In the p-type region:
𝟏𝟔 −𝟑
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝒑 = 𝑵𝒂 = 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎 , 𝒏 = = 𝟏𝟔
= 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝒑 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
In the n-type region
𝟏𝟔 −𝟑
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝒏 = 𝑵𝒅 − 𝑵𝒂 = 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎 , 𝒑 = =
𝒏 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑

b. The built-in potential is obtained from

𝒑 𝒑 𝒏𝒏 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒙 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝒇𝒊 = 𝑽𝒕 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝑽
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
c. Similarly, the built-in potential at 400 K equals
 𝒑 𝒑 𝒏𝒏 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒙 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝒇𝒊 = 𝑽𝒕 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟒𝟓 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝑽
𝒏𝟐𝒊 (𝟒. 𝟓𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 )𝟐
where the intrinsic carrier density at 400 K was obtained from
Example 2.4 b.

Example 1.4
Calculate the diffusion current density for a given semiconductor.
Consider silicon at T = 300 K. Assume the electron concentration
varies linearly from n = 1012 cm−3 to n = 1016 cm−3 over the distance
from x = 0 to x = 3 μm. Assume Dn = 35 cm2/s.
We have
𝐝𝐧 𝚫𝐧 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝐉 = 𝐞 𝐃𝐧 = 𝐞 𝐃𝐧 = 𝟏 . 𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟗
𝐱 𝟑𝟓 𝐱 ( ) = 𝟏𝟖𝟕 𝐀⁄ 𝟐
𝐝𝐱 𝚫𝐱 𝟎 − 𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 −𝟒 𝐦
Comment: Diffusion current densities on the order of a few hundred
amperes per square centimeter can also be generated in a
semiconductor.

Exercise 1.4
Consider silicon at T = 300 K. Assume the hole concentration is given
by p = 1016e−x/Lp (cm−3), where Lp = 10−3 cm. Calculate the hole
diffusion current density at (a) x = 0 and (b) x = 10−3cm. Assume Dp =
10 cm2/s.

Solution: (a) 16 A/cm2, (b) 5.89 A/cm2)

Example 1.7
Determine the current in a pn junction diode. Consider a pn junction
at T = 300 K in which IS = 10−14 A and n = 1. Find the diode current for
VD = +0.70 V and VD = −0.70 V.

Solution:
For VD = +0.70 V, the pn junction is forward-biased and we find
𝐕𝐃 𝟎.𝟕⁄
⁄
𝐢𝐃 = 𝐈𝐬 [𝐞 𝐕𝐓 − 𝟏] = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 [𝐞 𝟎,𝟎𝟐𝟔 − 𝟏] ⟶ 𝟒. 𝟗𝟑 𝐦𝐀
For 𝛖𝐃 = −𝟎. 𝟕 𝐕 , the pn junction is reverse bias
 𝐕𝐃 −𝟎.𝟕⁄
⁄𝐕
𝐢𝐃 = 𝐈𝐬 [𝐞 𝐓 − 𝟏] = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 [𝐞 𝟎,𝟎𝟐𝟔 − 𝟏] ≅ − 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝐀
Comment: Although IS is quite small, even a relatively small value of
forward-bias voltage can induce a moderate junction current. With a
reverse-bias voltage applied, the junction current is virtually zero.

Exercise 1.7
(a) A silicon pn junction at T = 300 K has a reverse-saturation current
of IS = 2 × 10−14 A. Determine the required forward-bias voltage to
produce a current of (i) ID = 50 μA and (ii) ID = 1 mA. (b) Repeat part (a)
for IS = 2 × 10−12

Solution
a. (i) 0.563 V, (ii) 0.641 V; (b) (i) 0.443 V, (ii) 0.521 V).

Part (12) Solved PROBLEMS

continuity equation

Problem (1)
Consider n-type silicon with Nd = 1015cm−3 at T = 300◦K. A
light source is turned on at t = 0. The source illuminates the
semiconductor uniformly, generating carriers at the rate of
Gn = Gp = 1019cm−3s−1. There is no applied field.
(a) Write down the continuity equation and solve it to find the
expression for the excess minority carrier concentration,
𝜹𝒑(𝒕), as a function of time for t ≥ 0.

Solution: When there is no applied electric field the carrier

distribution is diffusion driven. The continuity equation for
the minority carrier
𝝏𝒑(𝒙 , 𝒕) 𝟏 𝝏 𝑱𝒑 (𝒙 , 𝒕)
= + 𝑮𝒑 (𝒙 , 𝒕) − 𝑹𝒑 (𝒙 , 𝒕)
𝝏𝒕 𝒒 𝝏𝒙
Then reduces to ,
 𝝏𝜹𝒑 𝝏𝜹𝒑
= 𝑮𝒑 −
𝝏𝒕 𝝉𝒑
With the general solution
𝒕
𝜹𝒑 (𝒕) = 𝑨 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ) + 𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑
𝝅𝒑
Using the initial condition (before the light was turned on)
that 𝜹𝒑(𝒕) = 0, then we find that𝑨 = − 𝑮𝒑 𝝉. The full solution
then is,
𝒕
𝜹𝒑 (𝒕) = 𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑 {𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− )}
𝝉𝒑

(b) As t →∞, the system will approach steady state. When the
steady state excess carrier concentration is 5×1013cm−3, find
the minority carrier lifetime, 𝝉𝒑 .

Solution: The system will approach steady state as t → ∞.

Evidently, the steady state carrier density is given
𝜹𝒑(𝒕)|𝐭 → ∞ = 𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑 . The 𝝉𝒑 must then take on the value
𝟏𝟑
𝝉𝒑 = 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 ⁄𝑮 . With Gp = 1019 cm−3s−1, then the minority
𝒑
(hole) carried lifetime must be 𝝉𝒑 = 5×10−6s.

(c) Determine the time at which the excess carrier

concentration becomes half of the steady state
value,𝜹𝒑(𝒕)|𝐭 → ∞ that you calculated in (b).

Solution: The value at which

𝒕 𝟏
𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ) = 𝒔𝒐, 𝒕 = 𝒍𝒏 (𝟐)𝝉𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗 𝒙 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒔
𝝉 𝟐

Problem (2)

2. Consider an n-type semiconductor as shown. Illumination

produces a constant excess carrier generation rate of Gp is
the region −L ≤ x ≤ L. Assume the minority current density is
zero at x = −3L and x = 3L. Find the steady state minority
carrier concentration as a function of x, 𝜹𝒑(𝒙). There is no
applied electric field.

-3L -L 0 L 3L
X
An illuminated semiconductor

Solution: When there is no applied electric field the carrier

distribution is diffusion driven. The continuity equation for
the minority carrier
𝝏𝒑(𝒙 , 𝒕) 𝟏 𝝏 𝑱𝒑 (𝒙 , 𝒕)
= + 𝑮𝒑 (𝒙 , 𝒕) − 𝑹𝒑 (𝒙 , 𝒕)
𝝏𝒕 𝒒 𝝏𝒙
Then reduces to,
𝝏𝟐 𝜹𝒑 (𝒙, 𝒕) 𝜹𝒑
𝟎 = 𝑫𝒑 + 𝑮𝒑 −
𝝏𝟐 𝝉𝒑
In − 𝑳 ≤ 𝒙 ≤≤ 𝑳
And
𝝏𝟐 𝜹𝒑 (𝒙, 𝒕) 𝜹𝒑
𝟎 = 𝑫𝒑 −
𝝏𝟐 𝝉𝒑
In − 𝟑𝑳 ≤ 𝒙 ≤≤ −𝑳 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑳 ≤ 𝒙 ≤≤ 𝟑𝑳 , with boundary
conditions that
𝝏 𝜹𝒑 𝝏 𝜹𝒑
(− 𝟑𝑳) = (𝟑 𝑳) = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
and 𝜹𝒑(−𝑳) and 𝜹𝒑(𝑳) are continuous. From symmetry, we
need only solve for x > 0 with new boundary condition that
𝝏 𝜹𝒑
(𝟎) = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙
The solution is
𝒙 𝒙
𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑 + 𝑨 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ) + 𝑩 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( ) 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝑳
𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑
𝜹𝒑 (𝒙) =
𝒙 𝒙
𝑪 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ) + 𝑫 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( ) 𝑳 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟑𝑳
{ 𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑 }
Where,
𝑳𝟐𝒑 = 𝑫𝒑 𝝉𝒑
The end conditions at 0 and L then lead to A = B
𝟔𝑳
And 𝑪 = 𝑫 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝑳𝒑
These results in
𝒙
𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑 + 𝑬 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( ) 𝟎 ≤𝒙 ≤𝑳
𝑳𝒑
𝜹𝒑 (𝒙) =
𝒙 − 𝟑𝑳
𝑭𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( ) 𝑳 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟑𝑳
{ 𝑳𝒑 }
Where
𝟑𝑳
𝐄 = 𝟐𝐀 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐅 = 𝟐 𝐃 𝐞𝐱𝐩 ( )
𝑳𝒑
Are the new constants to find and where
𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 (𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙𝒑(𝒙) + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (−𝒙)
is the hyperbolic cosine function? We will later also use the
derivative of this function.
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 (𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙𝒑(𝒙) + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (−𝒙)
The hyperbolic sine function. At x = L, we find
𝑳 𝟐𝑳
𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑 + 𝑬 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( ) = 𝑭 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑
𝒙 𝟐𝑳
𝑬 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( ) = − 𝑭 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑
where we have used the evenness of cosh and oddness of
sinh. Solving, we find
𝑳
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑
𝑭= − 𝑬
𝟐𝑳
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑

𝟐𝑳
𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑 ( )
𝑳𝒑
𝑬= −
𝑳 𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝑳 𝑳
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( ) + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑
𝟐𝑳
𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑
=
𝟑𝑳
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑
Where the identity,

𝟑𝑳 𝑳 𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝑳 𝑳
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( ) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( ) + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑
has been used. Substituting back, we find
𝑳
𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑
𝑭=
𝟑𝑳
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑

𝟐𝑳 𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑
𝜹𝒑 (𝒙) = (𝟏 − ) 𝟎 ≤𝒙 ≤𝑳
𝟑𝑳
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑

𝑳 𝒙−𝟑𝑳
𝑮𝒑 𝝉𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒑
𝑳 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟑𝑳
𝟑𝑳
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑳𝒑
(b) Suppose the excess carriers are generated such that the
excess carrier concentrations are 10% of the equilibrium
majority carrier concentrations. Calculate the quasi-Fermi
levels relative the intrinsic Fermi levels, that is, Fn −Ei and
Ei−Fp.

Solution: Here we can use that

𝑬 −𝑬
𝒏𝒐 + 𝜹𝒏 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( 𝒏 𝒊) , to find,
𝑲𝑻
𝟏. 𝟏 𝒙 𝑵𝒅
𝑭𝒏 − 𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟏 𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝒊
The minority carriers than are given by
𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝒑𝒐 = = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , And ,
𝒏𝒐
𝑬𝒊 − 𝑬𝑭
𝒑 = 𝒑 + 𝜹𝒑 ≈ 𝜹𝒑 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝑲𝑻
That yields,
𝟎. 𝟏 𝒙 𝑵𝒅
𝑬𝒊 − 𝑬𝒑 = 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟗 𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝒊

Part (13) Solved PROBLEMS

PN junction theory

Example
A silicon diode at temperature T = 300K has doping
concentration NA = ND = 1.2x1016 cm -3 , ni = 1.5 x1010 cm -3, Dn
= 25 cm2 s -1, Dp = 10 cm2 s -1, KS = 11.7, Lp = 2.2x10-3cm and
Ln = 3.5x10-3cm, and cross section area = 1x10-2 cm2 .

