See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/317063602

LABORATORY EXERCISES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS - REVIEW OF THE

EQUIPMENT, METHODOLOGY, TRIALS AND RESULTS

Article  in  Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · May 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.070

CITATIONS READS

3 601

2 authors:

Sasa M. Skoko Rade M Ciric

Seconday School Of Electrical Engineering ''Mihajlo Pupin'',Novi Sad The Higher Education Technical School of Professional Studies, Novi Sad, Serbia
51 PUBLICATIONS   4 CITATIONS    199 PUBLICATIONS   733 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Reseach project no. III 42009: 2011-2017 Integrated Energy Networks, supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Republic of Serbia. View project

Post-doc, Rade Ciric, UNESP Ilha Solteira, SP, Brazil, 2002 View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Rade M Ciric on 26 December 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Laboratory exercises of photovoltaic systems–Review of the equpment, MARK

methodology, trials and results
⁎
Sasa M. Skokoa, Rade M. Ciricb,
a
The Secondary School "Mihailo Pupin", Novi Sad, Serbia
b
The Higher Education Technical School of Professional Studies in Novi Sad, Serbia

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Key words: The laboratory for renewable energy sources of the Higher Education Technical School of Professional Studies
Renewable energy sources in Novi Sad (Serbia) contains the equipment regarding solar and thermal techniques, based on the
Characteristics of photovoltaic cells implementation of solar panels, heat pumps and a pellet stove. Photovoltaic systems include the implementa-
Experiments tion of static photovoltaic panels, trackers and inverters for power supply of autonomous consumers. In
Off-grid photovoltaic systems
addition, the laboratory is equipped with modern systems of internal and external lighting, a wind generator
Laboratory exercises
with accompanying inverter, elements of smart installations and fuel cell systems for laboratory measurements.
This paper presents experiences in the implementation of the photovoltaic systems in the educational process
through laboratory exercises. The specification of the laboratory equipment, the methodology of work, as well as
the electrical schemes of experiments of open circuits and short circuit, recording of electricity-voltage
characteristics, tracking the maximum power point, serial and parallel connection and shading of photovoltaic
cell are presented. The second group of the trial is performed on the "off grid" photovoltaic system set in the
schoolyard and connected to the appropriate inverter with the autonomous group of consumers. The paper
presents the results of laboratory measurements, issues for discussion, evaluation of the performance and
conclusions.

1. Introduction requests of industry and open markets in the electric power sector.
The curriculum of renewable energy sources at the higher education
At present, the impact on the environment represents a significant institutions world-wide is based mainly on theoretical units, numerical
factor in the process of reviewing the connection of new production calculations and computer simulations of operating conditions of the
units to the electric power system. Particular attention is being paid to grid with distributed generators. The course Small power plants and
the development of technologies and procedures that would allow renewable energy sources, is attended by the students of the Higher
better use of solar, wind and hydro energy, bioenergy, geothermal Education Technical School of Professional Studies in Novi Sad
energy and similar [1,2]. Willingness of local communities to pay for (HETSPS), Serbia, at the specialist studies at the Electrical
renewables is observed to be correlated to socioeconomic charactersi- Engineering Department. The course was introduced in 2012 [12].
tics including eduaction, interest in environmental issues and knowl- The goal of the course is to enable students for project management in
edge of renewable energy sources [3]. The need for renewable energy the field of application of renewable energy sources. The course was
education and training at all levels is globally recognized. During the designed to last one semester in accordance with the Bologna
last three decades a large number of countries have initiated academic Declaration, and it bears 8 ECTS, with two hours of lectures and two
programmes on renewable energy technologies and related aspects [4]. hours of exercises per week, or the total of 70 h. The pre-examination
During the last decade the modern technology in the domain of obligations consist of the elaboration and defense of a seminary paper
renewable energy sources is also introduced in Serbia [5–11]. The key in class and laboratory exercises, while the exam is written consisting of
link in the application of renewable energy sources consists of theoretical questions and calculation tasks.
engineers and technicians of different profiles, who obviously need The paper presents exercises conducted in the Laboratory for
new knowledge and skills. The question is how to harmonize the renewable energy sources (LRES) with photovoltaic systems in the
curriculum of the higher education institutions with the ever growing educational process of future professional engineers specialists at the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R.M. Ciric).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.070
Received 22 February 2016; Received in revised form 20 April 2017; Accepted 17 May 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

