Thirty Years

W. W. Ward and F. W.
Floyd
Thirty Years of Research and Development in

Space Communications at Lincoln Laboratory
The goal ofLincoln Laboratory's program in space communications is the development

of reliable, affordable systems for military communication. These systems must func-
tion dependably - even in the presence of natural or hostile interference.
A broad, total-systems approach has characterized the program since its inception.
Lincoln Laboratory has designed, built, tested, and operated communications satel-
lites and their corresponding terminals in real-world environments.
Some of the techniques that have been developed to meet the requirements of mili-
tary space communications have had or will have important, sometimes unantici-
pated, applications in the civilian sphere.
Nowadays we take the ready availability of tinely available, first for large. fixed terminals
worldwide high-capacity communications cir- and then for small, mobile ones. Mter that
cuits for granted. Communications satellites goal was reached, the emphasis shifted to-
and undersea cables bring us information (such ward making the communications systems elec-
as live television) from almost anywhere. tromagnetically and physically suroivable. ca-
It was not always this way. In the mid-1950s, pable of functioning despite the most deter-
for example, trans-Atlantic communications mined efforts by an adversary to interfere with
relied on several teletype cables, a few dozen them by jamming or by physical attack.
voice channels via cables equipped with vac- The job is not finished. The successes
uum-tube repeaters. high-frequency (HF) radio achieved in making communications systems
(roughly 3 to 30 MHz), and physical transport of available and survivable must be followed up by
messages by plane or ship. The rest of the world equally noteworthy breakthroughs in making
was not even that well equipped. the technologies affordable, so that both tactical
The HF medium has always challenged and strategic users can benefit from reliable
communications engineers. Under favorable communications.
conditions, it provides worldwide communica-
tions (that is, from a specific point to another Project West Ford
specific point, at a specific time) by the use of
relatively small, low-power transmitting and re- The immediate impetus for Lincoln Labora-
ceiving terminal equipment. However, natural tory's first work in space communications came
phenomena often interfere with HF links. And in from the HARDTACK series of high-altitude
time of war (cold or hot), they become targets for nuclear tests, which were carried out in the
jamming. Nevertheless, HFwas the only game in Pacific Ocean near Johnston Island in August
town in the 1950s. Thus the communications 1958. The first of these thermonuclear detona-
for the command and control of U.S. strategic tions destroyed the ionosphere over a vast area
forces worldwide left a lot to be desired. around the test site, and thus interrupted a
Lincoln Laboratory's program of research great many HF radio communications links
and development in space communications has (because HF radio signals travel by means of
accomplished much in its 3D-year history. The reflections off the lower surface of the iono-
initial objective of the program was simply to sphere and the surface of the earth).
make long-range military communications rou- The loss ofHF radio halted commercial trans-
The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (J 989) 5

Ward et aI. - Thirty Years oj Research and Development in
Fig. 1- The orbiting belt of West Ford dipoles made possible the demonstration ofsurvivable scatter communications across
continental distances.
Pacific air transport. The military implications of sphere became unavailable to serve as a natural
a failure in HF radio communication at a critical reflector (due to such natural phenomena as
time were obvious. How could radio communi- solar storms or due to thermonuclear detona-
cation be maintained? tions), an orbiting artificial reflector could re-
Walter Morrow, of Lincoln Laboratory, and place the ionosphere. Both the U.S.S.R. and the
Harold Meyer, then at TRW Corp., considered United States had recently demonstrated the
the problem ofHF radio communication failures capability of placing satellite payloads into orbit,
dUring the Army's Project Barnstable Summer so the idea had become feasible.
Study in 1958. They suggested that, if the iono- Morrow and Meyer proposed the construc-
6 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