Solution:
The minority hole in n - region
𝐧𝟐𝐢 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝐩𝐧𝐨 = = 𝟏𝟔
= 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
𝐍𝐀 𝟏. 𝟐𝐱𝟏𝟎

The minority electron in npo p-region

 𝐧𝟐𝐢 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝐧𝐩𝐨 = = 𝟏𝟔
= 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
𝐍𝐃 𝟏. 𝟐𝐱𝟏𝟎

The reverse saturation current

𝒒 𝑫𝒑 𝒑𝒏𝒐 𝒒 𝑫𝒏 𝒏𝒑𝒐 −𝟏𝟗 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏.𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟒
Is =𝑨 [ + ] = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 [ +
𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒏 𝟐.𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟏.𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟒
] = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑 𝑨
𝟑.𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑

Example
An abrupt silicon (nI = 1010 cm-3) p-n junction consists of a p-type
region containing 1016 cm-3acceptors and an n-type region containing
5 x 1016 cm-3 donors.
a. Calculate the built-in potential of this p-n junction.
b. Calculate the total width of the depletion region if the applied
voltage Va equals 0, 0.5 and -2.5 V.
c. Calculate maximum electric field in the depletion region at 0, 0.5
and -2.5 V.
d. Calculate the potential across the depletion region in the n-type
semiconductor at 0, 0.5 and -2.5 V.

Solution:
The built-in potential is calculated from:

The depletion layer width is obtained from:

the electric field from

and the potential across the n-type region equals

Where

One can also show that:

This yields the following numeric values:

Example:
Consider an abrupt p-n diode with Na = 1018 cm-3 and Nd = 1016 cm-3.
Calculate the junction capacitance at zero bias. The diode area equals
10-4 cm2. Repeat the problem while treating the diode as a one-sided
diode and calculate the relative error.
Solution:
The built in potential of the diode equals:

The depletion layer width at zero bias equals:

And the junction capacitance at zero bias equals:

Repeating the analysis while treating the diode as a one-sided diode,
one only has to consider the region with the lower doping density so
that

And the junction capacitance at zero bias equals

The relative error equals 0.5 %, which justifies the use of the one-
sided approximation.

Example
An abrupt silicon p-n junction (Na = 1016 cm-3 and Nd = 4 x 1016 cm-3) is
biased with Va = 0.6 V. Calculate the ideal diode current assuming that the
n-type region is much smaller than the diffusion length with wn' = 1 mm and
assuming a "long" p-type region. Use mn = 1000 cm2/V-s and mp = 300
cm2/V-s. The minority carrier lifetime is 10 ms and the diode area is
100 mm by 100 mm.

Solution:
The current is calculated from:

With
Dn = mn Vt = 1000 x 0.0258 = 25.8 cm2/V-s
Dp = mp Vt = 300 x 0.0258 = 7.75 cm2/V-s
np0 = ni2/Na = 1020/1016 = 104 cm-3
pn0 = ni2/Nd = 1020/4 x 1016 = 2.5 x 103 cm-3

Yielding I = 40.7 mA
Note that the hole diffusion current occurs in the "short" n-type region and
therefore depends on the quasi-neutral width in that region. The electron
diffusion current occurs in the "long" p-type region and therefore depends
on the electron diffusion length in that region.

Example
b. Calculate the diffusion capacitance of the diode described in Example
4.4 at zero bias. Use µn= 1000 cm2/V-s, µp = 300 cm2/V-s, wp' = 1 µm
and wn' = 1 mm. The minority carrier lifetime equals 0.1 ms.
c. For the same diode, find the voltage for which the junction
capacitance equals the diffusion capacitance.

Solution
a. The diffusion capacitance at zero volts equals

Using

And

Where the "short" diode expression was used for the capacitance
associated with the excess charge due to electrons in the p-type
region. The "long" diode expression was used for the capacitance
associated with the excess charge due to holes in the n-type
region.The diffusion constants and diffusion lengths equal
Dn = µn x Vt = 25.8 cm2/s
Dp = µp x Vt = 7.75 cm2/s

And the electron transit time in the p-type region equals

 b. The voltage at which the junction capacitance equals the diffusion
capacitance is obtained by solving

Yielding Va = 0.442 V

Part (14) Solved PROBLEMS

ideal and Nonideal p-n Junction
1. Find the built-in potential for a p-n Si junction at room temperature
if the bulk resistivity of Si is 1 Ωcm. Electron mobility in Si at RT is
1400 cm2 V−1 s−1; µn/µp = 3.1; ni = 1.05×1010 cm−3.

Solution:
By definition, e𝝋𝒅 = Fn −Fp. Concentrations of the free carriers are
given by
𝑬𝒈 − 𝑭𝒏 𝑭𝒑
𝒏 = 𝑵𝒄 (− ) , 𝒑 = 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− )
𝑲𝑻 𝑲𝑻
From here we get that
𝒏 𝒑 𝒏𝒑
𝒆 𝝋𝒅 = 𝑬𝒈 + 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( ) + 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( ) = 𝑬𝒈 + 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗
𝑬𝒈
𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− )
𝑲𝑻
We obtain ,
𝑲𝑻 𝒏𝒑
𝝋𝒅 = 𝒍𝒏 ( 𝟐 )
𝒆 𝒏𝒊
From n = 1/eρµn and p = 1/eρµp, we finally get 𝝋𝒅 = 0.68 V.
2. For the p-n Si junction from the previous problem calculate the
width of the space charge region for the applied voltages V = −10, 0,
and +0.3 V. ϵSi = 11.9

Solution:
Taking into account that at room temperature all donors and
acceptors are ionized, i.e. n = Nd and p = Na, from the values found in
the previous problem and
𝟏⁄
𝝐 (𝝋𝒅 − 𝑽) 𝑵𝒅 + 𝑵𝑨 𝟐
𝝎= { }
𝟐𝝅𝒆 𝑵 𝒅 𝑵𝑨
we get ω(−10V) = 2 µm, ω(0V) = 0.5 µm, and ω(+0.3V) = 0.4 µm.

1. For the parameters given in the previous problem find the

maximum electric field within the space charge region. Compare
these values with the electric field within a shallow donor: E ≈ e/ ϵSi
a2B, where aB is the Bohr radius of a shallow donor,
𝝐𝒔𝒊 𝒉𝟐 𝒎𝒆∗
𝒂𝒃 = ∗ 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑
𝒎𝒆 𝒆 𝒎𝒐
Solution:
From the previous problem and
𝟏⁄
𝟐 𝝅 𝒆 (𝝋𝒅 − 𝑽) 𝑵𝒅 + 𝑵𝑨 𝟐
𝑬 = 𝟐{ }
𝝐 𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝑨
we obtain that E(−10V) = 105 V/cm, E(0V) = 2.6×104 V/cm, and E(+0.3V)
= 2×104 V/cm.
The electric field within a shallow donor is, in turn, E ≈ 3.4×105 V/cm,
that is, comparable to that of the p-n junction.

4. Calculate the capacity of the p-n junction from the problem 2 if the
area of the junction is 0.1 cm2.

Solution:
Since
𝝐𝑺
𝑪=
𝟒𝝅𝝎
we get C(−10V) = 0.5 nF, C(0V) = 2 nF, and C(+0.3V) = 2.6 nF.
5. n-Si of a p-n Si junction has a resistivity of 1 Ωcm. What should be
the resistivity of p-Si so that 99 % of the total width of the space
charge region would be located in n-Si (p+-n junction)? For the
parameters needed see problem 1.

Solution:
From the conditions of the problem ωa = 0.01ω and ωd = 0.99ω. Since
ωa/ωd = Nd/Na , we get that Na = 99Nd. Because Nd = 1/eρµn = 4.5×1015
cm−3, we get Na = 4.4×1017 cm−3.

6. At room temperature under the forward bias of 0.15 V the current

through a p-n junction is 1.66 mA. What will be the current through
the junction under reverse bias?

Solution:
js = 1.66mAexp(−eV/kT) = 4 µA.

7. For a p+-n Si junction the reverse current at room temperature is 0.9

nA/cm2. Calculate the minority-carrier lifetime if Nd = 1015 cm−3, ni =
1.05×1010 cm−3, and µp = 450 cm2 V−1 s−1.

Solution:
For a p+-n junction
𝟏⁄
𝒆 𝒑 𝑫𝒑 𝒆 𝑫𝒑 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒆 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝑫𝒑 𝟐
𝑱𝒔 = = = ( )
𝑳𝒑 𝑵𝒅 𝑳𝒑 𝑵𝒅 𝝉 𝒑
Taking into account that µ = eD/kT, we finally get τp = 4.5×10−9 s.

8. How does the reverse current of a Si p-n junction change if the

temperature raises from 20 to 50 ◦C? The same for a Ge p-n junction.
Band gaps of Si and Ge are 1.12 and 0.66 eV, respectively.

Solution:
𝑬𝒈
Since𝒋𝒔 ~ 𝒏𝟐𝒊 ~ 𝑻𝟑 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− )
𝑲𝑻
we get
𝒋𝒔 (𝑻𝟐 ) 𝑻𝟐 𝟑 𝑬𝒈 𝑬𝒈
= ( ) 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− + )
𝒋𝒔 (𝑻𝟏 ) 𝑻𝟏 𝑲𝑻𝟐 𝑲𝑻𝟏
From here the ratios of the reverse currents in the p-n junctions made
of Ge and Si are 15 and 82, respectively.

9. Estimate temperatures at which p-n junctions made of Ge, Si, and

GaN lose their rectifying characteristics. In all cases Na = Nd = 1015
cm−3. Assume that Eg are independent of the temperature and are
0.66, 1.12, and 3.44 eV for Ge, Si, and GaN, respectively. Intrinsic
carrier concentrations at room temperature are niGe= 2×1013,niSi = 1010,
and niGaN = 10−9 cm−3.

Solution:
p-n junction stops working when concentrations of electrons and
holes equalize. It happens when
− 𝑬𝒈 𝟑 − 𝑬𝒈
𝑵𝒅 (𝑵𝑨 ) ≅ 𝒏𝒊 ≈ √𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( ) ~ 𝑻 ⁄𝟐 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )
𝟐 𝑲𝑻 𝟐 𝑲𝑻
From here and the parameters given we get that the maximum
temperatures are TGe ≈ 400 K, TSi ≈ 650 K, and TGaN ≈ 1700 K. That is,
only wide band gap semiconductors are suitable for extremal
applications.

Problem 2.25
Electrons in silicon carbide have a mobility of 1000 cm2/V-
sec. At what value of the electric field do the electrons reach
a velocity of 3 x 107 cm/s? Assume that the mobility is
constant and independent of the electric field. What voltage
is required to obtain this field in a 5 micron thick region?
How much time do the electrons need to cross the 5 micron
thick region?