HETSPS. The equipment in the LRES allows exercises in practical panels are used, while for the secondary warming the heat pump or
measuring in groups of three students. The objective of performing the pellet stove are optionally used. The automation complies with the
presented exercises is to make the future specialists acquainted with parameters of the system and operates the entire system. This system
the basic topology of photovoltaic (PV) modules, their networking and allows introduction with the placement and installation of thermal-
commissioning, monitoring of the basic parameters of the PV plant, technical systems, monitoring and adjustment of system parameters,
processing of measurement results and their interpretation and making measuring of the characteristic temperatures in the system, and
appropriate conclusions. Consequently the educational process is evaluation of obtained thermal power.
significantly improved since the students can verify theoretical princi-
ples on the physical models of renewable sources. 2.2. Wind generator
The list of laboratory equipment is presented, the methodology of
work is described, as well as the electrical schemes, experiments, Through laboratory trials, the students in the first phase get
measurement results, issues for discussion and conclusions. acquainted with the basics of construction of wind generators, principle
The above mentioned contents establish a correlation with other of work of asynchronous wind generators, synchronous generators with
educational subjects at the study programme of Electrical Power permanent magnets on the rotor, as well as low power wind generators
Engineering such as, Fundamentals of Engineering 1, Distribution for the implementation in the household. The experiments consist of
and Industrial Systems, Electrical Measurement, Electrical three parts:
Installations and Electrical Machinery.
1. The connection of wind generators to the electronic system for
2. Laboratory for renewable energy sources charging accumulation batteries and accompanying inverter with
their own load ("the off-grid" mode);
The equipment installed in the LRES provides exercises on different 2. Testing of the wind generator prototype of low power direct current
systems. Solar and thermal-technical systems are based on the in the mode of load for different speeds of rotation and degrees of
implementation of solar panels, a thermal pump and a pellet stove; load (determination of ''MPP-Maximum Power Point'', experiment
Photovoltaic systems include the implementation of static PV panels, of the adjustments per power). During the trial, an experiment of an
tracker and inverters for the power supply of autonomous consumers. asynchronous machine in the generator mode of work is also
Besides, there are modern systems for external and internal lighting performed, as well as the measurement of relevant sizes, and then
and a wind generator with accompanying inverter and autonomous appropriate conclusions are made.
consumer group. Elements of the smart installation enable familiariza- 3. Monitoring of the system in the period of windy days is usually
tion with the home automation system including installations, remote realized through additional seminary papers.
control and setting. Fuel cells systems for laboratory measurements
provide the demonstration of basic technological processes. The Fig. 2 shows the appearance of the wind generator.
recording of the housing facilities by a thermovision camera allows
the introduction of the future professional engineers with the basis of 2.3. Efficient lighting
energy efficiency of the facilities. Fig. 1 shows features of the laboratory
for renewable energy sources. From the aspect of energy efficiency and electricity saving, special
The exercises are conducted as a joint demonstration or by groups attention is paid to modern lighting sources for internal and external
of three students in the presence of the course lecturer, teaching lighting and basic elements of "smart" electrical installations. Students
assistant and laboratory assistant. get acquainted with the characteristics of energy-saving light sources,
and the following experiments are performed:
2.1. Thermal-technical system
• Measuring voltage, electricity and power, lux of conventional light
Within the laboratory, a system composed of the equipment placed sources for internal lighting (incandescent lamps), as well as modern
both outside and inside the facility has been installed. Outside is a light sources (energy-saving bulbs, LED lamps); statistical compar-
system with six solar collectors for water warming. In the facility, there ison of results is conducted and appropriate conclusions are made.
is a pump of the solar collector with related automatics, accumulation • Electrical measurements on the system of light sources for external
tank of 1000 l, with two converters. The first converter is connected to lighting, measurement of the harmonic light source in cold and
the solar collectors, and the second is connected to the thermal pump warm conditions. The comparison of the results of measurements on
and pellet stove. For the primary warming of water in the tank, solar standard bulbs for public lighting (sodium, mercury) in relation to
the results obtained with LED lamps for public lighting.

Fig. 1. Laboratory for renewable energy sources (LRES). Fig. 2. Wind generator on the school roof.

294
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

Apart form the relatively high cost, the low PV module conversion
efficiency is another factor that restricts the wide usage of PV systems
[24]. Therefore, a power converter embedded with the capability of
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) integrated with the PV system
is essential for the application of this technology. Ref. [25], and [26]
provide the comprehensive review of the available MPPT techniques,
both in the uniform insolation and partial shaded conditions.
Increasing the efficiency of the PV panel with the use of phase change
material (PCM) is elaborated in [27].