tion of an artificial reflector that consisted of a

pair of belts (one circular polar, one circular
equatorial) of resonant scatterers in orbit a few
thousand kilometers above the surface of the
earth. The scatterers in each belt would be
conducting objects (e.g., lengths of wire) that
would resonate at the system's operating wave-
length and therefore reradiate RF signals. The
smaller the objects, the shorter the wavelength,
and the easier their distribution from an orbiting
dispenser. If the objects were too small, how-
ever, construction of adequate transmitting and
receiving terminals would become excessively
difficult.
Lincoln Laboratory proposed an experiment
to demonstrate transcontinental communica-
tions by sending full-duplex (i.e., simultane-
ously in both directions) transmissions between
terminals in Camp Parks, Calif., and Westford,
Mass. The orbiting scatterers would act as half-
wave dipoles and resonate at '-"8 GHz; the com-
munications would be transmitted at 7,750 and
8,350 MHz (Fig. 1). Each scatterer would be a Fig. 2 - The Project West Ford orbiting dipoles were
0.7-in length of #53 AWG copper wire (0.0007- hairlike segments of copper wire. The finger has not been
identified.
in diameter). The experiment would require that
about 480 million of these 40-,ug dipoles (19 kg
of copper) be distributed into circular polar that the perigee of each revolution would move
orbits at an altitude of about 3,600 km. The steadily down. Before long, the orbits would
average separation between dipoles (Fig. 2) start to dip into the thin upper atmosphere of the
would be roughly 0.3 km. Sixty-ft (diameter) pa- earth, and the resistance of the atmosphere
raboloidal antennas would be fed by transmit- would slow the dipoles enough that they would
ters with 20-to-40-kW average power (Fig. 3). fall back to earth. Thus the belt would be re-
Maser receivers would provide what was then moved from orbit within a few years after its
the lowest attainable system noise temperature launch.
at that wavelength, approximately 60 K. The Mter planning this responsible method for
waveforms for modulation and demodulation, concluding the experiment, Lincoln Laboratory
multiple-frequency-shift keying (MFSK) spread unveiled Project West Ford in 1960 - in virtu-
over a bandwidth of 4 MHz, were designed to ally complete detail, even though the planned
satisfY the requirements of communication via experiment was originally secret. Of particular
forward scatter off the orbiting dipoles, and to importance was allaying the concerns of optical
probe the characteristics of the belt via radar and radio astronomers and other scientists who
back scatter and forward scatter. perceived the experimental belt as potentially
Recognizing that a proposal to place vast harmful: capable of interference with scientific
numbers of anything in orbit would be contro- observations and a precursor of worse experi-
versial, Lincoln Laboratory designed the pro- ments to come. The electropolitical conflict that
posed experiment, Project West Ford, to ensure greeted the West Ford announcement is chron-
that the experimental belt would not endure. icled in Ref. 1; it and Refs. 2 and 3 describe the
The pressure of incident solar radiation on the project in detail. The orbital-scatter-communi-
orbiting dipoles would change their orbits so cations experiment had originally been called
The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2, Number 1 (1989) 7

Fig. 3 - The West Ford communications terminal at Camp Parks, near Pleasanton, Calif., including special
circuitry for modulation and demodulation of signals, a large steerable antenna, a high-power transmitter, and
a sensitive receiver.
Project Needles, but giving it the more benign tiveness of the scatterers proved greater in the
name of West Ford did little to still the clamor early stages of belt formation, when the dipoles
from both sides of the Iron Curtain (Fig. 4) [4]. were less spread out, than later on. The dipoles'
Ultimately, reason prevailed and presidential density in the common volume illuminated by
approval was given for West Ford launch- the two beams of the terminal antennas was
es, though limited to the bare minimum, to higher earlier, allowing communication at data
demonstrate the concept of orbital scatter rates of up to 20,000 bits/so
communications. As the months and years passed, the belt
On 21 October 1961, the first experiment was became less effective for scatter communica-
launched, piggyback on another payload, into tions' testimony that it was indeed cleaning
circular polar orbit from Vandenberg AFB, Calif. itself out of orbit. By early 1966, the removal
It was unsuccessful; the dipoles did not deploy process was essentially complete [5]. At the
as planned. On 8 May 1963, a second launch, in conclusion of the measurements and demon-
the same manner but with improved dipole- strations, the two communication terminals
dispensing arrangements, achieved a substan- were converted to other uses.
tial degree ofsuccess. The belt formed and closed Project West Ford was an undeniable suc-
over a period of about 40 days; its estimated cess, but it had little impact in terms of opera-
density was 5 dipoles per cubic km. The effec- tional employment. Communication via passive
8 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2, Number 1 (1989)

