Chapter 5

Page 261, Quick Check Page 266, Quick Check

1. Robert Boyle is credited with introducing the 1. As only a tiny fraction of the alpha particles
scientific method and with insisting on striking the atoms of the gold foil were
experimentation as a criterion to gather true deflected through large angles or even
knowledge about the world around us. reflected back, Rutherford concluded that the
2. Greek philosophers such as Democritus relied part of the atom capable of deflecting those
largely on intuition whereas Dalton based his alpha particles, namely the nucleus, must be
conclusions about the nature of matter on a tiny compared to the actual size of the atom.
large body of experimental data. 2. Rutherford’s discovery of the nucleus occurred
3. Dalton believed atoms to be the smallest bits of after the electron’s negative charge and very
matter that existed. We now know that even small mass had been determined. He knew that
smaller (subatomic. particles called protons, a positive component of the atom must exist
neutrons, and electrons are components of because an intact atom had no charge. He also
atoms. knew that alpha particles were very massive
and positively charged and so the only thing
Page 263, Quick Check capable of significantly altering their course
1. As the e/m ratio for the electron = 1.76 x 108 must also be massive and positive. It made
C/g and the electron’s charge as determined sense therefore that the tiny nucleus should
by Millikan is 1.602 x 10–19 C, the following not only be where most of the atom’s mass
equation allows us to calculate electron mass: existed, but should also be positively charged.
electron mass = 1.602 x 10–19 C = 9.10 x 10–28 g 3. In Rutherford’s analogies, the reference to the
1.76 x 108 C/g a. “15-inch shell” represented the fast moving,
2. a. The faint glow coming from the cathode and massive alpha particles striking the atoms of
the shadow of the anode appearing at the end the gold foil.
of the discharge tube opposite to the cathode b. “piece of tissue paper” represented what
Rutherford originally considered the atoms of
both suggested to Crookes that the mysterious the gold foil to resemble according to
ray originated at the cathode. Thomson’s plum-pudding model of the atom.
b. The deflection of the cathode ray by a
magnetic field suggested that the ray was 4. The relative size of the atom compared to the
actually a stream of charged particles. nucleus is given by:
c. A beam of charged particles originating at 10–10m = 104
the negative terminal and travelling toward the 10–14 m
positive terminal is likely a beam of negatively Therefore, if the diameter of the nucleus was 2.0 cm,
charged particles. then the size of the atom would be given by:
3. a. The atom is not the smallest particle of 2.0 cm x 104 = 2.0 x 104 cm (or 2.0 x 102 m)
matter but is itself composed of even smaller This is about the length of two football fields!
subatomic particles.
b. The subatomic components that make up Page 267, Practice Problems
the atom are oppositely charged entities. 1. a. 20 protons, 20 neutrons and 18 electrons.
b. 52 protons, 76 neutrons, and 54 electrons.
c. 24 protons, 28 neutrons, and 21 electrons.

79 197 232
2. a. 35 Br b. 79 Au c. 90 Th

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3.

Notation Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

Number Number Protons Neutrons Electrons
95
42 Mo 42 95 42 53 42
79
34 Se 2− 34 79 34 45 36
109 +
47 Ag 47 109 47 62 46
232 4+
90 Th 90 232 90 142 86
209
83 Bi 83 209 83 126 83