3.2. Basic exercises

Introduction to the operation of PV systems is divided into two

parts. The main part represents the introduction to PV basic features,
while the other part refers to the introduction into the realistic PV
systems with DC/AC inverters and autonomous load.
Fig. 3. Demo model of the system with fuel cells. Within the framework of the fundamental measurements on
PVcells in the laboratory conditions, the students get acquainted with
2.4. Fuel cells the characteristics and the way of work of the cells and modules in the
trials carried out through five laboratory exercises:
Electrical energy can be generated through the application of the
fuel cell hydrogen and oxygen from the air. Fig. 3 shows the appearance 1. Determination of open circuit voltage and short circuit current of
of laboratory devices for testing basic technological processes with fuel photovoltaic cell depending on the volume of light;
cells based on the technology of hydrogen. Within laboratory experi- 2. Measuring of open circuit voltage and short circuit current of
ments the students learn basic chemical processes occurring in the fuel photovoltaic cell depending on the intrusion angle of the light rays;
cells, as follows: 3. Measuring of open circuit voltage and short circuit current of serial,
parallel and combined link of solar cells;
• Operating mode during which distilled water is decomposed to 4. Determination of the point of maximum power of solar cells (''MPP-
oxygen and hydrogen through the electricity, and Maximum Power Point'', experiment of the adjustments per power)
• Operating mode in which by reverse chemical reaction, the incor- for different values of the lux at the surface of the photovoltaic cell;
poration of oxygen and hydrogen is performed, where water is and
obtained and electrical voltage on the electrodes of the fuel cell. 5. Experiment of shading a solar cell.

3. Photovoltaic modules In the following text, the equipment, methodology of work,

measurement results and conclusions made on the basis of the
3.1. Theoretical base described experiments with PV cells are described in detail.

The theoretical base for the preparation and implementation of the 3.3. Laboratory equipment
exercise applied in the laboratory can be found in ref. [13–27]. A
simulation model for modeling the PV system power generation and Laboratory equipment contains the following elements:
performance predicition is described in [14]. Over the three decades, a
number of methods for determining fundamental (DC) parameters of • Four PV cells 0.5 V /1.0/0.5 W with 4 mm bushings [28],
solar cells have been developed [15]. The current-voltage character- • Two measuring devices (universal measuring instrument with a
istics of a PV module can be reproduced by modeling the PV panel as rechargeable 9 V - battery),
an equivalent circuit made of linear and non-linear components [16]. • One luxmeter with a rechargeable 9 V,
Paper [17] analyses the PV equivalent circuit considering electrical • Battery charger for charging 9 V - batteries,
characteristics and environmental conditions, including varying tem- • Set of resistors on the aluminum holder (7 resistors /1 diode),
perature and non-uniform solar irradiance due to partial shading. In • Halogen source of radiation 200 W (with a spare halogen bulb),
[17] a comprehensive designing process of solar photovoltaic water • Conductors for measuring:
pumping system, a standalone PV system and a grid connected PV a. 2 x red conductor of 100 cm length,
system are presented. An accurate computational technique for the b. 2 x blue conductor of 100 cm length,
two-diode PV model using differential evolution optimization techni- c. 3 x red conductor of 50 cm length,
que is presented in [19], while the parameter estimation of PV cells is d. 3 x blue conductor of 50 cm length,
presented in [20]. A comparison of two PV array models, the five • Measuring pole, and
parameter model and the Sandia Array performance model are • Hood to cover the PV cells.
presented in [21].
A problem of the mismatch loss due to differences between single 3.4. Determination of PV characteristics of open circuit and short
modules in the PV array is analyzed in [22]. Results show that the circuit
maximum power, the maximum power voltage and open circuit voltage
are preferably represented by Burr probability density function and The aim of the exercise is to introduce basic modes of operation of
normal distribution function. Prediction of I-V characteristics for a PV solar cells, while the task of the exercise is as follows:
panel by combining single diode model and explicit analytical model is
presented in [23]. Fig. 4 shows demo models of PV cells used for basic 1. Study the way of performing the laboratory exercise;
laboratory reviews and the spotlight for achieving different levels of 2. Connect the equipment according to the schematic diagrams in
brightness in laboratory conditions. In Fig. 6 the equivalent scheme of Figs. 6 and 7;
the PV cell is shown. (Fig. 5). 3. Measure the open circuit voltage U0 and short circuit current ISC for

295
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

Fig. 4. Photovoltaic cells used for the basic laboratory experiments: a) appearance of photovoltaic cells; b) example of setting the exercise with the accompanying spotlight.

Rs I When performing experiments, students can make the following

observations:
Is I0

Rp U Rload
• For low intensities of brightness the voltage of a cell reaches the
maximum value, and
• The current increases linearly with the increase of light intensity.
Students should notice this linear relationship and, if necessary,
perform interpolation of the measuring points.
Fig. 5. Equivalent scheme of PV cells.