Space Communications at Lincoln·Laboratory
embarked on a program to improve the design of

active satellites.
In most cases, the downlink signal (from a
satellite to a surface terminal) is the "weak link"
in satellite communications; an uplink can be
strengthened by increasing the power of a sur-
face transmitter. By contrast, a satellite down-
link must be strengthened by maximizing the ef-
fective isotropically radiated power per unit
mass in orbit - a more difficult task. To address
the downlink problem in space communica-
tions, Lincoln Laboratory set out to develop
high-efficiency spacecraft transmitters in the
downlink frequency band. Improved antennas
offered an additional benefit: if the spacecraft
Fig. 4 - "Close that window!"
Drawing by Alan Dunn; ©1961, 1989 The New Yorker
attitude-control system associated with a high-
Magazine, Inc. gain spacecraft antenna could position the
antenna within its reqUired beam-pointing tol-
satellites such as the West Ford dipoles required erance, downlinks and uplinks would both
users to make large investments in complex benefit. These and other spacecraft-related
terminals and provided only limited capabilities. technologies were addressed by a series of Lin-
The success and burgeoning availability of ac- coIn Experimental Satellites (LES), which were
tive communications satellites, beginning with launched between 1965 and 1976.
AT&T's TELSTAR-l in 1962 [6], have swept the Capitalizing on high-efficiency systems of
field. In fact, today's extensive commercial and modulation and demodulation, together with
military applications of satellite communica- recent advances in encoding and decoding sig-
tions depend on the technology of active nals for detection and correction oferrors, prom-
satellites. ised significant advantages for communication
Now and then the vulnerability of conven- terminals. Also needed were interference-resis-
tional satellite communications to radio-fre- tant, multiple-access signaling techniques that
quency interference (RFI), whether intentional would permit simultaneous use of a satellite by
or not, is brought forcibly to everyone's attention tens or hundreds of users, some of them mo-
[7]. Furthermore, most satellites in orbit are bile, without invoking elaborate systems for
fragile and thus vulnerable to physical attack. synchronization and centralized control. These
Therefore, Lincoln Laboratory has focused its and other terminal-related problems were
work in active-satellite space communications addressed by a series of Lincoln Experimental
on the development of robust systems that Terminals (LET) that went hand in hand with the
function reliably in the face of formidable levels LESs.
of interference. But the lesson of Project West Lincoln Laboratory's post-West Ford space-
Ford - that point-to-point scatter communica- communications program got under way in
tions at limited data rates can be extremely sur- 1963 with a charter to build and demonstrate
vivable - should not be forgotten. space-communications systems that addressed
military needs [8, 9]. The initial program objec-
tive was to build, launch, and field a LES and
Space Communications at
Super-High Frequency a LET that would work together as a system
and demonstrate practical military satellite
Mter showing with Project West Ford what communications (MILSATCOM). The availabil-
could be done for military communications by ity of Project West Ford's advanced RF technol-
using passive satellites, Lincoln Laboratory ogy at super-high frequency (SHF) - 7 to 8 GHz
The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989) 9
- contributed to the decision to design LES-l

and LET-l for that band. The Department of De-
fense's (000) concurrent procurement of a
series of SHF satellites and terminals, com-
mencing with the Initial Defense Communica-
tions-Satellite Program (IDCSP) [10), meant that
lessons learned from LES-l and LET-1 would
find an additional application.
LES-l and its twin, LES-2 [11, 12), were each
built as a small polyhedron with a mass of 37 kg
(Fig. 5), solar-powered, and spin-stabilized. The
satellite's communications transponder acted
as a bent pipe in the sky: it translated signals
received at the uplink frequency to the downlink
Fig. 6 - Lincoln Experimental Terminal (LET}-1 - a
frequency after passing the signals through a complete, self-sufficient, transportable terminal for SHF
20-MHz-wide filter at intermediate frequency space communications - ready to roll.
(IF) and a hard limiter. In response to measure-
ments by visible-light sensors of the earth's
position, an autonomous electronic antenna- control system (pulsed electromagnets working
switching system would connect one of eight against the earth's magnetic field synchro-
SHF hom antennas on the comers of the poly- nously with sensor outputs) kept the satellite's
hedron to the transponder. A magnetic attitude- spin axis oriented perpendicularly to the line of
sight to the sun, and thus avoided thermal
problems.
The Titan III-A boosters, which would carry
LES-l and -2, were still under development. The
boosters were capable of carrying the satellites
to inclined circular orbits at altitudes of about
2,800 km. To reach a higher altitude (which
would allow tests that would better represent
operational MILSATCOM systems], LES-l and
-2 were each equipped with a perigee kick motor,
a solid rocket that would place the satellite in an
inclined elliptic orbit with 15,000-km apogee.
LES-l, launched from Cape Canaveral on 11
February 1965, accomplished only a few of its
goals. Apparently because of ordnance-circuitry
miswiring, the satellite never left its circular
orbit and ceased transmitting in 1967. LES-2
did much better: on 6 May 1965, it achieved its
planned final orbit. Operation with LET-l [13]
was successful, commencing the morning after
launch.
LET-l (Figs. 6-8) was a complete, self-con-
tained, air-transportable ground terminal
equipped to test and demonstrate evolving
Fig. 5 - Andy Howitt inspects Lincoln Experimental Satel- space-communications techniques in realistic
lite (LES)-1 near the end of its fabrication. environments. The terminal included a modula-