Page 269, Practice Problems

1. The atomic mass of gallium is 69.72 amu.
2.

Most Deflection Least Deflection

20
10 Ne1+ 21
Ne1+
10
22
Ne1+
10

3. The percent abundance of chlorine-35 is 75.76% and the percent abundance of chlorine-37 is 24.24%.

Page 271, 5.1 Review Questions

1. a. John Dalton viewed the atom as the smallest particle of matter resembling a solid sphere with no charged
subatomic particles.
b. Thomson’s atom resembled a muffin with tiny negative electrons embedded in a positive amorphous “dough”.
c. Ernest Rutherford believed that an atom’s volume was mostly empty space. A tiny dense positive nucleus at
the centre contributed virtually all of the mass but none of the atom’s volume and a cloud of orbiting electrons
defined the atom’s volume but contributed virtually none of the mass.
2. Thomson calculated a charge-to-mass ratio for the electron that was almost 2000 times greater than that of a
positive hydrogen ion – the smallest particle known at the time. It made sense to Thomson that the magnitude
of the two opposite charges should be equal which meant that the mass of the electron must be approximately
2000 less than the smallest atom.
3. The discovery of radioactivity led Rutherford to eventually discover alpha particles. Alpha particles were then
used by Rutherford as a “probe” to test the internal structure of the atom. This experiment culminated in his
discovery of the nucleus and his nuclear model of the atom.
4. Prior to the experiment, Rutherford believed in the “plum pudding” model of the atom proposed by J.J.
Thomson. Nothing in Thomson’s atom was capable of significantly altering the path of the massive fast-moving
positive alpha particles, let alone turning them back towards their source.
5.
Notation Name Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
Number Number Protons Neutrons Electrons
131
54 Xe
xenon-131 54 131 54 77 54
210
84 Po polonium-210 84 210 84 126 84
237
93 Np neptunium-237 93 237 93 144 93
247
97 Bk berkelium-247 97 247 97 150 97
257
100 Fm fermium-257 100 257 100 157 100

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6. a. 78 Pt
237
b. 90 Th
169
c. 69 Tm
200
7. a. 83 Bi3+
131 1−
b. 33 I
169
c. Tm3+
69

8. 24.31 amu.
9. Although the space surrounding the nucleus of atoms is not filled with matter, it is filled with negative electric
fields produced by the electron cloud. This means that when atoms get close to each other, they exert repulsive
forces that prevent matter from “collapsing” and give us the “illusion” of solid matter.
10. Silver-107 is 51.74%; Silver-109 is 48.26%.

Page 274, Quick Check

1. For something to be considered “quantized” means it possesses particle-like properties. It exists in discreet whole
number quantities and is considered to be “discontinuous”.
2. Examples of things considered to be quantized include eggs in a basket, students in a classroom, floors in an office
building, and stairs in a staircase.
3. No. Only whole number packets of energy could ever be absorbed or emitted by an object.

Page 277, Quick Check

1. Hydrogen’s bright line spectrum consists of a series of four coloured lines (red, blue-green, blue, and violet) against
a black background.
2. Excited electrons return to the second energy level (n = 2) from higher levels by emitting specific amounts of energy
in the visible spectrum. As electrons return from levels 6, 5, 4, and 3 down to level 2, a line is seen for each transition.
3. Any electron transitions from excited states down to the n = 1 energy level generates an emission line in the
ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Page 278, Practice Problem

The equation ∆E = b (1/nl2 – 1/nh2) is used to calculate the energy released. The value of the constant b = 2.18 x 10-18
J and nl = 2 and nh = 4. The calculation is: ∆E = 4.08 x 10-19 J

Page 281, 5.2 Review Questions

1. The problem was that accelerating charges should radiate energy. As electrons orbiting the nucleus were
accelerating charges, they should lose energy and thus instantly spiral into the nucleus resulting in atoms, and thus
all matter, collapsing.
2. Planck’s theory states that energy is quantized and can thus be emitted or absorbed only in whole numbers of
discreet packets or bundles.
3. “Classical physics” viewed wave and particle behaviour as quite different and mutually exclusive from each other. The
suggestion that a wave phenomenon such as energy could exhibit particle properties was difficult for most
physicists to accept.
4. Albert Einstein’s used Planck’s theory to successfully explain the photoelectric effect. The phenomenon had baffled
physicists up until then and could only be understood if light was considered to exist in discreet packets of energy.
5. Bohr reasoned that if energy was quantized and could thus exist in only certain amounts and not others, perhaps
orbiting electrons in atoms could only possess certain amounts of energy and not others corresponding to orbits of
only certain sizes.
6. According to Bohr, as long as an electron orbits the nucleus in an allowed orbit or stationary state, no energy is lost
by that electron and so the atom does not collapse.
7. Because the amount of energy associated with each electron orbit is fixed, the difference in energy between those
orbits is also fixed. Thus, when electrons “fall” from one excited state down to the n = 2 energy level, the energy
differences between n = 6 and 2, n = 5 and 2, n = 4 and 2, and n = 3 and 2 are always the same. These correspond
only to four specific colours of light in the visible spectrum: violet, blue, blue-green, and red respectively and none
others.
8. A continuous rainbow of colour would be observed with no dark regions.