3.5. Determination of the open circuit voltage and short circuit

S + current of PV cell depending on the angle of the light beam
U0 V
230V The power of solar cells depends not only on the intensity but also
- on the incident angle of solar radiation. If more vertical light beams fall
on the solar module, losses due to reflection will be less. The mobility of
L the PV module is technically feasible but requires certain costs.
Therefore, it is important how the solar modules will be installed on
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the open circuit experiment. the roof. The best is that the panels are placed exactly on the Southside
and at an angle corresponding to the precise setting place.
The aim of this exercise is to introduce the functional dependence of
S + voltage and current of PV cells on the angle of incident radiation α, and
Isc the task of the exercise is to:
230V A
- 1. Study the way of performing the laboratory exercise;
2. Connect the equipment according to the schematic diagrams in
L Fig. 9;
3. Measure the open circuit voltage U0 and short circuit current Isc of
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the short circuit experiment. the cells for different values of the angle of light emission; and
4. Draw the diagram U0 = f(α) based on the results of measurements.
different brightness values on the surface of the solar cell; and
4. Draw the diagrams U0 = f(E), and ISC = f(E) based on the The course of the exercises is as follows:
measurements results.
1. Place the sample solar cell on the intended surface with the indicated
The course of the exercises is as follows: angles of rotation α;
2. Illuminate the solar module with 6000 lx, which corresponds to the
1. Pay attention during the measurement to the uniformity of the distance of the radiation source from solar cells L =42 cm;
brightness of modules; 3. Measure the open circuit voltage and short circuit current for the
2. Measure the voltage and current separately, first in the open circuit corresponding angle of incident angle of light rays simulating a
and then in the short circuit for the same amount of brightness; rotating panel; Enter the measurement results in the table and
3. The measuring range for the voltage is 20 V/ DC, and for the circuit repeat the process until the angle is 90°;
10 A/DC; 4. The measuring range for the voltage is 20 V/ DC, and 10 A/DC for
4. Enter the measured values in the table and draw the corresponding the circuit;
graph of voltage and current. 5. Draw the diagrams U0 = f(α), ISC = f(α) based on the results of
measurements.
In Fig. 8a and b the layout characteristics obtained from the open
circuit and short circuit experiments performed on one photovoltaic In Table 2 the measurement values of the open circuit voltage and
cell are presented. Table 1 presents the results of measurements of short circuit current of photovoltaic cells, depending on the angle of
voltage in the open circuit U0 and short-circuit current Isc of the incidence of radiation are given, and Fig. 10 shows the diagrams U0 =
photovoltaic cells. f(α), ISC = f(α).

296
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

a) b)
Voltage U0 [V] Current Isc [mA]
0.52 1200

1000
0.50

800
0.48

600

0.46
400

0.44
200
U0 = f(E) Isc = f(E)

0.42 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
E [Lux] E [Lux]

Fig. 8. Basic measurements on the photovoltaic cells: а) open circuit voltage U0, b) short circuit current Isc.

Table 1 Table 2
Results of measurements in the open circuit and short-circuit of photovoltaic cells. Open circuit voltage and short circuit current for the corresponding angle of incident
angle of light rays.
Е [Lux] 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
L [cm] 74.5 54.5 42 39 35 31.5 29.5 α ( °) 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
U0 [V] 0.44 0.48 0.5 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 U0 (V) 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.46 0.43 0.42
Isc [mA] 150 310 450 580 720 880 990 ISC (mA) 460 450 410 350 260 140 40

When performing experiments, students can make the following The aim of the exercises is to show basic effects of serial, parallel
observations: and mixed connection of PV cells, and the task of the exercise is as
follows:
• Open circuit voltage is in a wide range independent of the angle of
incidence irradiation; 1. Study the course of the laboratory exercises;
• Short circuit current changes by the cosine curve. However, when 2. Connect the equipment according to the schematic diagrams in
the angle of irradiation is 90°, zero current is not achieved because Fig. 11;
of the ambient light. 3. Measure the open circuit voltage and short-circuit current in series,
parallel and mixed connection of solar cells; and
4. Make conclusion remarks based on the results of measurements.
3.6. Testing of the series, parallel and combined link of PV cells
The course of the exercises is as follows:
PV modules are connected in series to increase the voltage of the
solar generator, and if necessary, to give a large current, the solar
1. Perform the following measurement with illumination of 6000 lx,
modules are connected in parallel. For devices that are connected to the
keeping the distance from the source of light and the solar cell about
network, the solar modules are often connected as mixed-serial and
42 cm; place solar cells in a semicircle, to make each cell be
parallel, causing the inverter to bring higher voltages and higher
illuminated with the same intensity.
currents and thus higher power.