Fig. 7 - LET-1 set up for operation with LES-1.
tion/demodulation system based on 16-ary and correcting errors in the received data
frequency-shift keying (FSK) , frequency-hopped stream. The incorporation of cooled varactor-
over a 20-MHz-wide band at SHF. This set of diode parametric amplifiers, which provided
features, tailored to match the characteristics of a system noise temperature of about 55 K,
LES-l and -2, provided protection against inter- improved the sensitivity of LET-l's receiving
ference - whether by happenstance or by inten- system [14].
tion - and was applicable for communication The next step in Lincoln Laboratory's pro-
over dispersive channels that used orbiting gram in space communications was to push a
scatterers such as the moon or the West Ford satellite out to a geosynchronous orbit. LES-4
dipole belt. (Fig. 9) was built to fulfill that mission. The
LET-2 and -3, each consisting of only a sig- satellite was an outgrowth of LES-l and -2;
nal-processingvan, were built at about the same the 53-kg satellite had a greater number of
time as LET-I. One of these terminals was used solar cells and an enlarged array of sun and
with the SHF West Ford terminal at Westford; earth sensors [11, 15]. The SHF transponder on
the other was transferred to the Army Signal LES-4 was essentially identical to the ones on
Corps for service with SHF terminals at Camp LES-l and -2, although its electronically despun
Roberts, Calif., and at Fort Monmouth, N.J. The SHF antenna system was more sophisticated
signal-processing features of LET-I, -2, and -3 [16]. LES-4 carried an instrument for measuring
included advanced vocoders for speech com- spatial and temporal variations of the energy
pression and reconstruction, and convolutional spectrum, in five energy ranges, of trapped
encoders and sequential decoders for detecting electrons encountered in orbit. This instrument

well as it could under the handicap of being in

the wrong orbit. Ultimately, as with the West
Ford dipoles, the pressure of solar radiation
caused the perigee of LES-4's orbit to descend
into the upper atmosphere, and it burned up.
Lincoln Laboratory's accomplishments in
SHF space communications opened up a part of
the electromagnetic spectrum that remains
heavily used today. In fact, succeeding genera-
tions of SHF satellites now form the space seg-
ment of the Defense Satellite Communications
System (DSCS).
Space Communications at mtra-High

Frequency
LES-l, -2, and -4 and LET-I, -2, and -3
showed the capabilities of SHF for reliable com-
munications between fairly massive terminals.
These technologies, however, were not immedi-
ately available to small tactical units such as
vehicles, ships, aircraft, and specialized ground
troops, all of which needed direct, dependable
communications. Only a large command-post
airplane or a sizable ship could be eqUipped
Fig. 8 - Steve Russell operating LET-t. with an SHF terminal that could work with the
DSCS satellites in orbit and those planned for
the immediate future.
was added to provide information both for High levels of RF power at SHF could not be
scientific interest and to aid the design of
future spacecraft.
A Titan-IIIC booster was to carry LES-4 and
its companion, LES-3 (described below). to a
near-geosynchronous altitude and deposit
them in circular, near-equatorial orbits with
eastward drift in subsatellite longitude of about
30 deg/day. These satellites did not have on-
board propulsion systems. The satellites would
be visible to any given terminal for about five
days, then disappear in the east to reappear six
days later in the west. Unfortunately, the
booster failed to finish its job, leaving these
satellites stranded in their transfer ellipses. This
disappointment, however, had its bright side:
LES-4's repeated trips between perigee (195 km)
and apogee (33,700 kIn) gave it many opportu-
nities to measure the radiation environment
over a wide range of altitudes (17). LES-4's com- Fig. 9 - Andy Howitt again, checking a sun sensor on
munications system appeared to be working as LES-4.
12 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