Solution The electric field is obtained from the mobility and

the velocity:
𝝁 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝜺= = = 𝟑𝟎 𝑲𝑽/𝒄𝒎
𝝂 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟕
Combined with the length one finds the applied voltage.
V = 𝜺 L = 30,000 x 5 x 10-4 = 15 V
The transit time equals the length divided by the velocity:
tr = L/ 𝝂 = 5 x 10-4/3 x 107 = 16.7 ps
Example 4.2
An abrupt silicon (ni = 1010 cm-3) p-n junction consists of a
ptype region containing 1016 cm-3 acceptors and an n-type
region containing 5 x 1016 cm-3 donors.
a. Calculate the built-in potential of this p-n junction.
b. Calculate the total width of the depletion region if the
applied voltage Va equals 0, 0.5 and -2.5 V.
c. Calculate maximum electric field in the depletion region at
0, 0.5 and -2.5 V.
d. Calculate the potential across the depletion region in the
n-type semiconductor at 0, 0.5 and -2.5 V.

Solution
The built-in potential is calculated from:
𝒑𝒏 𝒏𝒑 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒙 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝒇𝒊 = 𝑽𝒕 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝑽
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
The depletion layer width is obtained from:
𝟐 𝒆𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
𝒘= √ ( + ) (𝒇𝒊 − 𝑽𝒂 )
𝒒 𝑵𝒂 𝑵𝒅
the electric field from
𝟐 (𝒇𝒊 − 𝑽𝒂 )
𝜺 (𝒙 = 𝟎) =
𝒘
and the potential across the n-type region equals
𝒒 𝑵𝒅 𝒙𝟐𝒏
𝒇𝒏 =
𝟐 𝒆𝒔
Where,
𝑵𝒂
𝒙𝒏 = 𝒘
𝑵𝒂 + 𝑵𝒅
one can also show that
(𝒇𝒊 − 𝑽𝒂 )𝑵𝒂
𝒇𝒏 =
𝑵𝒂 + 𝑵𝒅
This yields the following numeric values:
 Va = 0 V Va = 0.5 V Va = -2.5 V
w 0.315 µm 0.143 µm 0.703 µm
𝜺 40 kV/cm 18 kV/cm 89 kV/cm
𝒇𝒏 0.105 V 0.0216 V 0.522 V

Example 4.3
An abrupt silicon p-n junction (Na = 1016 cm-3 and Nd = 4 x
1016 cm-3) is biased with Va = 0.6 V. Calculate the ideal diode
current assuming that the n-type region is much smaller than
the diffusion length with wn = 1 µm and assuming a "long" p-
type region. Use µn = 1000 cm2/V-s and µp = 300 cm2/V-s. The
minority carrier lifetime is 10 µs and the diode area is 100 µm
by 100 µm.

Solution:
The current is calculated from:
𝑫𝒏 𝒏𝒑𝒐 𝑫𝒑 𝒑𝒏𝒐 𝑽𝒐
⁄
𝑰=𝒒𝑨 [ + ] (𝒆 𝑽𝒕 − 𝟏)
𝑳𝒏 𝑾𝒏
with
Dn = µnVt = 1000 x 0.0258 = 25.8 cm2/V-s
DP = µPVt = 300 x 0.0258 = 7.75 cm2/V-s
np0 = n2i/Na = 1020/1016 = 104 cm-3
pn0 = n2i/Nd = 1020/4 x 1016 = 2.5 x 103 cm-3
𝑳𝒏 = √𝑫𝒏 𝝉𝒏 = √𝟐𝟓. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 = 𝟏𝟔𝟏 𝝁𝒎
yielding I = 40.7 µΑ
Note that the hole diffusion current occurs in the "short" n-
type region and therefore depends on the quasi-neutral width
in that region. The electron diffusion current occurs in the
"long" p-type region and therefore depends on the electron
diffusion length in that region.
Example 4.4
Consider an abrupt p-n diode with Na = 1018 cm-3 and Nd =
1016 cm-3. Calculate the junction capacitance at zero bias. The
diode area equals 10-4 cm2. Repeat the problem while treating
the diode as a one-sided diode and calculate the relative
error.

Solution The built in potential of the diode equals:

𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝒂
𝒇𝒊 = 𝑽𝒕 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝑽
𝒏𝟐𝒊
The depletion layer width at zero bias equals:
𝟐 𝒆𝒔 (𝒇𝒊 − 𝟎)
𝑾= √ = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 𝝁𝒎
𝒒 𝑵𝒅
And the junction capacitance at zero bias equals:
𝒆𝒔
𝑪𝒋𝒐 = | = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟕 𝒑𝑭
𝑾 𝒗𝒂=𝟎
Repeating the analysis while treating the diode as a one-
sided diode, one only has to consider the region with the
lower doping density so that
𝟐 𝒆𝒔
𝑾 = 𝒙𝒏 = √ (𝒇 − 𝑽𝒂 ) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝝁𝒎
𝒒 𝑵𝒅 𝒊
And the junction capacitance at zero bias equals
𝒆𝒔
𝑪𝒋𝒐 = | = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟖 𝒑𝑭
𝑾 𝒗𝒂=𝟎
The relative error equals 0.5 %, which justifies the use of the
one-sided approximation.

1.3 Ideal p-n Junction

1. Find the built-in potential for a p-n Si junction at room
temperature if the bulk resistivity of Si is 1 Ώcm. Electron
mobility in Si at RT is 1400 cm2 V−1 s−1; μn/μp = 3.1; ni = 1.05 ×
1010 cm−3.

Solution: (3.1)
By definition, e𝝋𝒅 = Fn − Fp. Concentrations of the free
carriers are given by
𝑬𝒈 − 𝑭𝒏 𝑬𝒈 − 𝑭𝒑
𝒏 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− ) , 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− )
𝑲𝑻 𝑲𝑻
From here we get that
𝒏 𝒑 𝒏𝒑
𝐞𝝋𝒅 = 𝑬𝒈 + 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( ) + 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( ) = 𝑬𝒈 + 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝑵 𝒄 𝑵𝒗
Since,
𝑬𝒈
𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− )
𝑲𝑻
we obtain that
𝑲𝑻 𝒏𝒑
𝝋𝒅 = 𝒍𝒏 ( 𝟐 )
𝒆 𝒏𝒊
From n = 1/e ρ μn and p = 1/e ρ μp, we finally get 𝝋𝒅 = 0.68 V.

6. At room temperature under the forward bias of 0.15 V the

current through a p-n junction is 1.66 mA. What will be the
current through the junction under reverse bias?

Solution: (3.6)
js = 1.66 mA exp(−eV/kT) = 4 μA.

7. For a p+-n Si junction the reverse current at room

temperature is 0.9 nA/cm2. Calculate the minority-carrier
lifetime if Nd = 1015 cm−3, ni = 1.05 × 1010 cm−3, and μp = 450
cm2 V−1 s−1.

Solution: (3.7)
For a p+-n junction
 𝟏⁄
𝒆 𝒑 𝑫𝒑 𝒆 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝑫𝒑 𝒆 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝑫𝒑 𝟐
𝑱𝑺 = = = ( )
𝑳𝒑 𝑵𝒅 𝑳𝒑 𝑵𝒅 𝝉𝒑
Taking into account that μ = eD/kT, we finally get τp = 4.5 ×
10−9 s.

1. Problem: A silicon p-n junction is formed between n-type Si doped

with ND = 1017 cm-3and p-type Si doped with NA = 1016 cm-3.
(a) Sketch the energy band diagram. Label all axes and all important
energy levels.
(b) Find nn0, np0, pp0, and pn0. Sketch the carrier concentration (of both
electrons and holes) as a function of position.
(c) Calculate the built-in potential Vbi in eV.

Solution:
(a) The energy band diagram with labeled important energy levels
and axes is
ECp
Ei
ECn
EF
EVp Eg
EVn

(b) Given n+= 1.5 x 1010 cm-3,

in the quasi-neutral p-region,
Ppo = NA = 1016 cm−3
In the quasi-neutral n-region,
𝐧𝐧𝐨 = 𝐍𝐃 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
In the depletion region,
𝐧𝟐𝐢
𝐧𝐩𝐨 = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
𝐍𝐀
for p-side and
𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝒑𝒏𝒐 = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝑵𝑫
for n-side.. The diagram for carrier concentration is:

n(Xp) p(Xn)

pn
Np

0 0
 (b) The build-in potential is
𝐊𝐓 𝐍𝐀 𝐍𝐃 𝐊𝐓 𝐩𝐩
𝐕𝐛𝐢 = 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟒 𝐞𝐕
𝐪 𝐧𝐢 𝐪 𝐩𝐧

Problem: 4
Consider a p+-n Si junction at T = 300 K with NA = 1018 cm-3 and ND =
1016 cm-3. The minority carrier hole diffusion constant is Dp = 12 cm2/s
and the minority carrier hole lifetime is τp = 100 ns. The cross-
sectional area of the junction is A = 10-4 cm2. Calculate the reverse
saturation current Is = AJs. Calculate also the current at a forward bias
Va = 0.5 V.

Solution:
Since NA >> ND, it is an asymmetric junction and the total current is
dominated by the most heavily-doped side of the junction. the
saturation current density is given by:

𝐪 𝐃𝐩 𝐩𝐧𝐨
𝐉𝐬 =
𝐋𝐩
Where,
𝟏⁄
−𝟑 −𝟑
𝐧𝟐𝐢
𝐋𝐩 = (𝐃𝐩 𝛕𝐩 ) 𝟐
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝐜𝐦 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐩𝐧𝐨 = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
𝐍𝐃
So, Js = 3:9492 x 10-11 A/cm2
Is = - A Js = - 3:9492 x 10-15 A
For a forward bias Va = 0.5 V, the current is:
𝐪𝐕𝐨⁄
𝐈 = 𝐈𝐬 (𝐞 𝐊𝐓 − 𝟏 ) = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟑 𝛍𝐀

Problem (1)
1. n-Si with Nd = 7 × 1015 cm−3 additionally contains Nt = 1015 cm−3
generation- recombination centers located at the intrinsic Fermi level
with σn = σp = 10−15 cm2 and vt = 107 cm/s. Calculate generation rate, if
1. n and p are low as compared to the equilibrium value
2. only p is below the equilibrium value. For Si, ni = 1.05×1010 cm−3.

Solution :
By definition
𝒏𝟐𝒊 − 𝒑 𝒏
𝑮𝒏 = − 𝑹𝒏 =
𝝉𝒑 (𝒏 + 𝒏𝒊 ) + 𝝉𝒏 (𝒑 + 𝒑𝒊 )
Where 𝝉−𝟏 −𝟏 𝟕 −𝟏
𝒏 = 𝝉𝒑 = 𝑵𝒕 𝝈𝒏 𝝂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒔 . In the first case n and p are less
than ni. Thus, np <𝒏𝟐𝒊 and hence
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝒊
𝑮𝒏 = = = 𝟓. 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 /𝒔
𝝉𝒏 (𝒏𝒊 + 𝒑𝒊 ) 𝟐 𝝉𝒏

In the second case n = Nd≫ni, whereas p <ni, hence

𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝑮𝒏 = = = = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 /𝒔
(𝒏
𝝉𝒏 + 𝒏𝒊 + 𝒑𝒊 ) 𝝉 𝒏 𝒏 𝝉 𝒏 𝑵𝒅
Problem (2)
Illumination of n-type Si (Nd = 1016 cm−3) generates 1021 cm−3/s
electron-hole pairs. Si has Nt = 1015 cm−3 generation-recombination
centers with σn = σp = 10−16 cm2. Calculate equilibrium concentration
of electrons and holes if Et = Ei, where Ei is the Fermi level of intrinsic
Si, and vt = 107 cm/s.