а) b)

S U0
230V V

Fig. 9. Determination of the characteristics of the open circuit voltage of PV cell depending on the angle of the light beam: а) principal scheme, b) hardware.

297
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

a) b)
Voltage Uo [V] Current Isc [mA]
0.6 500
Uo = f(α )
Isc = f(α)
0.5
400

0.4
300

0.3

200
0.2

100
0.1

0.0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
ο
0 20 40 60 80 100
Angle α [ ] o
Angle α [ ]
Fig. 10. Open circuit voltage and short circuit current for the corresponding angle of incident angle of light beam.

2. Measure the voltage and current one after another in accordance The measured values of the open circuit voltage and short circuit
with the following electric schemes; current for series and parallel wiring of solar cells are shown in Table 3.
The worksheets contain the questions for discussion: What is
• Scheme 1: single solar cell; achieved by the series link of solar cells? What is achieved by parallel
• Scheme 2: two cells in series connection; connection of solar cells? What is achieved by the mixed connection of
• Scheme 3: two cells in parallel connection; solar cells? Based on the results presented in the table students should
• Scheme 4: two cells in series connection linked all together in conclude that the mixed connection results in twice the value of current
parallel. and voltage, which actually represents a four-fold increase in power.
Some of the student observations are: Measurements were made
3. The measuring range for the voltage is 20 V/ DC, and 10 A/DC for using two universal measuring instruments, one set up to measure the
the circuit. current, and the other to measure the voltage, providing more

b)

a) +

S + -
U0 Isc U0 V А Isc
230V V А
+
-

L -

d)

+ +

c) - - U0 Isc

V А

+ + U0 Isc + +
V А
- - - -

Fig. 11. Schemes for testing of the series, parallel and combined connection of solar cells. а) single cell, b) series link, c) parallel link, d) mixed wiring.

298
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

Table 3 Table 4
Open circuit voltage and short circuit current of the series, parallel and mixed link of the Determination of the MPP for 6000 lx.
PV cells.
Brightness 6000 lx
Scheme 1 Scheme 2 Scheme 3 Scheme 4 Resistance R1 = 0 Ω R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 =5.6 Ω R7 =
0.18Ω 0.39 Ω 0.82 Ω 2.7 Ω 15 Ω
U0 (V) 0.48 0.99 0.49 0.79 U1 (V) 0.04 0.12 0.2 0.32 0.43 0.45 0.47
ISC (A) 0.48 0.47 0.90 0.87 I1 (A) 0.47 0.46 0.44 0.36 0.15 0.08 0.03
P1 (W) 0.019 0.055 0.088 0.115 0.065 0.036 0.014

accurate results. The measurement of the short circuit currents should

be performed quickly in order to avoid overheating of the cells. When Table 5
reconnecting the solar cells, it is needed to switch off the light source Determination of the MPP for 2000 lx.
that is rapidly heated. With the increase of the cell temperature, the
Brightness 2000 lx
cell power decreases by 0.5% /°C. Resistance R1 = 0 Ω R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = R7 = 15 Ω
0.18 0.39 Ω 0.82 Ω 2.7 Ω 5.6 Ω
3.7. Determination of the PV maximum power point Ω
U2 (V) 0.01 0.04 0.07 0.13 0.28 0.35 0.38
I2 ( A) 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.1 0.06 0.02
PV cell produces DC voltage that is converted in the inverter DC/AC P2 (W) 0.0016 0,006 0.0105 0.0195 0,028 0,021 0.0076
to the alternating voltage. The point of maximum power (MPP) is a
point at which the solar cell produces maximum power. To achieve the
highest degree of efficiency of the cell, the inverter must at all times, of the light source L =74 cm.
depending on the load and illumination, work at the point of maximum
power. The measured voltage and current values in determining the
The MPP of a solar cell for different lighting can be simulated operating point of maximum power at 6000 lx and 2000 lx are given
through the measurement of current and voltage for different resistors in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. Fig. 13 shows the current and MPP of
in the circuit, keeping the constant brightness. Individual measurement the photovoltaic cell.
results are plotted through the previously calculated power (P= UI). The students can perform the following observations based on the
The aim of the exercise is the experimental verification of the measured values:
principle of adjustments by power of the PV cell.
The task of the exercise is as follows: • A MPP exists for each intensity of brightness;
• The PV cell has a MPP for the appointed load; and
1. Study the course of the laboratory exercise; • To achieve the maximum power of the PV cell, the inverter has to
2. Connect the equipment to the schematic diagrams in Fig. 12; adjust its working point to the current values of sunlight.
3. Measure the voltage and current of solar cells for different values of
resistors that are available (R1 to R7); and 3.8. Shading of PV cells
4. Draw a diagram on the basis of the measured power as a function of
the voltage of the PV cells P= f(U) and determine the MPP. The PV module is usually made of a serial/parallel connection of
individual cells. In case one of the PV cells is in the shadow, it cannot
The course of the exercises is as follows: generate current and voltage and acts as a consumer in relation to other
cells. This results in an increase in the PV cell operating temperature
• Lighten the PV cell with 6000 lx; Distance of the light source L since the electrical power of the shaded cell is converted into the heat.
=42 cm; The consequence is the overheating of the shaded PV cell and
• Measure the intensity of the light source and adjust the cell bright- destruction of its structure known as the hot-spot effect. The problem
ness; is solved by setting the appropriate anti-parallel “bypass” diodes. Due
• Connect resistors R1 to R7 successively one after another into the to significantly less resistance of the diodes in the conducting state, the
PV cell circuit; current is redirected through the bypass diodes.
• Measure the current and voltage one after another; The measuring The aim of the exercise is the experimental testing the effect of
range for the voltage is 20 V /DC and current 10 A /DC; shading of PV cells. The task of the exercise is as follows:
• Calculate the power based on the measured values of voltage and
current (P= U·I); 1. Study the course of the laboratory exercise;
• Repeat the experiment with the brightness of 2000 lx, at the distance 2. Connect the equipment according to the schematic diagrams in