Ward et al. - Thirty Years oj Research and Development in
generated in the satellites, so the downlink field with free electrons). When a net misalign-
continued to limit system performance. Each ment between the orientations ofthe two anten-
terminal's antenna aperture had to be large nas occurred, the level of the received signal was
enough to capture the downlink signal, and the consequently reduced.
price for a large antenna aperture at SHF was a In 1965 the DoD established Tri-Service
narrow, high-gain antenna beam that had to be Program 591 (Tactical Satellite Communica-
pointed directly toward the satellite. Small tac- tions) to enable the Army, Navy, and Air Force to
tical units could not accommodate such com- evaluate the potential usefulness of satellite
plex antenna systems, particularly if the plat- communications in the military UHF band.
form carrying the terminal would be in motion. Lincoln Laboratory was chosen to provide the
Communications links at much lower fre- satellites essential to the test program. LES-5
quencies (in the military ultra-high-frequency was to be built and launched as soon as pos-
[UHF) band, 225 to 400 MHz) solved the sible; LES-6 would incorporate improvements
downlink problem. Solid-state circuits could on LES-5 and would be launched a year later.
generate substantial amounts of RF power at The three military services would procure test
UHF in a satellite [18, 19). Arelativelyuncompli- terminals that would work with LES-5 and -6
cated low-gain terminal antenna could provide a and would arrange for their installation in ships
broad beam (simplifying the task of pointing an and aircraft.
antenna in the direction of the satellite), and a Lincoln Laboratory carried out two programs
sizable receiving area, which permitted closing to measure the characteristics of the UHF envi-
the link. Such antennas were particularly ap- ronment. In the first program, receiving equip-
pealing for aircraft installation [20). UHF termi- ment was installed in aircraft and flown over
nals promised to be comparatively simple and representative cities and varied terrains, and
inexpensive, and they could be readily produced the ambient RF noise was measured [26-28). In
in large numbers. the second program, propagation phenomena
The feasibility of active-satellite communica- between satellites and airborne terminals were
tions at longer wavelengths - although not examined. For this program, LES-3 was built in
seriously in question - was demonstrated at haste, using technology from LES-l, -2, and -4,
VHF by Hughes Aircraft Co. on8May 1964. The and was launched along with LES-4 on 21
company used teletype-rate signaling (60 wpm) December 1965.
through the SYNCOM-2 [21) satellite from one LES-3 (Fig. 10), with a mass of 15.5 kg [II,
ground terminal to another nearby. A 148-MHz 29), was essentially a signal generator in orbit.
telecommand and a 136-MHz telemetry link It radiated a signal near 233 MHz that was
were used for the uplink and the downlink, biphase-modulated by a IS-bit maximal-length
respectively [22). On 27 January 1965, teletype- shift-register sequence at a clock rate of 100,000
rate satellite communication to and from an bits/so Correlation of the signal received in an
airplane in flight was demonstrated by using the aircraft with a replica of the known sequence
SYNCOM-3 satellite [21], operating in the same brought out time-delay structures in the propa-
mode as SYNCOM-2, and a ground terminal at gation path. Multipath propagation effects were
Camp Parks [23, 24). NASA's ATS-1 satellite expected, and they were observed [30). Given
[25], launched in December 1966, also partici- the degree of smoothness of the earth's surface
pated in experiments of this sort. relative to the 1-m free-space wavelength of 300
The linear polarization of the satellites' and MHz (the middle of the military UHF band),
the airplanes' VHF antenna systems handi- much of earth's surface is mirrorlike, and elec-
capped these airborne tests. As the radio waves tromagnetic waves were able to be propagated
traversed the ionosphere, their planes ofelectro- between the satellite and the airborne terminal
magnetic polarization were rotated by the Fara- by more than one path. By knowing the likely
day effect (interaction of the earth's magnetic parameters of the signal delays, the communi-