Solution:
In equilibrium, the generation G = 1021 cm−3/s and recombination R
rates are equal
𝒏 𝒑 − 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝒑 𝒏𝒑
𝑮𝒏 = 𝑹 = ≈ =
𝝉𝒑 (𝒏 + 𝒏𝒊 ) + 𝝉𝒏 (𝒑 + 𝒑𝒊 ) 𝝉𝒑 𝒏 + 𝝉𝒏 𝒑 𝝉 (𝒏 + 𝒑)

Here we used 𝝉𝒏 = 𝝉𝒑 = 𝝉 = (Ntvtσn)−1 = 10−6 sec. In n-type Si under

illumination, n = Nd + ∆n, p ≈ ∆p = ∆n. Thus,
(𝑵𝒅 + ∆𝒏) ∆𝒏
𝑮𝑻 =
𝑵𝒅 + 𝟐 ∆𝒏
Solving this equation with respect to ∆n we obtain p = ∆n = 1.1×1015
cm−3 and n = 1.1×1016 cm−3.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
The reverse saturation current at 3ooK of a p-n Ge diode is 5 uA . Find
the voltage to be applied across the junction to obtain a forward
current of 50 mA.

Solution
𝒆𝑽
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒔 [𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( ) − 𝟏]
𝑲𝑻
So,
𝒆𝑽 𝑰 𝟓𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( ) = + 𝟏= −𝟔
+ 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒
𝑲𝑻 𝑰𝒔 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
Or ,
𝑲𝑻 𝟒
𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑽= 𝒍𝒏 𝟏𝟎 = 𝒙 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒙 𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕
𝒆 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗

Problem (3)
3. A p+-n Si junction (ni = 1.05×1010 cm−3, ϵSi = 11.9) is formed in an n-
type substrate with Nd = 1015 cm−3. If the junction contains 1015 cm−3
generation-recombination centers located at the intrinsic Fermi level
with σn = σp = 10−15 cm2 (vt = 107 cm/s), calculate generation current
density at a reverse bias of 10 V.

Solution:
Generation current in the space charge region w is given by
𝒆 𝒏𝒊 𝝎
𝒋𝒈 =
𝟐𝝉
Here, 𝝉−1 = Ntσnvt = 107 s−1. The width w of the space charge region for
a p+-n junction under reverse bias is
𝟏⁄ 𝟏⁄
𝝐 (𝝋𝒅 − 𝑽) 𝟐 𝝐 (𝑽) 𝟐
𝝎= { } ≈ { } = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝝁𝒎
𝟐 𝝅 𝒆𝑵𝒅 𝟐 𝝅 𝒆 𝑵𝒅
Here we used relation |V|≫𝝋𝒅 . From here we obtain that jg = 3 µA/cm2.

Problem (4)
For a p-n Si junction with the p-side doped to 1017 cm−3, the n-side
doped to 1019 cm−3 (n+-p junction), and a reverse bias of −2 V,
calculate the generation current density at room temperature,
assuming that the effective lifetime is 10−5 s.

Solution:
Using the formulae of the previous problem and relation
𝑲𝑻 𝑵𝟐
𝝋𝒅 = 𝒍𝒏 ( 𝟐 )
𝒆 𝒏𝒊
2
we get js = 1.6 nA/cm .

Problem (5)
For a p-n GaAs junction at room temperature find the donor/acceptor
concentration at which de Broglie wavelength
𝟐𝝅𝒉
(𝝀 = )
√𝟐 𝒎∗ 𝑬
𝟑𝑲𝑻 𝒎∗𝒆 𝒎∗𝒉
(𝑬 = ), = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑 , = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝐𝑮𝒂𝑨𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟗 , 𝒏𝑮𝒂𝑨𝒔
𝒊
𝟐 𝒎𝒐 𝒎𝒐
= 𝟐. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑵𝑨 = 𝑵𝑫

Solution:
From the parameters given, we find λn = 2.5×10−6 cm and λp = 8.5×10−7
cm. If Nd = Na = N the width of the space charge region is
𝝐𝝋𝒅 𝟏⁄𝟐
𝝎= { }
𝝅𝒆𝑵
By definition, w = λ. Substituting

𝑲𝑻 𝑵𝟐
𝝋𝒅 = 𝒍𝒏 ( 𝟐 )
𝒆 𝒏𝒊
into the expression above and after some simplifications, we get
𝝐 𝟐 𝑲𝑻 𝑵
𝑵= 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝝅 𝒆 𝝀𝟐 𝒆 𝒏𝒊
Solving the above equation numerically, we obtain N = 6.8 × 1018 cm−3
and 6.2×1019 cm−3 for electron and holes, respectively.

Problem (6)
When a silicon p+-n junction is reverse-biased to 30 V, the depletion-
layer capacitance is 1.75 nF/cm2. If the maximum electric field at
avalanche breakdown is 3×105 V/cm, find the breakdown voltage. ϵSi =
11.9.
Solution:
Since C = 𝝐 /4πw0, and under strong reverse bias w0 ≈ (𝝐 V/2πeNd)1/2,
we obtain Nd = 1.1×1015 cm−3. Maximum electric field is at the interface
and for a p+-n junction equals E ≈ 4πeNdw1/𝝐. From conditions of the
problem we find that at the breakdown w 1 = 18 µm and, hence, the
breakdown voltage is 273 V .

Problem (7)
For a p+-n Si junction with Nd = 1016 cm−3, the breakdown voltage is 32
V. Calculate the maximum electric field at the breakdown. ϵSi = 11.9

Solution:
The width of the space charge region is w ≈ (𝝐 V/2πeNd)1/2 = 2 µm.
From here we get that the maximum electric field at the breakdown is
𝟒 𝝅 𝒆 𝑵𝒅
𝑬= 𝝎 = 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑽⁄𝒄𝒎
𝝐

1.4 Non ideal p-n Junction

1. n-Si with Nd = 7 × 1015 cm−3 additionally contains Nt = 1015
cm−3 generation recombination centers located at the
intrinsic Fermi level with σn = σp = 10−15 cm2 and vt = 107
cm/s. Calculate generation rate, if
1. n and p are low as compared to the equilibrium value
2. only p is below the equilibrium value. For Si, ni = 1.05 ×
1010 cm−3.

Solution: (4.1)
By definition
𝒏𝟐𝒊 − 𝒑𝒏
𝑮𝒏 = − 𝑹𝒏 =
𝝉𝒑 (𝒏 + 𝒏𝒊 ) + 𝝉𝒏 (𝒑 + 𝒑𝒊 )
where
𝝉−𝟏 −𝟏 𝟕
𝒏 = 𝝉𝒑 = 𝒏𝒕 𝝈𝒏 𝒗𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 /𝒔𝒆𝒄 In the first case n and p are
less than ni. Thus, np < 𝒏𝟐𝒊 and hence ,
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝒊 𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒎−𝟑⁄
𝑮𝒏 = (𝒏 = = 𝟓, 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝝉𝒏 𝒊 + 𝒑 𝒊 ) 𝟐 𝝉𝒏
In the second case n = Nd ≫ ni, whereas p < ni, hence
 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝟐𝒊 −𝟑
𝑮𝒏 = = = = 𝟏, 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒎 ⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝝉𝒏 (𝒏 + 𝒏𝒊 + 𝒑𝒕 ) 𝒏 𝝉𝒏 𝝉𝒏 𝑵𝒅

2. Illumination of n-type Si (Nd = 1016 cm−3) generates 1021

cm−3/s electron-hole pairs. Si has Nt = 1015 cm−3 generation-
recombination centers with σn = σp = 10−16 cm2. Calculate
equilibrium concentration of electrons and holes if Et = Ei,
where Ei is the Fermi level of intrinsic Si, and vt = 107 cm/s.

Solution: (4.2)
In equilibrium, the generation G = 1021 cm−3/s and
recombination R rates are equal,
𝒏 𝒑 − 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝒑
𝑮 = 𝑹 = ≈
𝝉𝒑 (𝒏 + 𝒏𝒊 ) + 𝝉𝒏 (𝒑 + 𝒏𝒊 ) 𝝉𝒑 𝒏 + 𝝉𝒏 𝒑
= (𝒏 𝒑)/𝝉( 𝒏 + 𝒑)
Here we used 𝝉𝒏 = 𝝉𝒑 = 𝝉 = (Nt vt σn)−1 = 10−6 sec.
In n-type Si under illumination, n = Nd + Δn , p ≈ Δp = Δn.
Thus,
(𝑵𝒅 + ∆ 𝒏)∆𝒏
𝑮𝑻 =
𝑵𝒅 + 𝟐 ∆ 𝒏
Solving this equation with respect to Δn we obtain p = Δn =
1.1×1015 cm−3 and n = 1.1 × 1016 cm−3.

3. A p+-n Si junction (ni = 1.05×1010 cm−3, ε = 11.9) is formed in

an n-type substrate with Nd = 1015 cm−3. If the junction
contains 1015 cm−3 generation-recombination centers located
at the intrinsic Fermi level with σn = σp = 10−15 cm2 (vt = 107
cm/s), calculate generation current density at a reverse bias
of 10 V.

Solution: (4.3)
Generation current in the space charge region w is given by
𝒆 𝒏𝒊 𝒘
𝒋𝒈 =
𝟐𝝉
Here, τ−1 = Nt σn vt = 107 s−1. The width w of the space charge
region for a p+-n junction under reverse bias is
𝟏⁄ 𝟏⁄𝟐
𝝐 (𝝋𝒅 − 𝑽) 𝟐 𝝐 |𝐕 |
𝒘= ( ) ≈ ( ) = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝝁𝒎
𝟐 𝝅 𝑵𝒅 𝟐 𝝅 𝒆 𝑵𝒅
Here we used relation |V | ≫ 𝝋𝒅 . From here we obtain that jg =
3 μA/cm2.

4. For a p-n Si junction with the p-side doped to 1017 cm−3, the
n-side doped to 1019 cm−3 (n+-p junction), and a reverse bias
of −2 V, calculate the generation current density at room
temperature, assuming that the effective lifetime is 10−5 s.

Solution: (4.4)
Using the formulae of the previous problem and relation
𝑲𝑻 𝒏𝒑
𝝋𝒅 = 𝒍𝒏 ( 𝟐 )
𝒆 𝒏𝒊
we get js = 1.6 nA/cm2.

5. For a p-n GaAs junction at room temperature find the

donor/acceptor concentration at which de Broglie
wavelength (λ = 2πh /√2m* E) of electrons/holes is equal to
the width of the space charge region. Assume <Ei > 3 kT/2,
m*e/m0 = 0.063, m*h/m0 = 0.53, and εGaAs = 12.9, nGaAsi = 2.1 ×
106 cm−3, and Na = Nd.

Part (14) Solved PROBLEMS

The transition capacitance , The diffusion capacitance
Example 4.5
a. Calculate the diffusion capacitance of the diode described
in Example 4.4 at zero bias. Use µn = 1000 cm2/V-s, µp = 300
cm2/V-s, wp' = 1 µm and wn' = 1 mm. The minority carrier
lifetime equals 0.1 ms.
b. For the same diode, find the voltage for which the junction
capacitance equals the diffusion capacitance.

