GEOINFORMATICS

By:

Dr. Sami Omer Hag El Khidir

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 By:

Dr. Sami Omer Hag El Khidir

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 CONTENTS:

 Definition of Remote Sensing

 Elements of Remote Sensing

 History & Evolution of Aerial Photography & Remote Sensing.

 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR), Theory & Concepts.

 Electromagnetic Spectrum.

 Interaction of EMR with Atmosphere.

 Interaction of EMR with the Ground Surface.

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  Introductory Remote Sensing, Principles & Concepts – Paul Gibson (2000).

 Remote Sensing – Principles and Interpretation _ F. F. Sabins (1997).

 Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation – Lilledsand & Kiefer (1994).

 Image Interpretation in Geology_ Drury (1993).

 Remote sensing Geology – Ravi Gupta (2003).

 http://rst.gsfc.nasa. gov/Front/overview.html

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 REMOTE SENSING
PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS

By:

Dr. Sami Omer Hag El Khidir

Remote sensing group
Faculty of Petroleum and Minerals

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 References:
• Introductory Remote Sensing, Principles & Concepts – Paul Gibson (2000).

• Introductory Remote Sensing, Digital Image Processing and Application – Gibson and Power (2000).

• Remote Sensing – Principles and Interpretation _ F. F. Sabins (1997).

• Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation – Lilledsand & Kiefer (1994).

• Image Interpretation in Geology_ Drury (1993).

• Remote sensing Geology – Ravi Gupta (2003).

• Introductory Digital Image Processing, A remote sensing Perspective – Jensen. http://rst.gsfc.nasa.

gov/Front/overview.html

• Fundamentals of remote sensing-CCRS Tutorial .

• Geoinformation Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry and Geographical Information Systems - Konecny

(2003).

• Introduction to remote sensing-_ Elachi & Van Zyl (2006).

• Remote Sensing: Models and Methods for Image processing _Schowengerdt_ (2007).

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 Digital image Processing

-There are different software packages used for image

Processing:

-ENVI, Research System Inc., www. rsinc.com.

-ERDAS Imagine, from ERDAS- , www.erdas.com

-PCI Geomatica, from PCI-Geomaticas, www.pcigeomatics.com

-Earth View, from ATLANTIS Scientific Inc., www.atlsci.com

-ER Mapper, from Earth Resources Mapping, www.ermapper.com

-TNTmips, from Micro Images, www.microimages.com

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 Digital image Processing

-There are different software packages used for image

Processing:

-Idrisi, from Clark Labs, www.clarklabs.com

-IGIS, from LaserScan Ltd,

-DRAGON, from Golden-Rudahal Systems Inc,

-Ilwis, from ITC , www.itc.nl

-Image Analyst, from Z/I Imaging , www.ziimaging.com

-ArcView, ArcGIS, from ESRI , www.esri.com

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 Digital image Processing

-There are different software packages used for image

Processing:

-Normal image and photo processing software

- Adobe Photoshop (+Geographic imager),
- Corel-Photo paint (Corel draw group).
- Painter

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 Digital image Processing

Remote Sensor Resolution

• Spatial - the size of the field-of-view, e.g. 10 x 10 m.

10 m

10 m

• Spectral - the number and size of spectral regions the sensor

B G R NIR records data in, e.g. blue, green, red, near-infrared
thermal infrared, microwave (radar).

• Temporal - how often the sensor acquires data, e.g. every 30 days.

Jan Feb
15 15
• Radiometric - the sensitivity of detectors to small differences in
electromagnetic energy.

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 Digital image Processing

-What is the Digital Imagery

A digital image is an array of numbers depicting spatial distribution of a

certain field or parameter. It is a digital representation in the form of rows
and columns, where each number in the array represents the relative value
of the parameter at that point/over the unit area.

The parameter could be Reflectivity of EMR, Emissivity, Temperature, or

parameter such as topographical elevation, geomagnetic field.