cation-system designers were able to con-

stIUct modulation and demodulation circuits
that would not be confounded by multipath-
propagation effects.
As mentioned. booster problems trapped
LES-3 and LES-4 in transfer ellipses. although
circular. equatorial orbits at a near-geosynchro-
nous altitude had been planned. The actual
orbit ofLES-3 did permit the gathering of multi-
path-propagation data over a wide variety of
terrains. and it gave the Lincoln Laboratory test
team a reason to fly to exotic destinations to
receive LES-3 signals reflected by representative
types of terrain. Like LES-4, LES-3 ultimately
re-entered the atmosphere and disintegrated.
LES-5, launched by a Titan-llIe booster on 1
July 1967 (31). and LES-6. launched in the
same way on 26 September 1968. share a strong
family resemblance (Figs. 11-13), with masses
of 94 and 169.4 kg, respectively [32, 33). Each
satellite is powered by solar cells and is spin-
stabilized around an axis nominally perpen-
Fig. 11 - Claude Gillaspie points with pride to the viewband
of LE5-5.
dicular to the near-equatorial orbit plane.

LES-5 has no onboard propulsion system; its
spin axis is kept erect by an attitude-control
system based on pulsed electromagnets inter-
acting with the earth's magnetic field [34).
LES-5 is in a near-circular, sub-synchronous
orbit (a period less than a sidereal day) and drifts
eastward about 33 deg/day. LES-6 has a work-
horse ammonia propulsion system for attitude
and orbit control and a backup magnetic atti-
tude-control system.
The central feature of each of these satellites
is a broadband, hard-limiting, frequency-trans-
lating UHF-to-UHF transponder. To avoid prob-
lems due to the Faraday effect. each satellite has
a circularly polarized antenna system. LES-5's
antenna gain pattern resembles a fat doughnut
placed around the waist of the satellite [35);
LES-6's antenna pattern is a directive beam that
is automatically aimed at the earth, regardless
of the satellite's spin, by a system that includes
optical sensors and electronic RF switches (35).
Fig. 10 - Joe Marapoti has LE5-3 ready for launch. To make a long story short. satellite commu-

large quantities of UHF terminals. Since more

than two satellites were needed for worldwide
coverage. a series of satellites, including
Gapfiller (MARISAT. Ref. 38), FLTSAT (FLTSAT-
COM. Ref. 39), andLEASAT[40), were launched.
A new series. UHF Follow-On (UFO) satellites, is
now under development.
Use of the UHF spectrum for MILSATCOM is
by no means limited to the U.S. 000. The
U.S.S.R. has announced a series of Volna
("Wave") satellites that incorporate UHF uplinks
and downlinks [41], and the United Kingdom
has included UHF provisions in its series of
SKYNET-4 satellites. the first of which was
launched on 10 Dec. 1988 [42]. As will be dis-
cussed. it is very difficult to defend a communi-
cations satellite with a UHF uplink against a
determined jamming attack. Nevertheless. since
the relative simplicity and comparative cheap-
ness of UHF MILSATCOM terminals make this
part of the spectrum highly attractive, it is likely
to remain in use for a long time.
Experience with UHF satellite communica-
Fig. 12 - Joe Palmer (left) and Howard MacDonald (right) tions soon revealed that transmissions are
tighten a screw on LES-6. What is wrong in this picture? sometimes subject to amplitude scintillation
due to propagation through turbulent electron-
density fluctuations in the ionosphere [43).
nications in the military UHF band worked well. Extra-strong received signals cause no prob-
The Tri-Service terminals in ships and aircraft lems. but weak signals may break communica-
and in the field communicated readily through tions links. These effects occur most often for
LES-5 in orbit. To enhance satellite-communi- terminals near the geomagnetiC poles and the
cations at UHF to and from mobile platforms. geomagnetic equator. To characterize scintilla-
Lincoln Laboratory developed a special anti- tion effects on a link that included the Pacific
jam/multiple-access system of modulation and Gapfiller satellite, and to provide a flexible test
demodulation based on frequency hopping and environment, Lincoln Laboratory measured
MFSK [36]. The TATS (Tactical Transmission transmissions from Hawaii to Guam and used
System) that worked with LES-5 was completed these measurements to design and test a time-
at the last minute, "after the launch but before diversity communications system for mobile
the insertion into orbit." TATS met its perform- terminals [44).
ance goals and was put into production by the As the number of UHF satellite-communica-
000. The LETs for UHF (Fig. 14) were much tions terminals grew, so did the importance of
smaller than SHF terminals. The components of increasing the utilization efficiency of the UHF
a representative UHF airborne terminal are satellite transponders. Lincoln Laboratory de-
shown in Fig. 15. veloped a demand-assigned time-division mul-
LES-6 and the Hughes-built UHF/SHF tiple-access (TDMA) system that accomplished
TACSAT (Ref. 37, launched 9 February 1969) this goal by improving the ground terminals.
placed substantial communications resources The laboratory demonstration of the Terminal
in geostationary orbit, and the 000 procured Access Control System (TACS) [45) led to the
The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2, Number 1 (1989) 15