b)

а)

А
S + I
U V R1 -R7
230V
-

Fig. 12. Determination of maximum power point of solar cells: а) principle scheme, b) hardware.

299
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

a) b)
Current I1 [A], I2 [A] Power P1[W], P2 [W]
0.5 0.14
I2 = f(U)
I1 = f(U) P1 = f(U)
0.12
0.4 P2 = f(U)

0.10

0.3
0.08

0.2 0.06

0.04
0.1

0.02

0.0
0.00

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Voltage U [V] Voltage U [V]

Fig. 13. Diagram of the measured current and power for the experiment of MPP determining: а) I1=f(U), I2=f(U); b) P1= f(U), P2= f(U).

а) b) c)

- - - - - -
+

+
+

‘’Bypass’’ diode

V V

А А

Fig. 14. Schemes for performing the experiment of shading of the PV cell: а) regular system, b) system with shaded PV cell, c) hardware.

Table 6
Measurement of voltage and current in the experimental PV cell shading.
• Measure the current and voltage of the link one after another; The
measuring range for the voltage is 20 V/DC and current 10 A/DC;
Measured Three cells in Shading a single cell Shading a single • Evaluate the effect of the shaded PV cell in the serial link with and
without the bypass diode; and
•
variable the series link without a diode cell with diode
Comment on the results and draw conclusions based on the results
U0 (V) 1.46 1.01 0.98 of measurements.
ISC (A) 0.46 0.02 0.3

The measured voltage and current values in the case of normal

operation, one PV cell shaded, and the shaded PV cell with bypass
Fig. 14;
diode, at 6000 lx brightness are shown in Table 6.
3. Measure the open circuit voltage and short circuit current of the PV
cell system in three cases: all three cells are directly exposed to the
light rays; one of the three PV cells is shaded; and one of the three 3.9. Conclusion remarks about DC exercises
PV cells is shaded and there is an adequate bypass diode;
4. Comment on the results and draw conclusions based on the results The values measured by laboratory assistants may differ from the
of measurements. measured values of students, because:

The course of the exercise is as follows: • Specified intensity of PV cell illumination cannot be accurately set,
• Measured values of voltage and currents depend on the PV cell
• Connect the PV cell in the serial link; temperature; by brightening PV cells by halogen source of light, the
• Lighten the PV cell with 6000 lx; Distance of the light source is L cell is heated; and finally
=42 cm; • PV cells and measuring equipment have a certain tolerance.
• Measure the intensity of the light source and adjust the cell bright-
ness; However, deviations of the measured values have not a significant
impact on the conclusions reflected.

300
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

Fig. 15. School PV system: а) with a single ax tracking sun position. b) static PV panels.

Fig. 16. Block diagram of the school PV system with inverter and own loading.

in Fig. 16, the test unit of the inverter system in the laboratory is in
Figs. 17, and 18 shows the layout application interface for inverter
monitoring.

4.1. Real PV system exercises

The following experiments are performed on the test unit:

1. Continuous monitoring of electricity production from the PV system,

and data recording on hourly, daily, weekly and monthly bases;
2. Setting the appropriate PV system mode through the control panel
using the technical guidance;
3. Measurement of power quality parameters on several consumer
groups using the professional measurement unit METREL®; and
4. Comparative analysis of the behavior of the static PV panels in
Fig. 17. Test unit of inverter system in the school laboratory. relation to the PV system with tracking of the sun position.