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 Digital image Processing
-What is the Digital Imagery
A digital image can quantized in Bit number as:-
-7 bit or 27 128 0 -127
-8 bit or 28 256 0 -255
-9 bit or 29 512 0 -511
-10 bit or 210 1024 0 -1023
-11 bit or 211 2048 0 - 2048
-12 bit or 212 4096 0 - 4095

Advantages:-
-Better quality data, as the entire DN –range can be
used.
-No loss of information during reproduction and
distribution
-Greater ease of data storage, distribution and a
higher shelf life.
-Amenability to digital image processing
-Representability of Results

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 Digital image Processing
What is the Digital Imagery

A digital image can arranged in one

of the five ways:-

1. Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP).

2. Band Interleaved by Line (PIL).

3. Band Sequential (BSQ).

4. Separate File (FIL).

5. Tilted file (TELTED)

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 Digital image Processing
Digital Image Processing (DIP)

Digital Image Processing define as the manipulation of digital data by computer programs in
order to improve the appearance of an image.

Digital Image Processing can be subdivided into the following:-

1. Radiometric Correction: Correction of the recorded digital image in respect of

radiometric distortions.

2. Geometric Image Correction: deals with digital processing for systematic and non-
systematic geometric distortions.

3. Image Registration: Superimposition of images taken by different sensors from

different platforms and/ or at different times, over one another, or onto a standard
map projection.

4. Image Enhancement: aims at contrast manipulation to enhance certain features of

interest in the image.

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 Digital image Processing
- Digital Image Processing (DIP)
Digital Image Processing can be subdivided into the following:-

5. Image filtering: extraction ( and enhancement) of spatial-scale information

from an image.

6. Image Transformation: deals with processing of multiple band images to

generate a compound (transformed) image.

7. Image Fusion: aims at combining two or more images by using a certain

algorithm, to form a new image.

8. Classification: classification of pixels of the scene into various thematic

groups, based on spectral response characteristics.

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 Digital image Processing

1. Radiometric Correction:
The purpose of radiometric image correction (Image restoration) is to
rectify the recorded image data for various radiometric distortions.

1.1. Atmospheric Correction: The purpose here is to correct the image from
various effects of the atmosphere (selective scattering, absorption and
emission) on the EMR.

Path radiance affects RS image data in two ways:-

a) Reduction in contrast of the image. Due to the masking effect.

b) Adjacency effect, scattering of radiation out IFOV towards the
sensor aperture.

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 Digital image Processing

METHODS OF ATMOSPHERE (HAZE) CORRECTION

i- Absolute methods
Using Atmospheric models like ATCORR (ATmosphere CORRection) , 5S, SMAC and
6S , which involve metrological data and measurements at the time of image
acquisition e.g. temperature, wind direction and speed, humidity, sun elevation,,,
etc…

ii- Relative methods

It is a scene-depend method. An effective method for the haze correction is called
DOS ‘‘Dark Object Subtraction’’ described by Crane (1971).
This method is known also as the ‘‘histogram minimum’’ and is based on two
assumptions;
A) first the atmospheric effect is uniform throughout the scene.
B) second somewhere in the image there is a pixel with zero illumination or
reflectance, which could be motionless water body (lake, sea and ocean), or / and
shadows.

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 Digital image Processing
METHODS OF ATMOSPHERE (HAZE) CORRECTION
- Careful Examination method: the examining of the image carefully to find this non-zero
bodies, read this value and subtracted from the whole image. A disadvantage of this
method is that such pixels may not confidently occur in many images.

- Histogram Method: The DN value to subtracted from each band can be estimated from
the histogram, reading the value of the off-set. By mathematical subtraction of the
offset values from the grey spectrum, the relative haze correction is achieved.

- Regression method: A scatterogram or regression method can be also used to estimate

the haze component. DN values of the VIS bands are plotted against the NIR bands.
The line of best fit will intercept the short-wavelength axis at DN approximating the
haze component. This value can be then subtracted from all the pixels to remove the
haze component.

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 Digital image Processing

3.Geometric Image Correction:

Raw digital images usually contain geometric distortions so significant that they can not
used directly as a base map without subsequent processing. The source of these
distortions range from variations in the altitude, attitude, and velocity of the sensor
platform.