Telemetry Antenna
Telemetry-Antenna
Ground Plane Four Similar
Solar-Array
Deployed Assemblies
Dipole Fixed
Antennas Dipole Antennas
Two Similar Fiberglass
Solar-Array Ring Frame
Assemblies -+-----.c,-
Thermal
Blanket
4"-High
6"-High
Sensor
View Band ---J Sensor
I LES-5 l' ~--f=~~~~b!;~~~~~~~~~~W~ <~;SB:;d

- I Electronic
Equipment
Electronic
Equipment
Ammonia
Gas System
Magnetic Magnetic
Torquer Rods Torquer
Rods
Cavity-Backed
Slot Antennas t==:j~f-----l:J~~=:t~=lJ2~~~~~ Thermal

Blanket
Launch-Vehicle Cavity-Backed
Interface Slot Antennas
Fig. 13 - The prominent features of the generally similar satellites LES-5 and -6 are shown
here for comparison.
Navy's procurement of demand-assigned mul- sweep their receiver passbands across separate
tiple-access (DAMA) terminal-control equip- 15-MHz-wide windows.
ment for some of its UHF satellite-communica- The characteristics of the RF environment
tions systems. near the altitude of geosynchronous orbit have
LESs have often accommodated space-tech- been measured and telemetered to Lincoln
nology experiments. LES-6 carries a set of solar Laboratory for analysis [48]. These tests have
cells for measurement of degradation effects, a demonstrated that observations in orbit can give
detector for measurement of particle radiation very different results from predictions based on
(similar to the one on LES-4J, a pulsed-plasma- listings of frequency allocations and authoriza-
thruster system for orbit control [46], and a tions. Some entities request frequency alloca-
system for automatically stationkeeping the tions but rarely use them. Other entities radiate
satellite in longitude [47]. The Aerospace Corpo- interfering signals, usually unintentionally,
ration provided LES-5 and LES-6 with auto- toward the satellite corridor; these signals can
matically scanning UHF receivers that serve as be nuisances. As the use of the electromagnetic
spectrum analyzers in the sky and repeatedly environment increases, the importance oflocat-

Fig. 14 - Lou Hallowell is about to take off with LET-4, a mobile terminal for UHF satellite communications.
ing and mitigating sources of uplink RFI is Space Science

becoming increasingly important.
Mter LES-6's test program was successfully During the early years ofLincoln Laboratory's
completed, it began a long period of operational program in space communications, the builders
communications support. The satellite was of LESs worked side by side with the builders of
placed on reserve status in March 1976, when scientific instruments that were flown on space-
the first Gapfiller was launched. A condition craft orbiting the earth and on others orbiting
check of the LES-6 communications transpon- the sun. In 1967, Lincoln Laboratory-built
der, carried out on 14 October 1988, showed plasma-probe instruments were working
that, after 20 years in space, it still worked. The aboard the spacecraft EOGO-l, EOGO-3, Mari-
satellite's output power and receiving sensitivity ner-4, Pioneer-6, and Pioneer-7, and a Lincoln
were found to be significantly poorer than they Laboratory gamma-ray telescope was operating
were dUring the years just after launch. How- aboard OSO-E. The equipment carried by
ever, LES-6 is still available for limited commu- LES-6 to measure particle radiation was the last
nications support if needed; its stalwart endur- such scientific experiment; thereafter the strong
ance testifies to the extremely long, useful lives program focus on MILSATCOM mission require-
of spacecraft systems. The next scheduled con- ments ruled out most side activities.
dition check of the LES-6 communications Although not directly related to MILSATCOM
transponder is planned for 1993. functions, the Lincoln Calibration Spheres