4. Photovoltaic system with the inverter The input voltage of the PV system is shown in Fig. 19a, while the
AC active power is presented in Fig. 19b. Battery voltage and output
The second group of the trial is performed on the off-grid PV system inverter voltage are given in Fig. 20a and b, respectively.
set in the schoolyard and connected to the appropriate inverter DC/AC
of 2000 VA with the autonomous group of consumers. 4.2. Safety and health at work
Through this group of experiments the students learn the basic PV
system installation, connection and commissioning of PV systems of Having in mind that the experiments on the PV system test station
low power. By using an appropriate software application for monitor- are carried out at mains voltage 230 V, regardless of the fact that the
ing system parameters the students learn the possibilities of setting the PV system is not connected to the distribution grid, it is necessary to
inverter mode. strictly take care of occupational safety and health measures for
The PV system with a single ax tracking the sun position is shown in teachers, laboratory technicians and students in accordance to the
Fig. 15a, and b shows the static PV panels in the schoolyard. The block regulations [29,30]. Accordingly, the following protection measures are
diagram of the school PV system with inverter and loading is presented applied in the Laboratory for renewable energy:

301
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

Fig. 18. Application interface for inverter monitoring.

Fig. 19. Parameters monitoring: а) PV input voltage UPV (V), b) AC output active power PAC (W).

Fig. 20. Parameters monitoring: a) Baterry voltage Ub(V), b) Output inverter voltage Ui (V).

• Protection against direct and indirect contact voltage applying TN- • Protection against short-circuit and overloading by using the auto-
C-S protective grounding system; matic fuse; and
• Electrical (galvanic) separation; • Protection against direct voltage by using the insulated housing.