Solution
a. The diffusion capacitance at zero volts’ equals
𝑰𝒔,𝒑 𝝉𝒑 𝑰𝒔,𝒏 𝝉𝒏
𝑪𝒅,𝟎 = + = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑭
𝑽𝒕 𝑽𝒕
Using
𝑨𝒑𝒏𝒐 𝑫𝒑
𝑰𝒔,𝒑 = 𝒒
𝑳𝒑
And ,
𝑨𝒏𝒑𝒐 𝑫𝒏
𝑰𝒔𝒏 = 𝒒
𝑾𝒑
Where the "short" diode expression was used for the
capacitance associated with the excess charge due to
electrons in the p-type region. The "long" diode expression
was used for the capacitance associated with the excess
charge due to holes in the n-type region. The diffusion
constants and diffusion lengths equal
Dn = µn x Vt = 25.8 cm2/s
Dp = µp x Vt = 7.75 cm2/s
𝑳𝒑 = √𝑫𝒑 𝝉𝒑
And the electron transit time in the p-type region equals
𝒘𝟐𝒑
𝝉𝒓,𝒏 = = 𝟏𝟗𝟑 𝒑𝒔
𝟐 𝑫𝒏
b. The voltage at which the junction capacitance equals the
diffusion capacitance is obtained by solving
 𝑪𝒋𝒐 𝑽𝒎
⁄
= 𝑪𝒅,𝟎 𝒆 𝑽𝒕
𝑽𝒂
√𝟏 − 𝒇𝒊
yielding Va = 0.442 V

2. For the p-n Si junction from the previous problem calculate

the width of the space charge region for the applied voltages
V = −10, 0, and +0.3 V. εSi = 11.9

Solution: (3.2)
Taking into account that at room temperature all donors and
acceptors are ionized, i.e. n = Nd and p = Na, from the values
found in the previous problem and
𝟏⁄
𝝐(𝝋𝒅 − 𝑽) 𝑵𝒅 + 𝑵𝒂 𝟐
𝝎= ( )
𝟐𝝅 𝒆 𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝒂
we get ω(−10V) = 2 μm , ω(0V) = 0.5 μm , and ω(+0.3V) = 0.4
μm.

3. For the parameters given in the previous problem find the

maximum electric field within the space charge region.
Compare these values with the electric field within a shallow
donor: E ≈ e/εSia2B, where aB is the Bohr radius of a shallow
donor, aB =εSih2 /m* e e2 and me /mo = 0.33.

Solution: (3.3)
𝟏⁄
𝟐 𝝅 𝒆 (𝝋𝒅 − 𝑽) 𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝒂 𝟐
𝑬=𝟐 ( )
𝝐 𝑵𝒅 + 𝑵𝒂
we obtain that E(−10V) = 105 V/cm, E(0V) = 2.6×104 V/cm, and
E(+0.3V) = 2 × 104 V/cm.
The electric field within a shallow donor is, in turn, E ≈ 3.4 ×
105 V/cm, that is, comparable to that of the p-n junction.
4. Calculate the capacity of the p-n junction from the problem
2 if the area of the junction is 0.1 cm2.

Solution: (3.4)
𝛜𝐒
𝐂= .
𝟒𝛑𝛚
we get C(−10V) = 0.5 nF, C(0V) = 2 nF, and C(+0.3V) = 2.6 nF.

5. n-Si of a p-n Si junction has a resistivity of 1 Ώcm. What

should be the resistivity? of p-Si so that 99 % of the total
width of the space charge region would be located in n-Si
(p+-n junction)? For the parameters needed see problem 1.

Solution: (3.5)

From the conditions of the problem ωa = 0.01ω and ωd =

0.99ω. Since ωa/ωd = Nd/Na , we get that Na = 99 Nd. Because
Nd = 1/eρμn = 4.5 × 1015 cm−3, we get Na = 4.4 × 1017 cm−3.

Solution: (4.5)
From the parameters given, we find λn = 2.5 × 10−6 cm and λp
= 8.5 × 10−7 cm. If Nd = Na = N the width of the space charge
region is
𝟏⁄
𝝐 𝝋𝒅 𝟐
𝒘= ( )
𝝅𝒆𝑵
By definition, w = λ. Substituting
𝑲𝑻 𝑵𝟐
𝝋𝒅 = 𝒍𝒏 ( 𝟐 )
𝒆 𝒏𝒊
into the expression above and after some simplifications, we
get
𝝐 𝟐 𝑲𝑻 𝑵
𝑵= 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝝅 𝒆𝝀𝟐 𝒆 𝒏𝒊
Solving the above equation numerically, we obtain N = 6.8 ×
1018 cm−3 and 6.2 × 1019 cm−3 for electron and holes,
respectively.

6. When a silicon p+-n junction is reverse-biased to 30 V, the

depletion-layer capacitance is 1.75 nF/cm2. If the maximum
electric field at avalanche breakdown is 3 × 105 V/cm, find the
breakdown voltage. εSi = 11.9.

Solution: (4.6)

Since C = ϵ / 4 π w0, and under strong reverse bias w0 ≈ (ϵ V /

2 π e Nd)1/2, we obtain Nd = 1.1 × 1015 cm−3. Maximum electric
field is at the interface and for a p+-n junction equals E ≈
4 π e Nd w1 / ϵ. From conditions of the problem we find that at
the breakdown w1 = 18 μm and, hence, the breakdown
voltage is 273 V .
7. For a p+-n Si junction with Nd = 1016 cm−3, the breakdown
voltage is 32 V. Calculate the maximum electric field at the
breakdown. εSi = 11.9.

Solution: (4.7)
The width of the space charge region is w ≈ (ϵV / 2πeNd)1/2= 2
μm. From here we get that the maximum electric field at the
breakdown is
𝟒𝛑𝐞𝐍𝐝
𝑬= 𝒘 ≈ 𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑽⁄𝒄𝒎
𝛜
Problem:2
A Si p-n junction has dopant concentrations ND = 2 x 1015 cm-3 and NA
= 2 x 1016 cm-3.
Calculate the built-in potential Vbi in eV and the total width of the
depletion region W = xn0 + xp0 at zero bias (that is, Va = 0) and under a
reverse bias Va = - 8V.

Solution:
(a) Given ni = 1:5 x 1010 cm-3, the build-in potential is:
 𝑲𝑻 𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫 𝑲𝑻 𝒑𝒑
𝑽𝒃𝒊 =𝐥𝐧 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟏 𝒆𝑽
𝒒 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒒 𝒑𝒏
(b) The depletion width with a bias Va is give by:
𝟐 𝝐𝒐 (𝑽𝒃𝒊 − 𝑽𝒂 ) 𝟏 𝟏
𝑾= √ ( + )
𝒒 𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫
For Va = 0V , we have W = 0:691µm and for Va = - 8V , we have W =
2:475 µm.

Problem: 3
A Si p-n junction is reverse-biased with Va = -10V . Determine the
percent change in junction (depletion) capacitance and built-in
potential if the doping in the p region is increased by a factor of 2.

Solution:
Let us assume the NA and ND values are ND = 2 x 1015 cm-3 and NA = 2 x
1016 cm-3 , then the build-in potential is calculated by the equation, we
have:

𝑲𝑻 𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫 𝑲𝑻 𝒑𝒑
𝑽𝒃𝒊 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟏 𝒆𝑽
𝒒 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒒 𝒑𝒏
and
𝑲𝑻 𝟐 𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫
𝑽𝒃𝒊 =
𝐥𝐧 ( ) = 𝟎: 𝟔𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒆𝑽
𝒒 𝒏𝟐𝒊
Therefore, Vbi is increased by 2:67%.
The depletion capacitance can be calculated by
𝝐𝑨
𝑪𝒋 =
𝑾
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the junction and W is the
depletion width calculated by:
𝟐 𝝐𝒐 (𝑽𝒃𝒊 − 𝑽𝒂 ) 𝟏 𝟏
𝑾= √ (𝑵 + ) = 2:7549 µm
𝒒 𝑨 𝑵𝑫
𝟐 𝝐𝒐 (𝑽𝒃𝒊 − 𝑽𝒂 ) 𝟏 𝟏
𝑾= √ (𝟐 𝑵 + ) = 2:6938 µm
𝒒 𝑨 𝑵𝑫
Therefore, the percent change in junction depletion capacitance is
given by:
𝑪,𝒋 − 𝑪𝒋 𝒘 − 𝒘.
= = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 %
𝑪𝒋 𝒘.
Switching time
Example 1.8
Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit
shown with VDD=5V and R=1 K . Assume that the diode has a current
of 1 mA at a voltage of 0.7V and that its voltage drop changes by 0.1V
for every decade change in current. To begin the iteration, we assume
that VD = 0.7 V and use the next equation to determine the current.

ID
R

+
VDD vd
-

Assuming that VDD is greater than 0.5 V or so, the diode current will be
much greater than Is, and we can represent the diode i-v characteristic
by the exponential relationship, resulting in
𝑽𝑫
⁄
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝒔 𝒆 𝜼 𝑽𝑻
The other equation that governs circuit operation is obtained by
writing a Kirchhoff loop equation, resulting in
𝑽𝑫𝑫 − 𝒗𝑫
𝑰𝑫
𝑹
Assuming that the diode parameters Is and n are known , the two
equations above has two unknown quantities ID and VD. Two
alternative ways for obtaining the solution are graphical analysis and
iterative analysis.

Graphical Analysis Using the Exponential Model

VDD/R Load line Diode characteristics

Q
ID operating point
Graphical analysis is performed by plotting the relationships of the
used equations above on the i-v plane. The solution can then be
obtained as the coordinates of the point of intersection of the two
graphs. A sketch of the graphical construction is shown. The curve
represents the exponential diode equation, and the straight line is
known as the l o a d line. The load line intersects the diode curve at
point Q, which represents the operating point of the circuit. Its
coordinates give the values of ID and VD.

Example 1.8
Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit shown
ID
R

+
VDD vd
-

With VDD=5V and R = 1 K . Assume that the diode has a current of 1

mA at a voltage of 0.7V and that its voltage drop changes by 0.1V for
every decade change in current. To begin the iteration, we assume
that VD = 0.7 V and determine the current
𝑽𝑫𝑫 − 𝒗𝑫 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑰𝑫 = = 𝟒. 𝟑 𝒎𝑨
𝑹 𝟏
We then use the diode equation to obtain a better estimate for VD. This
can be done by employing Eq. as
𝒊
𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟐𝟑 𝜼 𝑽𝑻 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟏⁄𝒊
𝟐
 𝒊
𝟐𝟑 𝜼 𝑽𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝑽 , 𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒔 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟏⁄𝒊
𝟐
Substituting V1 = 0.7 V, I1 = 1 mA, and I2 = 4.3 mA results in V2 = 0.763
V. Thus the results of the first iteration are ID = 4.3 mA and VD = 0.763
V. The second iteration proceeds in a similar manner:
𝑽𝑫𝑫 − 𝒗𝑫 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟑
𝑰𝑫 = = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟑𝟕 𝒎𝑨
𝑹 𝟏
𝟒. 𝟐𝟑𝟕
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟐 𝑽
𝟒. 𝟑
Thus the second iteration yields ID = 4.237 mA and VD = 0.762 V. Since
these values are not much different from the values obtained after the
first iteration, no further iterations are necessary, and the solution is
ID = 4.237 mA and VD = 0.762 V.