Geometric distortions divided into two groups:-

1. Systematic distortions.
2. Non-systematic distortions.

3.2.1. Systematic distortions: These are predictable distortions. Such as the

panchromatic distortions (due to the un-verticality of the optical axis results in a
squeezing image margins), skewing due to the earth’s rotation, and the aspect ratio
distortions.
3.2.2. Non- Systematic distortions: These are random distortions, and
generally corrected by the general technique of ´´ Rubber-sheet stretching``.

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 Digital image Processing
4. Image Registration
Definition & Importance:
Registration is the process of superimposing
image, maps or data sets over one another with
geometric precision or congruence, i.e. the data
derived from the same ground element in
different sensor coverage are exactly
superimposed over each other.

The need for image registration is obvious. In

many situations, we have multi-sensor, multi-
temporal, multi-platform or even-multi-
disciplinary data. For the integrated study
(general pattern recognition, change detection),
the various image data sets must be registered
over each other.

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing

4. Image Registration

Definition & Importance:

Registration of an image is carried out to a

certain base.

If the base is an image, it is called relative

registration.

& if the base is a certain standard

cartographic projection, it is called absolute
registration.

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
4. Image Registration
Principles:-

Resampling

A number of resampling method can be applied as:-

- Nearest neighbour resampling.

- Bilinear interpolation.
- Cubic convolution interpolation.

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
5. Image Enhancement

The purpose of enhancement is to render the images more

interpretable, i.e. features should become better discernible.

The main goal of image enhancement is to improve the visual

interpretability of an image by increasing and amplifying the apparent
distinction between features in the scene.

Enhancement techniques grouped into:-

- Point Operation :modify the brightness value of each pixel in
an image data independently.
- Local Operation: modify the value of each pixel based on
neighbouring brightness values.

Firstly the image must be corrected for geometric, registration and

radiometric distortions.
The statistical data distribution of the scene is examined. The
histogram of each bands describe the data distribution.
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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
5. Image Enhancement

The most digital enhancement techniques is contrast enhancement

Contrast Enhancement:-

Deals with rescaling of grey levels so that the features of interest are
better shown on the image.

In general, it is so happens that the number of actually recorded

intensity levels in the scene is rather low and the full dynamic range of
the digital image (256 levels) is not utilized.

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
5. Image Enhancement

5.1 Grey-level Thresholding:-

In general, it is so happens that the number of actually recorded

intensity levels in the scene is rather low and the full dynamic range of
the digital image (256 levels) is not utilized.

Grey-level thresholding is used to segment an image into two classes.

One for those pixels having values below an analyst-defined grey level
and for those above this value.

5.2 Density Slicing :-

When we divided the distributed DNs long the x-axis into a series of
analyst-specified intervals or slices we called this Density Slicing or
Level Slicing.

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
5. Image Enhancement

TM1
Grey-level Thresholding:- Density slicing:-

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
5. Image Enhancement

5.3. Contrast Stretching:-

-Image display and recording devices often operate over a range of 256
gray levels.

-Sensor data in a single image rarely extend over the entire range.

-Hence, the intent of the contrast stretching is to expand the narrow

range of brightness values (DNs) typically represented in an input image
over a wider range of gray levels (Full range of DNs= 256 level).

-The contrast stretching deals with rescaling of grey levels so that

features of interest are better shown on the image.

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
5. Image Enhancement

5.3. Contrast Stretching:-

Some common types of Contrast Stretching:-

-Linear contrast stretching: most frequently applied transform in which the old
DNs are linearly expanded to occupy the full range of grey level in the new
scale.

-Hence, the intent of the

contrast stretching is
to expand the narrow
range of brightness
values (DNs) typically
represented in an input
image over a wider range
of gray levels
(Full range of
DNs= 256 level).
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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
5. Image Enhancement

5.3. Contrast Stretching:-

-Linear contrast stretching:

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
5. Image Enhancement

5.3. Contrast Stretching:-

-Histogram Equalization stretching (ramp stretching) (Cumulative distribution function
stretching) (uniform stretching):
The old grey level range are stretched differently on the basis of their frequency of
occurrence.