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9. Any energy emitted by electrons returning from excited states down to the n = 1 ground state lowest energy level
releases energy beyond the visible spectrum in the ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
10. 4.58 x 10–19 J
11. λ = 433.97 nm

Page 286, Quick Check

1. Bohr was the first to suggest that the energies of electrons in atoms were quantized and explained how emission
line spectra were produced.
2. Bohr’s atomic model worked for hydrogen but was unable to predict the line spectra emitted by multi-electron
atoms.
3. Particles large enough for us to see have wave natures far too insignificant for us to detect, let alone measure.

Page 287, Practice Problems

1. 6.2 x 10-15m
2. 8.5 x 10-35 kg
3. 1.8 x 10-34 m

Page 289, Quick Check

1. Heisenberg considered the electron to be a pure particle and Schrödinger viewed the electron as a wave. Each
developed mathematical equations to describe the electron accordingly.
2. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle forces us to accept that we can only describe electron behaviour using the
mathematics of probability as prescribed by Schrödinger’s wave equation. This has sometimes been compared to a
game of chance such as rolling dice.
3. Bohr’s “orbit” was a definite path followed by an electron particle as it circled the nucleus. An “orbital” is a region
around the nucleus where an electron, viewed as a particle-wave, with a particular amount of energy is most likely
to be found.

Page 291, 5.3 Review Questions

1. The Bohr model of the atom saw an electron as a pure particle. De Broglie suggested that the electron could also
have wave properties.
2. By viewing the electron as having wave properties, de Broglie’s hypothesis suggests that the only stable energy
states for electrons in atoms are those that allow a standing electron wave to be maintained.
3. The wave properties of particles large enough to see are for too insignificant to detect, let alone measure. This
means that the wave nature of macroscopic particles can be ignored because their particle properties are virtually
all that exist.
4. The wave nature of subatomic particles is so significant that it must be considered when describing their behaviour.
5. a. As a particle’s mass increases, its wave nature decreases.
b. As a particle’s mass decreases, its wave nature increases.
6. Planck insisted that energy, previously considered to be only a wave phenomenon, was quantized and thus
possessed particle properties. De Broglie suggested that electrons, previously considered as being only particles,
possessed wave properties.
7. The two theories, taken together, mean that perhaps pure waves and pure particles don’t exist. Rather, particle-
wave duality is a more accurate way of viewing the world.
8. There are two ways to answer this question. On a qualitative level, macroscopic objects such as cars and baseballs
are for too large for their position and motion to be significantly changed by what we use to measure those with. In
other words, we can effectively state simultaneously both where macroscopic moving particles are located and
where they’re going.
Another way to answer this would be to note that because the magnitude of the constant h/2π in Heisenberg’s
Principle is so small, the magnitudes of the uncertainties in position and motion (∆x and m∆v respectively) are also
very small compared to the sizes associated with macroscopic particles. We can, therefore, state both where “large”
particles are and where they’re going at the same time within our familiar frame of macroscopic reference.
9. 2.2 x 10–28 kg
10. a. Niels Bohr was the first to establish the quantized energy states associated with electrons in atoms by
applying Planck’s quantum theory to atomic structure.

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 b. Louis de Broglie was the first to suggest that particles could possess a wave nature which supplied a reason
for the allowed energy states of electrons in the Bohr model of the atom.
c. Erwin Schrodinger was the first to mathematically treat the electron as a wave and his wave equation allows
us to determine the most probable locations for electrons of particular energies in atoms.
d. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle forces us to accept that there is a limit to what can know for sure about
matter at its most basic level, and compels us to accept the compromise of probability when describing
electron behaviour.

Page 295, Quick Check

1. The principle quantum number (n) specifies the size of the atomic orbital.
The second or angular momentum quantum number (l) tells us the shape of the atomic orbital.
The third or magnetic quantum number (ml) tells us the orientation in space of the atomic orbital.
2. a. A 2s orbital is larger than a 1s orbital. This tells us that an electron in a 2s orbital is likely to spend most of its time
further from the nucleus than an electron in a 1s orbital.
b. Although a 2px and a 2py orbital have similar sizes and shapes, and energies, they are oriented at right angles or
are orthogonal to each other.
3. A hydrogen electron in the fourth energy has 16 different orbitals to choose from — all at equal energy. They are:
one 4s, three 4p, five 4 d, and seven 4f orbitals. The notation n2 tells us how many orbitals are available in each
energy level “n”.