Example 11
The dc power supply circuit of figure shown is to be designed for the
following specifications: dc output voltage = +15 V, dc load current =
100 mA, and percent ripple = 5%. The rectifier diode can be modeled
with the parameters VD0 = 0.7 V and RD = 0. Calculate the required
transformer secondary ac rms voltage and the value of the filter
capacitor. Assume a frequency f = 60 Hz.

iL (t)

+ +
To AC vS (t)
Power C RL vL(t)
Line - -

Solution.
The peak secondary transformer voltage is given by V1 = 15+0.7 = 15.7
V. The ac rms voltage is 15.7/ √ 2 = 11.1 V rms. The effective value of
the load resistor is RL = 15 / 0.1 = 150 Ω. The value of C can be
−𝑻
calculated form equation 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 ≤ [𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )] 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑹𝑳 𝑪
Where equality used. We obtain
 𝑻 −𝟏 𝟏⁄ −𝟏
𝑪= = 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟐𝟏𝟕𝟎 𝝁𝑭
𝑹𝑳 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏 − % 𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆) 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒍𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝟓⁄ )
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
If follows from the inequality equation 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 ≤ [𝟏 −
−𝑻
𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( )] 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 % that this value for C gives a percent ripple that is
𝑹 𝑪
𝑳
less than 5%.

Part (15) Solved PROBLEMS

photoelectric effect

Problem (1)
(a) An electron beam strikes a crystal of cadmium sulfide
(CdS). Electrons scattered by the crystal move at a velocity
of 4.4 x 105 m/s. Calculate the energy of the incident beam.
Express your result in eV. CdS is a semiconductor with a
band gap, Eg, of 2.45 eV.
(b) Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is also a semiconductor. Do
you expect the band gap of this material to be greater or less
than the band gap of CdS? Explain.

Solution
(a)
 Escattered e-
-
Eincident e scattered

Eg
Eemitted photons

e-incident

CdS crystal

𝒎 𝒗𝟐
𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆− = 𝑬𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒗 + 𝑬𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒆− = 𝑬𝒈 +
𝟐
𝟐
−𝟑𝟏 𝟓𝒎
𝟏 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒈 𝒙 (𝟒. 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 )
𝒔
𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆− = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓 𝒆𝑽 + 𝒙 𝒆𝑽
𝟐 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
𝑱
= 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓 𝒆𝑽 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝒆𝑽 = 𝟑 𝒆𝑽
(b) Eg(CdTe) <Eg(CdS)
The Cd–S bond is stronger than Cd–Te bond because
although both S and Te are group 16, Te is much larger than
S.

Problem #8
The energy gap (Eg) of ZnSe is 2.3 eV.
(a) Is this material transparent to visible radiation? Substantiate your
answer.
(b) How could you increase the electrical conductivity of this
material? Give the reasons for the effectiveness of your suggested
approach.

Solution
 ʎ (Ao)
CB 4000 5397 7000
E(hv)

Eg= 2.3 eV
E

3.1 2.3 2.26 1.77

E (eV)
Absorb
Blue green yellow red
Absorbed 1 transmitted

0 5397
ʎ (Ao) wave length

(a) The optical properties of ZnSe can be explained when

comparing the energy band of the visible spectrum with the energy
band diagram of ZnSe. Absorption takes place via photo excitation for
all radiation with E ≥ 2.3 eV. From the energy distribution of the visible
spectrum we recognize that the blue– green portion has photon
energies in excess of the band gap (Eg = 2.3eV) and thus will be
absorbed. The yellow–red potion, on the other hand, has photon
energies less than the band gap – it will be transmitted. ZnSe,
therefore, is expected to exhibit a yellowish–red color.

(b) In principle there are two ways to increase the electrical

conductivity of ZnSe:
a. A temperature rise. Any rise in temperature will increase the
number of “thermally activated” charge carriers in the conduction
band (electrons) and in the valence band (holes) and, thus, the
electronic conductivity.

Aside: The electrical conductivity of solids, demonstrated by the flow

of electronic charge carriers under an applied electric field (E), can be
formulated through Ohm’s law, J = σE, which states that the current
density (J = number of charges transported through a unit area in a
unit time) is proportional (σ = conductivity) to the applied electric
field. Accordingly:
𝑱 = 𝑵 𝒆 𝒗𝒅
where N = number of charge carriers/unit volume, e = electronic
charge and vd = average drift velocity of charge carriers in an applied
electric field. We thus obtain:
𝑵 𝒆 𝒗𝒅
𝝈=
𝑬
and if we define d(v /E) = μ, the charge carrier mobility, we have:
σ=Neμ
In intrinsic semiconductors we have both electrons and holes
contributing to conduction:

eenheh
σ = Ne e μe + Nneμh = Ne(μe + μh )

since Ne = Nh. Taking the number of thermally generated charge

carriers, given by the relationship
𝟑 −𝑬𝒈
𝑵 = 𝑨𝑻 ⁄𝟐 𝒆 ⁄𝟐 𝑲𝑻
we obtain the temperature dependence of the conductivity as:
𝟑 −𝑬𝒈
𝝈 = 𝑨𝑻 ⁄𝟐 𝒆 ⁄𝟐 𝑲𝑻 𝒙 𝐞 (𝝁𝒆 + 𝝁𝒉 )
To assess the temperature dependence of electrical conductivity we
must take into consideration that, because of increased vibration of
the atoms about their lattice positions, the charge carrier mobility will
decrease (increased scattering of charge carriers) with increasing
temperature. This effect explains why the electronic conductivity in
metals, where N is constant, will decrease with increasing
temperature. In semiconductors, where N increases with temperature,
the accompanying mobility effect is not apparent at low temperatures
(conductivity increases), but becomes pronounced at high
temperatures (conductivity decreases).
b. Introduction of shallow impurity (or defect) states close to the
conduction or valence band. This is accomplished by the
incorporation of appropriate dopant elements into the crystal matrix.
If these impurities are shallow (~0.01 eV from the conduction or
valence band), they will be totally ionized at room temperature and
each will contribute an electron (donor dopant: K, Na) or holes
(acceptor dopant: G, Br), thus increasing the electrical conductivity
without the necessity of a temperature rise. (Be aware that certain
defects in the crystal lattice may also increase the electronic
conductivity.)

9. Electron mobility in Si is 1400 cm2 V−1s−1. Calculate the mean free

time in scattering (Relaxations time) of electrons.
Effective mass is m∗e/m0 = 0.33.
Solution:
From µ = eτ/m∗ we get that τ = 2.6×10−13 s.

Example 1.1
A metal has a work function of 4.3 V. What is the minimum
photon energy in Joule to emit an electron from this metal
through the photo-electric effect?
What are the photon frequency in Terahertz and the photon
wavelength in micrometer?
What is the corresponding photon momentum? What is the
velocity of a free electron with the same momentum?

Solution
The minimum photon energy, Eph, equals the work function,
ΦM, in units of electron volt or 4.3 eV. This also equals:
𝑬𝒑𝒉 = 𝒒 𝝓𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟒. 𝟑 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
The corresponding photon frequency is:
𝟔. 𝟖𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
𝒇𝒑𝒉 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟎 𝑻𝑯𝒛
𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒
The corresponding wavelength equals:
𝒉𝒄 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟏. 𝟐𝟒 𝝁
𝝀= = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝝁𝒎
𝑬𝒑𝒉 𝟔. 𝟖𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑬𝒑𝒉 (𝒆𝑽)
The photon momentum, p, is:
𝒉 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒
𝒑= = −𝟔
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟗𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈 𝒎/𝒔
𝝀 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
And the velocity, v, of a free electron with the same
momentum equals:
𝒑 𝟐. 𝟐𝟗𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕
𝝂= = = 𝟐𝟓𝟐𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
𝒎𝒐 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏
Where mo is the free electron mass
𝑬𝒑𝒉 = 𝒒 𝝓𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟒. 𝟑 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗

Example 1.2 (the blackbody radiation)

The spectral density of the sun peaks at a wavelength of 900
nm. If the sun behaves as a black body, what is the
temperature of the sun?

Solution:
A wavelength of 900 nm corresponds to a photon energy of:

𝒉 𝒄 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖

𝑬𝒑𝒉 = = −𝟗
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
𝝀 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎

Since the peak of the spectral density occurs at 2.82 kT, the
corresponding temperature equals:
𝑬𝒑𝒉 𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
𝑻= = = 𝟓𝟔𝟕𝟐 𝑲𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏
𝟐. 𝟖𝟐 𝒌 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑

Example 1.3
An electron is confined to a 1 micron thin layer of silicon.
Assuming that the semiconductor can be adequately
described by a one-dimensional quantum well with infinite
walls, calculate the lowest possible energy within the
material in units of electron volt. If the energy is interpreted
as the kinetic energy of the electron, what is the
corresponding electron velocity? (The effective mass of
electrons in silicon is 0.26 m0, where m0 = 9.11 x 10-31 kg is
the free electron rest mass).
Solution:
The lowest energy in the quantum equals:
𝟐 𝟐
𝒉𝟐 𝟏 (𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 )𝟐 𝟏
𝑬𝟏 = ( ) = ( )
𝟐 𝒎∗ 𝟐 𝑳𝒑 𝟐 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
= 𝟐. 𝟑𝟐𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟓 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝒆𝑽
Then velocity of an electron with this energy equal:
𝟐𝑬𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐. 𝟑𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟓
𝝂= √ ∗ = √ = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟗𝟗 𝒌𝒎/𝒔
𝒎 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏

Example 1.4
Consider an infinitely long cylinder with charge density r,
dielectric constant ε0 and radius r0. What is the electric field
in and around the cylinder?

Solution:
Because of the cylinder symmetry one expects the electric
field to be only dependent on the radius, r. Applying Gauss's
law one finds:
𝑸 𝝆 𝝅 𝒓𝟐 𝑳
⃗⃗
⃗𝑨= 𝜺𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑳=
𝜺 =
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒐
And
𝑸 𝝆 𝝅 𝒓𝟐𝒐 𝑳
⃗𝑨
𝜺 ⃗⃗ = 𝜺 𝟐 𝝅 𝒓 𝑳 = =
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒐
Where a cylinder with length L was chosen to define the
surface A and edges effects were ignored. the electric field
then equal:
𝝆𝒓
𝜺(𝒓) =
𝟐 𝜺𝒐
The electric field increases with the cylinder with increasing
radius. The electric field decreases outside with the cylinder
with increasing radius.
Problem 1.1
Calculate the wavelength of a photon with a photon energy of
2 eV. Also, calculate the wavelength of an electron with a
kinetic energy of 2 eV.