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing

5. Image Enhancement

5.3. Contrast Stretching:-

-Multiple linear stretching

(piece-wise linear stretching):
Different segments of the old grey level range
are stretched differently, each segment in itself
being a linear stretch.

This is a useful transformation when some

selected stretches of DN- ranges are to be
enhanced and other intervening ranges are to be
squeezed.

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
5. Image Enhancement

5.3. Contrast Stretching:-

-Logarithmic, power or functional stretch:

The image data can be stretched using a

logarithmic function, power function or any
other function.

The logarithmic stretch is useful for

enhancing features lying in the darker parts
of the original image, the result being an
overall relatively brighter image.

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 Digital image Processing

5. Image Enhancement

5.3. Contrast Stretching:-

-Gaussian stretching:

In this scheme of grey-scale manipulation, the new grey scale is

computed by fitting the original histogram into a normal distribution
curve.

It renders greater contrast preferentially in the tails of the old

histogram, which means that the cut-off limits in the old histogram
become highly critical.

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering :-

Spatial filters emphasize or deemphasize image data of various spatial frequencies. Spatial
frequency refers to the roughness of the tonal variations occurring in the image.

The spatial filtering is carried-out to extract spatial-scale information from an image.

Spatial filtering is a local operation in which the DN values at the neighbouring pixels also
play a role.

Spatial filtering operations are of two types-:

1. Spatial Domain Filters

2. Frequency Domain Filters (Fourier)

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-
If we plot a profile of DN values from one end of the image to another. We find that the profile
consists of a complex sine waveforms. These are spatial frequency, and they can be broadly split
into:-

- High –frequency variations.

- Low – frequency variations.

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-

1. Spatial Domain Filters.

If we plot a profile of DN values

from one end of the image to
another. We find that the profile
consists of a complex sine
waveforms.

It can be broadly split into:-

- High –frequency variations.

- Low – frequency variations.

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-

Spatial filters can be broadly divided into:-

- Low pass filters

- High pass filters

Low pass filters:- Are designed to emphasize low frequency

features (large agricultural areas, water bodies, etc.) and
deemphasize the high frequency components of an image (local
details).

High pass filters:- Are designed to emphasize the detailed high

frequency components of an image (local details) and deemphasize
the more general low frequency information.
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 Digital image Processing

6. Spatial Filtering:-

Spatial filters is a local operation in which the DN values at the

neighbouring pixels also play a role.

Spatial filters also called Convolution filters and are carried-out by

applying a special filters that have a regular array or a matrix of
numbers which, using simple arithmetic operations. to the image.

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 Digital image Processing

6. Spatial Filtering:-

1. A moving window is establish that contain an array of coefficients or

weighting factors, such arrays are referred to as operators or kernels,
and they are normally an odd number of pixels in size ( e.g. 3x3, 5x5 ,
7x7).

2. The kernel is moved throughout the original image, and the DN at the
centre of the kernel in the a second (convoluted new image) is obtained
by multiplying each coefficient in the kernel by the corresponding DN in
the original image and adding all the resulting products. The operation is
performed for each pixel in the original image.

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 Digital image Processing

6. Spatial Filtering:-

1. A moving window is establish that contain an

array of coefficients or weighting factors,
such arrays are referred to as operators or
kernels, and they are normally an odd number
of pixels in size ( e.g. 3x3, 5x5 , 7x7).

2. The kernel is moved throughout the original

image, and the DN at the centre of the kernel
in the a second (convoluted new image) is
obtained by multiplying each coefficient in the
kernel by the corresponding DN in the original
image and adding all the resulting products.
The operation is performed for each pixel in
the original image.

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 Digital image Processing

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-

Edge Enhancement

- Many interpreters are concern with recognizing linear features in

image.

- Geologists map faults, and lineaments.

- Geographers map man-made linear features such as highway, railway

and canals.

- Some features occur as narrow lines against a background of

contrasting brightness; others are the linear contact between
adjacent areas of different brightness.

- In all cases, linear features are formed by edges.