302
S.M. Skoko, R.M. Ciric Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 293–303

5. Conclusions Inc; 2004.

[2] Foster R, Ghassemi M, Cota A. Solar Energy: Renewable Energy and the
Environment. Taylor and Francis Group; 2010.
Designing of the curriculum and syllabus in the field of renewable [3] Stigka EK, Paravantis JA, Mihalakakou GK. Social acceptance of renewable energy
energy sources is a challenge for teachers of professional higher sources: a review of contigent valuation applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2014;32:100–6.
education schools and universities. This particularly refers to profes- [4] Kandpal TC, Broman L. Renewable energy education: a global status review. Renew
sional higher education schools, since from the professional engineer it Sustain Energy Rev 2014;34:300–24.
is expected to have both solid theoretical knowledge and practical skills [5] Energy Law, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 84/2004.
[6] Energy Strategy of the Republic of Serbia by 2025, The Ministry of Mining and
applicable in the industry. Energy of the Republic of Serbia, 〈http://www.parlament.gov.rs〉.
Despite the significant potential for the application of renewable [7] White Book of the Power Industry of Serbia, Belgrade, 2009.
energy, as well as the feed-in tariff, due to the unfavorable loans and [8] Technical recommendation no. 16: technical re quirements for the connecting of
small p ower plants to the grid 2003 Serbian Electric Power Industry Belgrade.
complicated procedure for obtaining permission to connect DG to the
[9] Gvozdenac D, Ciric R, Tesic M. Prospects of Energy Efficiency Improvement and
grid, the number of implemented renewable energy sources in Serbia is Development of the Renewable Energy Sources in Province of Vojvodina, 20th
negligible. As a result, Serbia lacks practical knowledge, good practice World Energy Congress, 12–, Rome; 2007.
and experience in the construction and operation of renewable energy [10] Gvozdenac D, Ciric R, Petrovic J. Energy efficiency and renewable energy sources in
province of vojvodina–strategy implementation program. 6th MedPower 2008
sources. It is clear that investing in human resources in the field of 2008, [paper No. 226, Thessalonica].
renewable energy sources is of great importance. [11] Ciric RM, Stipanovic P. Connecting Solar Plants to Distribution Network-
The objective of this paper is to present the authors’ experience in Experience from Serbia [ISSN: 1757–3971, V7. No.1]International Journal of
Renewable Energy Technology. Inderscience Publishers, IJRET −73253; 2016. p.
implementation of the laboratory exercises on the PV systems, 69–82.
performed in the teaching process at the specialist studies at the [12] Ciric RM, Rajakovic NLJ. Concept Modules and Objectives of the Syllabus Course:
HTSPSN, Serbia. Special attention was paid to the comprehensiveness Small Power Plants and Renewable Energy Sources, International Journal of
Electrical, Computer, Energetic, Electronic, Communication Engineering,
of content with the aim to familiarize future engineers with basic International Science Index 113, World Academic Scientific Engineering and
principles and technologies of modern photovoltaic systems. By careful Technology Conference (WASET), EISSN: 2010–3778, Vol. 10, No.5, pp. 447–452;
selection of experiments and demonstration exercises in the laboratory 2016.
[13] Pavlovic T. Physics and Technique of Solar Energy. Belgrade: Gradjevinska knjiga;
the authors tended to cover all relevant activities in the field of
2010.
photovoltaic technology. By applying the proposed laboratory exercises [14] Ma T, Yang H, Lu L. Solar photovoltaic system modeling and performance
students can check all the theoretical principles taught within the prediction. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;36:304–15.
[15] Cotfas DT, Cotfas PA, Kaplanis S. Methods to determine the dc parameters of solar
subject Small power plants and renewable energy sources.
cells: a critical review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;28:588–96.
Furthermore, they can notice and comment on the differences of [16] Ciulla G, Brano VL, Dio VD, Cipriani G. A comparison of different one-diode
measured and expected results. The authors strongly believe that by models for the representation of I-V characteristic of a PV cell. Renew Sustain
performing proposed laboratory exercises the overall process of Energy Rev 2014;32:684–96.
[17] Hasan MA, Parida SK. An overview of solar photovoltaic panel modeling on
electrical engineering education, consisting of teaching theoretical analytical and experimental viewpoint. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;60:75–83.
units, practicing numerical calculations and performing computer [18] Rawat R, Kaushik SC, Lamba R. A review on modeling, design methodology and
simulations, is significantly improved. size optimization of photovoltaic based water pumping, standalone and grid
connected system. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;57:1506–19.
The general impression is that the students showed a high motiva- [19] Chin VJ, Salam Z, Ishaque K. An accurate modeling of the two-diode model of PV
tion to work in the Laboratory for Renewable Energy Sources and were module using a hybrid solution based on differential evolution. Energy Convers
well prepared for carrying out practical experiments. The discussions Manag 2016;124:42–50.
[20] Jordehi AR. Parameter estimation of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells: a review. Renew
and comments of the students stated in their reports indicate they Sustain Energy Rev 2016;61:354–71.
understand the principles of work and have adopted the practical [21] Kichou S, Silvestre S, Guglielminotti L, Mora-Lopez L, Munoz –Ceron E.
knowledge of modern photovoltaic systems. Therefore, it is not Comparison of two PV array models for the simulation of PV systems using five
different algorithms for the parameters identification. Renew Energy
surprising the average grade regarding laboratory exercises is 8.72 2016;39:270–9.
out of 10, earned in the 2015/2016 academic year. [22] Gasparin FP, Buhler AJ, Rampinelli GA, Krenzinger A. Statistical analysis of I-V
It can be concluded that Laboratory for Renewable Energy Sources curve parameters from photovoltaic modules. Sol Energy 2016;131:30–8.
[23] Zhang Y, Gao S, Gu T. Prediction of I-V characteristics for a PV panel by combining
in the HETSPS in Novi Sad is of great importance for the educational
single diode model and explicit analytical model. Sol Energy 2017;144:349–55.
process since besides laboratory exercises it is used for various student [24] IEC 61724, Photovoltaic system performance monitoring – Guidelines for mea-
research activities and preparation of seminars and undergraduate surement, data exchange and analysis, 1998-04, 〈https://webstore.iec.ch/preview/
thesis. Also, the experience shows positive student feedback as well as info_iec61724%7Bed1.0%7Den.pdf〉.
[25] Kamarzaman NA, Tan CW. A comprehensive review of maximum power point
employers’ satisfaction regarding the acquired knowledge and skills tracking algorithms for photovoltaic systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
necessary for engineering tasks in the field of renewable energy 2014;37:585–98.
sources. [26] Liu L, Meng X, Liu C. A review of maximum power point tracking methods of PV
power system at uniform and partial shading. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2015;53:1500–7.
Acknowledgment [27] Stropnik R, Stritih U. Increasing the efficiency of PV panel with the use of PCM.
Renew Energy 2016;97:671–9.
[28] Technical documentation and test equipment. Germany: Robert Bosch School,
This paper is part of the Reseach project No. III 42009: 2011–2016 WBZU, Ulm; 2007.
Integrated Energy Networks, supported by the Ministry of Science and [29] Law on Safety and Health at Work, Official Gazette of Republic of Serbia, No. 101/
Technology of Republic of Serbia. The authors are grateful to Branka 05.
[30] Regulations on general measures of protection on work from the hazardous effects
Petrovic for lectoring the manuscript. of electricity in buildings intended for work, premises and work sites, Official
Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 21/89.
References

[1] Masters GM. Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems. John Wiley and Sons

303

View publication stats