Solution The wavelength of a 2 eV photon equals:

𝒉𝑪 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝒐−𝟑𝟒 𝑱 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝐝𝐞𝐁𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐞𝒍𝒘 = =
𝑬𝒑𝒉 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒄⁄𝟐 𝒆𝑽
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 𝝁𝒎
where the photon energy (2 eV) was first converted to Joules
by multiplying with the electronic charge. The wavelength of
an electron with a kinetic energy of 2 eV is obtained by
calculating the deBroglie wavelength:
𝒉 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝒐−𝟑𝟒 𝑱
𝐝𝐞𝐁𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐞𝒍𝒘 = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒏𝒎
𝒑 −𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝒈 𝒎⁄
𝟕. 𝟔𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒔
Where the momentum of the particle was calculated from the
kinetic energy:
𝒑 = √𝟐 𝒎 𝑬 = √𝟐 𝒙 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝒐−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒄 𝒙 𝟐 𝒆𝑽
= 𝟕. 𝟔𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝒈 𝒎/𝒔

Problem 1.2
Consider a beam of light with a power of 1 Watt and a
wavelength of 800 nm. Calculate
a) the photon energy of the photons in the beam,
b) the frequency of the light wave and
c) the number of photons provided by the beam in one
second. Solution
The photon energy is calculated from the wavelength as:
𝒉𝑪 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝒐−𝟑𝟒 𝑱𝒔 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
𝑬𝒑𝒉 = =
𝐝𝐞𝐁𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐞𝒍𝒘 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒎
= 𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
or in electron Volt:
 𝟐. 𝟒𝟖𝒙 𝟏𝒐−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
𝑬𝒑𝒉 = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝒆𝑽
𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝒐−𝟏𝟗 𝒄
The frequency then equals: -
𝑬𝒑𝒉 𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
𝒏= = = 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝑻𝑯𝒛
𝒉 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝒐−𝟑𝟒 𝑱𝒔
And the number of photons equals the ratio of the optical
power and the energy per photon:
𝟏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 𝟏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕
⋕ 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 = = −𝟏𝟗
= 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖
𝑬𝒑𝒉 𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝑱

Problem 1.3
Show that the spectral density, uw(equation 1.2.4) peaks at
Eph = 2.82 kT. Note that a numeric iteration is required.

Solution
The spectral density, uw, can be rewritten as a function of
ℏ𝒘
𝝌=
𝑲𝑻
𝟑 𝟑
𝑲 𝑻 𝝌𝟑
𝒖𝒘 = 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
ℏ 𝒑 𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (𝝌) − 𝟏
The maximum of this function is obtained if its derivative is
zero or:
𝒅𝒖𝒘 𝟑 𝝌𝟐 𝝌𝟐 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (𝝌)
= − =𝟎
𝒅𝝌 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (𝝌) − 𝟏 (𝒆𝒙𝒑 (𝝌) − 𝟏)𝟐
Therefore 𝝌 must satisfy:
𝟑 − 𝟑 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (− 𝝌) = 𝝌
This transcendental equation can be solved starting with an
arbitrary positive value of 𝝌. A repeated calculation of the left
hand side using this value and the resulting new value for 𝝌
quickly converges to 𝝌max = 2.82144. The maximum spectral
density therefore occurs at:
𝑬𝒑𝒉 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝌𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑲𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟒 KT
Problem 1.4
Calculate the peak wavelength of blackbody radiation
emitted from a human body at a temperature of 37°C.

Solution The peak wavelength is obtained through the peak

energy
𝒉𝑪 𝒉𝑪
𝐝𝐞𝐁𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐞𝒍𝒘 = =
𝑬𝒑𝒉 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐 𝑲𝑻
𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖
= −𝟐𝟑
= 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝝁𝒎
𝟐. 𝟖𝟐 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟑𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟓

Where the temperature was first converted to units Kelvin.

Small signal
Example
In the circuit shown, a sinusoidal signal voltage is used to charge a
12-V car battery. The source voltage has amplitude of 20 V that is
shown in Fig. 2.1.5(a). Find the values of iD and vD and sketch their
waveforms. Also, find the average value of the current charging the
battery.

R = 100 Ω iD

VS(t) + vD - 12 V

In volts VS(t)

20
10
0 θ
-10 θ1 θ2 π 2 π θ3 θ4 3 π 4π
-20
Solution
If the diode is forward-biased, vD = 0, and the diode current is
(𝐯𝐬 − 𝟏𝟐)
𝐢𝐃 = 𝐀
𝟏𝟎𝟎
It is convenient to describe the time-varying source voltage as
vS (θ) = 20 sin (θ),
Where θ = (2 π f t) and f is the frequency. To have iD > 0 (forward-
biased), vS must be greater than 12 V; i.e. only if vS > 12 V, there is
a current in the loop. Otherwise the diode will be reverse-biased and
will not conduct. Thus, the sketch of the diode current is shown in
Fig. (b). Clearly, the diode conducts between θ1 and θ2 during the
first
cycle of input sinusoid, and again between θ3 and θ4 during the
second cycle.

If iD > 0, vD = 0. If vS < 12 V, the diode is reverse-biased, and iD must be

equal to zero. Therefore, if vS < 12 V, KVL gives
𝐯𝐃 = (𝐯𝐬 − 𝟏𝟐)𝐕
The sketch of the waveform for vD is shown in (c). The average current
can be found by finding the average value of the current during one
period.
First, during the first period, we observe that
(𝐯𝐬 − 𝟏𝟐)
𝐢𝐃 = 𝐀 , 𝛉𝟏 ≤ 𝛉 ≤ 𝛉𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Otherwise,
Since vS (θ) = 20sin(θ), the values of the angles can be found using
𝟑 𝟑
𝛉𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 ( ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛉𝟐 = 𝛑 − 𝐬𝐨𝐧−𝟏 ( ) = 𝛑 − 𝛉𝟏
𝟓 𝟓
The average value of the current is
𝛑−𝛉𝟏
𝟏 𝟐𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 − 𝟏𝟐 𝟎. 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐
𝐈𝐃 = ∫ 𝐝𝛉 = 𝐀
𝟐 𝛑 𝛉𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝛑
Substituting the value of θ1 in the above equation, we find that
ID = 15.51 mA.

Breakdown
Example
An abrupt pn junction has doping densities of NA = 5x1015 atoms/cm3
and ND = 1016 atoms/cm3. Calculate the breakdown voltage if Εcrit =
3x105 V/cm.

Solution
𝜺𝒔𝒊 (𝑵𝑨 + 𝑵𝑫 ) 𝟐 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 (𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 )
𝑽𝑹 = 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = 𝟖𝟖 𝑽
𝟐 𝒒 𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔

Example
Determine breakdown voltage for a pn junction shown , assume Vbi =
0.9 V

ND ND
P+ X=010 16 cm-3 16
x= 1.3 µm cm
5x 10 -3

Solution:
First perform a check whether the depletion width still lies in the
highly doped region or nit. If it does, then
𝜺𝒔
𝑾 = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟔 𝝁𝒎
𝒒 𝑵𝑫
This shows that the depletion width extend into the highest doped N-
region as well resulting in the following diagram.
E
X0 xN

2x105

N x 105

The electric field at x0 is obtained using the expression

𝜺𝒔
𝑾 = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒙 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟑 𝝁𝒎
𝒒 𝑵𝑫𝟏
Using the Poisson’s equation

𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝒙𝑵 − 𝒙𝑫 = 𝒒
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 𝝁𝒎
(𝜺 𝑵𝑫𝟐
)
𝒔
The area under the electric field curve will be equal to Vbi + BV , so
that , BV = 40.7 V

Example 6
A Zener diode at room temperature (VT = 0.0259 V) has the
specifications VZ = 10 V, IZ = 10 mA , and rz = 20 Ω. Calculate
(a) the Zener breakdown ideality factor η,
(b) the voltage VZ0 in the linear circuit shown, and
(c) the voltage at which the breakdown current is IZ / 10.

I i

+
Vz V

Iz Tangent line -
Slope = 1/R
Vz0
Solution.
𝜼𝒛 𝑽𝑻
(a) Equation 𝒓𝒛 = ⁄𝑰 be used to solve for ηz to obtain
𝒛
𝑰𝒛 𝒓𝒛 𝟏𝟎 𝒎 𝒙 𝟐𝟎
𝜼𝒛 = = = 𝟕. 𝟕𝟐
𝑽𝑻 𝟐𝟓. 𝟗 𝒎
(b) The voltage VZ0 is calculated from Eq. 𝑽𝒛𝟎 = 𝑽𝒛 − 𝑰𝒛 𝒓𝒛 to obtain

𝑽𝒛𝟎 = 𝑽𝒛 − 𝑰𝒛 𝒓𝒛 = 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝒎 𝒙 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟗. 𝟖 𝑽
(c) If IS << IZ, Eq.
𝑽 𝒗 + 𝑽𝒛
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒔 [𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( ) − 𝟏] − 𝑰𝒛 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (– )
𝜼 𝑽𝑻 𝜼𝒛 𝑽𝑻
Can be solved for the voltage at which i = −1 mA as follows:
𝒊
𝒗 = − 𝑽𝒛 − 𝜼𝒛 𝑽𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ( ) = −𝟏𝟎 − 𝟕. 𝟕𝟐 𝒙 𝟐𝟓. 𝟗 𝒎 𝒙 𝒍𝒏 (𝟎. 𝟏)
− 𝑰𝒛
= −𝟗. 𝟓𝟒 𝑽
The reverse-bias voltage is the negative of this, i.e. +9.54 V.

Part (16) Solved PROBLEMS

Schottky Diode

Problem (1)
Find a height of the potential barrier for a Au-n-Ge Schottky contact at
room temperature (T = 293 K) if ρ = 1 Ωcm, ψAu = 5.1 eV, and χGe = 4.0
eV. Electron mobility in Ge is 3900 cm2 V−1 s−1, density of the states in
the conduction band is Nc = 1.98×1015 ×T3/2 cm−3.

Solution:
eVd = 0.88 eV
Problem (2)
Calculate the depletion width for a Pt-n-Si Schottky diode (T = 300 K)
at V = 0, +0.4, and −2 V. Concentration of doping impurity in Si equals
4×1016 cm−3. Work function of Pt is 5.65 eV, electron affinity of Si is
4.05 eV, ϵSi = 11.9, density of the states in the conduction band is Nc =
6.2×1015 ×T3/2 cm−3.

Solution:
w = 0.22, 0.19, and 0.34 µm for V = 0, +0.4, and −2 V, respectively

Problem (3)
For a Schottky contact Au-GaAs calculate the maximum electric field
within the space charge region at V = 0, +0.3, and −100 V. Nd = 1016
cm−3, χGaAs = 4.07 eV, ϵGaAs = 12.9. Work function of Au is 5.1 eV, T =
300 K, density of the states in the conduction band is Nc = 8.63×1013
×T3/2 cm−3.

Solution:
E = 5.1 × 104, 4.2 × 104, and 5.1 × 105 V/cm for V = 0, +0.3, and −100 V,
respectively.

Problem (4)
What is the electric field E for a Schottky diode Au-n-Si at V = −5 V at
the distance of 1.2 µm from the interface at room temperature if ρ =
10Ωcm, µn = 1400 cm2 V−1 s−1, Nc = 6.2×1015 ×T3/2 cm−3.

Solution:
E = 2×104 V/cm.

Problem (5)
Find current densities j at room temperature for a Schottky diode Pt-
n-GaAs at V = +0.5 and −5 V if ρ = 50Ωcm. µn = 8800 cm2 V−1 s−1, mn/m0
= 0.063, work function of Pt is 5.65 eV, χGaAs = 4.07 eV, Nc = 8.63 × 1013
× T3/2 cm−3. Apply thermionic-emission theory.