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-

Edge Enhancement vs. High-pass filters

- The high pass filters aimed to emphasize the spatial details of high-
frequency in an image. That is, these image exaggerate local contrast
and superior to un-enhanced the original image for portraying linear
features or edge of the image data.

- However, the high-pass filters do not preserve the low frequency

components of the image.

- Edge-enhancement attempts to preserve both local contrast and low

frequency brightness information ( They add the result of the high-
pass filter to the original image). That to say they are produced by
‘‘ adding back’’ all or a portion of the grey values in an original image
to the high frequency component image of the same scene.

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-

Edge Enhancement

The Edge-enhancement is carried out in three steps:-

1. A high frequency image is produced containing the edge information.

Where the kernel size used is depend on the roughness of the image.

2. All or a fraction of the grey level in each pixel of the original scene
is added back to the high frequency component image.

3. The composite image is contrast stretched. This results in an image

containing local contrast enhancement of high frequency features
that also preserve the local frequency brightness information
contained in the scene.

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-

Edge Enhancement

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-

Directional Edge Filters

It is a special type of Edge-enhancement aimed at emphasizing edges of

the image in a certain direction, which can vertical, horizontal or even
oblique.

These filters are accentuate edges with preferred orientations while

suppressing edges with other trends.

They are practically useful in geological applications, when we want to

view features with particular orientations without being distracted by
other trends.

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 Digital image Processing
6. Spatial Filtering:-
N-S Directional gradient filter NE Directional gradient filter

NW Directional gradient filter

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 Digital image Processing
6. Band Ratio images:-

Applications of Ratio image:-

Rocks Vs Vegetation 3/4

Non-Argillic Vs argillic 5/7

Fe-O Vs non-Fe-O 3/1

NDVI ( Normalized Difference

Vegetation Index)
(4-3)/(4+3)

NDSI ( Normalized Difference

Snow Index)
(2-5)/(2+5)
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 Digital image Processing
6. Band Ratio images:-

Applications of Ratio image:-

Iron oxide alteration map

- Iron oxides tend to absorb the short wavelength of the

EM spectrum ( UV and blue spectrum, e.g. band 1 in
Landsat data) and have higher reflectance in the green &
red spectrum.

- Band ratio of band 3/1 map areas with a higher alteration

zones of iron oxides

- The image can be thresholding or density slicing.

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 Digital image Processing
6. Band Ratio images:-

Applications of Ratio image:-

Clay minerals alteration map

- Clay minerals and hydroxyl bearing minerals tend to absorb the long Infrared
wavelength of the EM spectrum ( SWIR spectrum, e.g. band 7 in Landsat data)
and have higher reflectance in the band 5 in Landsat data.

- Band ratio of band 5/7 map areas with a higher alteration zones of clay
minerals alteration, that normally associated with sulphide mineralization

- The image can be thresholding or density slicing.

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 Digital image Processing
6. Band Ratio- Iron oxide alteration map (Band Ratio 3/1):-
Color composite image bands 7,4 & 1 Band 3 Band 1

Band Ratio 3/1 Thresholding of Band Ratio 3/1 Density Slicing of Band Ratio 3/1

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 Digital image Processing
6. Band Ratio- Clay Minerals alteration map (Band Ratio 5/7):-
Color composite image bands 7,4 & 1 Band 5 Band 7

Band Ratio 5/7 Thresholding of Band Ratio 5/7 Density Slicing of Band Ratio 5/7

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 Digital image Processing
6. Sabins’s Color Composite image of Band Ratios R=3/1, G= 5/7, & B=3/5
( after Sabins 1999)

Color composite image bands 7,4 & 1

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 RS 2, Digital image Processing
6. Abram’s Color Composite image of Band Ratios R= 5/7, G=4/5, and B= 3/1
(after Abrams. Et al 1978 , J. Economic geology)
Color composite image bands 7,4 & 1

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 Digital image Processing
6. Sultan’s Color Composite image of Band Ratios R= 5/7, G=5/1,
& B= 3/4 * 5/4 (after Abrams. Et al 1978 , J. Economic geology)

Color composite image bands

7,4 & 1

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