Page 297, Quick Check

1. The fourth or spin quantum number (ms) tells us the spin on an electron.
2. If two electrons have the same first three quantum numbers, then those electrons must reside in the same orbital. If
two electrons occupy the same orbital, then their spins, and thus their 4th quantum numbers, must be different.
3. The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the nth energy level is given by: 2n2. Therefore we can write the
following table:
Energy Level (n) Maximum Number of
Electrons (2n2)
1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32

Page 300, Practice Problem

Full electron configuration for titanium: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d2
Orbital diagram for titanium:

Page 303, 5.4 Review Questions

1. Quantum mechanics tells us that a 1s orbital represents the (spherical) region in three-dimensional space around
hydrogen’s nucleus where its single electron is most likely located rather than a path that the electron follows.
2. A 1s orbital is smaller than a 2s orbital. This tells us that an electron in a 2s orbital possessing energy equal to n = 2
is more likely to be located further from the nucleus than an electron in a 1s orbital possessing energy equal to n =
1.
3. The first difference is size. Any 3p orbital is larger than any 2p orbital. The “3” tells us that an electron in a 3p orbital
possesses more energy than an electron in an orbital that begins with the number “2” such as a 2p orbital. This
means that a 3p electron is more likely to be found further from the nucleus than a 2p electron. The other
difference is associated with orientation in space. The lobes of a 2px orbital are oriented at right angles to the lobes
of a 3py orbital.

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4. No p orbital density at the nucleus means that there is no chance of finding the electron at that point in space.
Another way of saying this is to say that the amplitude of the electron wave at the nucleus is zero. This is called a
node.
5. The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the “nth ” energy level is given by 2n2. Therefore, the first four
energy levels can accommodate a maximum of: 2, 8, 18, and 32 electrons respectively.
6. Hund’s rule tells us that that each of those three 3p electrons is in a different equal energy orbital: one in the 3px,
one in the 3py, and one electron in the 3pz. Hund’s rule also tells us that each of those electrons is spinning in the
same direction.
7. Use the periodic table to complete the following table:
Atom or Ion Full Electron Configuration Core Notation
Ge 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p2 [Ar] 4s23d104p2
Zn2+ 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 [Ar] 3d10
Sr 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s2 [Kr] 5s2
- 2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6
Br 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p [Ar] 4s23d104p6
Sn 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p2 [Kr] 5s24d105p2
In3+ 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p64d10 [Kr] 4d10

8. a. Use the periodic table to identify the neutral atoms having the following electron configurations:
Electron Configuration Element Name
[Ne] 3s2 magnesium

[Ar] 4s2 3d5 manganese

[Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p3 antimony
[Xe] 6s2 4f 7 europium

b. Each of the four elements in the above table is located in a different position of the periodic table
corresponding to a different highest energy sublevel being filled in the elements.
The “s block” is located on the far left side of the periodic table; the “d block” is located in the centre of the
table; the “p block” is located on the far right side of the table; the “f block” is located in the bottom region of
the periodic table.
9. a. Each ion possesses 10 electrons.
b. Electron configuration of all species is given by: 1s22s22p6
c. Neon possesses this configuration and all of the ions achieve a stable valence octet by becoming
isoelectronic with neon.
10. a.
Alkali Core # Outer Electrons Halogens Core Notation # Outer Electrons
Metals Notation
lithium [He] 2s1 1 fluorine [He] 2s22p5 7
1 2 5
sodium [Ne] 3s 1 chlorine [Ne] 3s 3p 7
1 2 10 5
potassium [Ar] 4s 1 bromine [Ar] 4s 3d 4p 7
rubidium [Kr] 5s1 1 iodine [Kr] 5s24d105p5 7
b. All the members of a chemical family demonstrate similar chemical behaviour because they all have the
same number of outer or valence electrons.
c. As we move down a chemical family, the atoms get larger.

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