Solution:
From n = 1/eρµn we obtain that n = 1.4×1013 cm−3. Thus,
𝑵𝒄
𝒆 𝝋𝒅 = 𝝍 𝒑𝒕 − 𝝌𝑮𝒂𝑨𝒔 − 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟐 𝒆𝑽
𝒏
The average thermal velocity is
𝟏⁄
𝟖 𝑲𝑻 𝟐
𝝂𝒕 = ( ) = 𝟒. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒄𝒎/𝒔
𝝅 𝒎𝒏
From here we get
𝟏 − 𝒆 𝝋𝒅
𝑱𝒔 = 𝒆 𝒏 𝝂𝑻 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( ) = 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟐 𝑨/𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝟒 𝑲𝑻
From here we get
𝒆𝑽
𝒋 = 𝒋𝒔 {𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( ) − 𝟏}
𝑲𝑻
we obtain j(0.5V) = 1.5×10−13 A/cm2 and j(−5V) = js.

Problem (6)
The capacitance of a Au-n-GaAs Schottky diode is given by the
relation 1/C2 = 1.57×1015 −2.12×1015 V, where C is expressed in F and V
is in Volts. Taking the diode area to be 0.1 cm2, calculate the barrier
height and the dopant concentration.

Solution:
𝝋𝒅 = 0.74 V, n = 2.8×1017 cm−3.

7. From comparison of the de Broglie wavelength of electron with the

depletion width of a contact metal-n-Si, estimate the electron
concentration at which Schottky diode loses its rectifying
characteristics. For the estimate, assume that the height of the
potential barrier a the contact is half the value of the band gap at
room temperature (Eg = 1.12 eV), m∗e = m0, T = 300 K, and ϵSi = 11.9.

Solution:
A Schottky diode loses its rectifying characteristics when de Broglie
wavelength, λ, of electron becomes comparable with the depletion
width, ω, of the diode. Since
𝟐𝝅𝒉 √𝝐𝒔𝒊 𝑬𝒈
𝝀= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝎 =
√𝟐 𝒎𝒐 𝑬 𝟒 𝝅 𝒆𝟐 𝒏
From the condition 𝝀<<𝝎
We obtain that ,
𝟑 𝝐𝒔𝒊 𝒎𝒐 𝑲𝑻 𝑬𝒈
𝒏 ≪
𝟏𝟔 𝝅𝟑 𝒆𝟐 𝒉𝟐
Here, we assumed that the mean energy of electron is E = 3kT/2 and
the potential barrier at the contact is 𝝋𝒅 = Eg/2e. Substituting
numerical values in the above expression we get that for proper
functioning of the Schottky diode, electron concentration must be
significantly less than 2×1019 cm−3.

Problem 3.1
Consider a gold-GaAs Schottky diode with a capacitance of 1
pF at -1 V. What is the doping density of the GaAs? Also
calculate the depletion layer width at zero bias and the field
at the surface of the semiconductor at -10 V. The area of the
diode is 10-5 cm2.

Solution The depletion layer width can be calculated from the

capacitance yielding:
𝒆𝒔 𝑨 𝟏𝟑. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
𝒙𝒅 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟔 𝝁𝒎
𝑪 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
From this one can find the doping density:
𝟐 𝒆𝒙 (𝒇𝒊 − 𝑽𝒂 ) 𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟑. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒙 (𝒇𝒊 + 𝟏)
𝑵𝒅 = =
𝒒 𝒙𝟐𝒅 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 (𝟏. 𝟏𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 )𝟐
Provided one knows the built-in potential
𝑵𝒄 𝟒. 𝟑𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕
𝒇𝒊 = 𝒇𝑩 − 𝑽𝒕 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟒. 𝟖 − 𝟒. 𝟎𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒏
𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝒅
Which in turn depends on the doping density. Starting with fi
= 0.7 one finds Nd = 1.83 x 1017 cm-3 and the corresponding
built-in potential fi = 0.708. Further iteration yields the result:
Nd = 1.84 x 1017 cm-3.

The depletion layer width at zero bias equals:

𝟐 𝒆𝒙 (𝒇𝒊 − 𝑽𝒂 ) 𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟑. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒙 (𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟖 − 𝟎)
𝒙𝒅 = √ =
𝒒 𝑵𝒅 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝝁𝒎
And the electric field at the surface for Va = -10 V equals:
 𝒒 𝑵𝒅 𝒙𝒅
𝜺 (𝒙 = 𝟎) =
𝒆𝒔
𝟐 (𝒇𝒊 − 𝑽𝒂 ) 𝒒 𝑵𝒅 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐𝟎. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕
= √ √ = 𝟕𝟑𝟕 𝑲𝑽/𝒄𝒎
𝒆𝒔 𝟏𝟑. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒
Example 3.1
Consider a chrome-silicon metal-semiconductor junction
with Nd = 1017 cm-3. Calculate the barrier height and the built-
in potential. Repeat for a p-type semiconductor with the
same doping density.

Solution The barrier height equals:

𝝓𝑩 = 𝚽𝒎 − 𝝌 = 𝟒. 𝟓 − 𝟒. 𝟎𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝑽
Note that this value differs from the one listed in Table , since
the work function in vacuum was used.
The built-in potential equals:
𝑵𝒄 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗
𝝓𝟏 = 𝝓𝑩 − 𝑽𝒕 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝑽
𝑵𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕
The barrier height for the chrome/p-silicon junction equals:
𝑬𝒈
𝝓𝑩 = 𝝌 + − 𝚽𝒎 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟒. 𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕 𝑽
𝒒
And the built-in potential equals:
𝑵𝒗 𝟏. 𝟖𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗
𝝓𝟏 = 𝝓𝑩 − 𝑽𝒕 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 𝑽
𝑵𝒂 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕

1.2 Schottky Diode

1. Find a hight of the potential barrier for a Au-n-Ge Schottky
contact at room temperature (T = 293 K) if ρ = 1Ώ cm, ψAu =
5.1 eV, and ҳGe = 4.0 eV. Electron mobility in Ge is 3900 cm2
V−1 s−1, density of the states in the conduction band is Nc =
1.98 × 1015 × T3/2 cm−3.

Solution: (2.1)
eVd = 0.88 eV.
2. Calculate the depletion width for a Pt-n-Si Schottky diode
(T = 300 K) at V = 0, +0.4, and −2 V. Concentration of doping
impurity in Si equals 4 × 1016 cm−3. Work function of Pt is 5.65
eV, electron affinity of Si is 4.05 eV, εSi = 11.9, density of the
states in the conduction band is Nc = 6.2 × 1015 × T3/2 cm−3.

Solution: (2.2)
w = 0.22, 0.19, and 0.34 μm for V = 0, +0.4, and −2 V,
respectively.

3. For a Schottky contact Au-GaAs calculate the maximum

electric field within the space charge region at V = 0, +0.3,
and −100 V. Nd = 1016 cm−3, χGaAs = 4.07 eV, εGaAs = 12.9. Work
function of Au is 5.1 eV, T = 300 K, density of the states in the
Conduction band is Nc = 8.63 × 1013 × T3/2 cm−3.

Solution: (2.3)
E = 5.1 × 104, 4.2 × 104, and 5.1 × 105 V/cm for V = 0, +0.3, and
− 100 V, respectively.

4. What is the electric field E for a Schottky diode Au-n-Si at

V = −5 V at the distance of 1.2 μm from the interface at room
temperature if ρ = 10 Ώcm, μn = 1400 cm2 V−1 s−1, Nc = 6.2 ×
1015 × T3/2 cm−3.

Solution: (2.4)
E = 2 × 104 V/cm.

5. Find current densities j at room temperature for a Schottky

diode Pt-n-GaAs at V = +0.5 and −5 V if ρ = 50 Ώcm. μn = 8800
cm2 V−1 s−1, mn/m0 = 0.063, work function of Pt is 5.65 eV,
χGaAs = 4.07 eV, Nc = 8.63 × 1013 × T3/2 cm−3. Apply thermionic-
emission theory.
Solution: (2.5)
From n = 1/eρμn we obtain that n = 1.4 × 1013 cm−3. Thus,
𝑵
𝟐𝝋𝒅 = 𝝍𝒑𝒕 − 𝝍𝑮𝑨 𝑨𝒔 − 𝑲𝑻 𝒍𝒏 𝒄⁄𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟐 𝒆𝑽
The average thermal velocity is
𝟏⁄
𝒗𝑻 = (𝟖𝑲𝑻⁄𝝅𝒎𝒏 ) 𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒄𝒎⁄𝒔
From here we get
𝟏 𝒆 𝝋𝒅
𝑱𝒔 = 𝒆 𝒏 𝒗𝑻 𝒆𝒙𝒑 (– ⁄𝑲𝑻) = 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝑨⁄ 𝟐
𝟒 𝒄𝒎
Finally, from
𝑱 = 𝑱𝒔 (𝒆𝒙𝒑 (𝒆 𝑽⁄𝑲𝑻) − 𝟏)
we obtain j(0.5V) = 1.5 × 10−13 A/cm2 and j(−5V) = js.

6. The capacitance of a Au-n-GaAs Schottky diode is given

by the relation 1/C2 = 1.57 × 1015 − 2.12 × 1015 V, where C is
expressed in F and V is in Volts. Taking the diode area to be
0.1 cm2, calculate the barrier height and the dopant
concentration.

Solution: (2.6)

7. From comparison of the de Broglie wavelength of electron

with the depletion width of a contact metal-n-Si, estimate the
electron concentration at which Schottky diode loses its
rectifying characteristics. For the estimate, assume that the
height of the potential barrier a the contact is half the value
of the band gap at room temperature (Eg = 1.12 eV), m*e = m0,
T = 300 K, and εSi = 11.9.

Solution: (2.7)
𝝋𝒅 = 0.74 V, n = 2.8 × 1017 cm−3.

Part (17) Solved PROBLEMS

solar cell

Example 4.6
A 1 cm2 silicon solar cell has a saturation current of 10-12 A
and is illuminated with sunlight yielding a short-circuit
photocurrent of 25 mA. Calculate the solar cell efficiency and
fill factor.

Solution The maximum power is generated for:

𝒅𝒑 𝑽𝒎
⁄𝑽 𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒎
⁄
= 𝟎 = 𝑰𝒔 (𝒆 𝒕 − 𝟏) − 𝑰𝒑𝒉 + 𝑰𝒔 𝒆 𝑽𝒕
𝒅 𝑽𝒂 𝑽𝑻
where the voltage, Vm, is the voltage corresponding to the
maximum power point. This voltage is obtained by solving
the following transcendental equation:
𝑰
𝟏 + 𝒑𝒉⁄𝑰
𝒔
𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽𝒕 𝒍𝒏
𝑽
𝟏 + 𝒎⁄𝑽
𝒕
Using iteration and a starting value of 0.5 V one obtains the
following successive values for Vm: Vm = 0.5, 0.542, 0.540 V
and the efficiency equals:
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝒉= [ ]= = 𝟏𝟑%
𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝟎. 𝟏
The current, Im, corresponding to the voltage, Vm, was
calculated using equation (4.6.1) and the power of the sun
was assumed 100 mW/cm2. The fill factor equals:
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = = 𝟖𝟑%
𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝑰𝒔𝒄 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓
where the open circuit voltage is calculated using equation
(4.6.1) and I = 0. The short circuit current equals the
photocurrent