Multiple-Beam Antennas
LES-l, -2, and -4 and LET-I, -2, and -3
showed that SHF could provide reliable commu-
nications within certain limitations. The an-
tenna systems on these satellites were small in
terms of wavelength, and their beams were
much larger than earth coverage (which is about
18° from synchronous altitude). The next level of
sophistication in SHF space communications
was a satellite antenna system with a mechani-
cally pointable, less-than-earth-coverage beam.
This advancement was achieved through gov-
ernmental procurement of communications
satellites such as the second generation of the
Fig. 15 - These black boxes are the subsystems of a

representative airborne terminal for UHF satellite commu-
nications. On the top shelf of the cart, the control panel and
modem electronics package are at the left; the military
teletypewriter (keyboard and printer) is at the right. On the
bottom shelf, the transmitter is at the left, the transmit!
receive switch for the antenna is at the right.
(LCS) deserve mention [49]. Each sphere (Fig.

16) was a polished, hollow, rigid aluminum
sphere with a diameter of 1.129 m, an optical
cross section of 1 m 2 , and a radar cross section
at 1,300 MHz of 1 m 2 . These passive satellites,
with masses of 34 kg, were designed to be
calibration objects for ballistic-missile and sat-
ellite-tracking radars and for optical telescopes.
LCS-l was placed in a circular orbit at an
altitude of2,800 km on 6 May 1965 - too high
to be very useful, but where the booster was
scheduled to dispense its payload. LCS-2 and Fig. 16 - A Lincoln Calibration Sphere at Rohr's plant in
LCS-3 were lost to booster failures. LCS-4 was Chula Vista, Calif. Note in the mirrorlike surface of this
placed in a circular, near-polar orbit at an sphere the reflection of the man leaning on it, the camera
and tripod, the photographer, lines in the parking lot, and
altitude of 850 km on 7 August 1971 and surrounding buildings. The man is believed to have been an
continues to be a useful calibration object. employee of Rohr; he has not been identified.

DSCS (TRWs series of DSCS-IIs, Ref. 50). Lin- narrow pencil beams covering the earth. The
coln Laboratory undertook to develop and signals from this collection of beams are ad-
demonstrate, in orbit, an antenna system that justed in amplitude and phase ("weighted") and
could allow satellite operators to aim the trans- combined to approximate the desired antenna
mit (downlink) power to receivers and simulta- pattern. Each approach has its merits and
neously reduce the receiving (uplink) sensitivity shortcomings, and the appropriate choice de-
in directions that might include sources of pends on the application.
jamming or other interference. Lincoln Laboratory began a program to
Such an antenna system can be built in two demonstrate, in orbit, a 19-beam MBA for recep-
ways. In the phased-array approach, many tion at SHF (Fig. 17). An earth-coverage hom
separate transmit and/ or receive modules (each was to be used for transmission. The 30-
of which has a beamwidth much larger than in-diameter aperture of the receiving antenna
earth coverage) are controlled individually in yielded a nominal 3° resolution throughout the
amplitude and phase so that the sum of their cone subtended by the earth from geosynchro-
signals, a result of constructive and destructive nous-satellite altitude. The ground control ter-
interference, approximates the desired transmit minal was to calculate the weights for the indi-
or receive antenna pattern covering the earth. In vidual beams to approximate the desired an-
the multiple-beam-antenna (MBA) approach, tenna pattern and to transmit the weights to the
many separate antenna feeds form a dense set of satellite by telecommand.
Fig. 17 - RF switch matrix, cluster of 19 feed horns, and waveguide lens (left to right), comprising a multiple-beam
antenna such as that planned for LES-7.

The MBA, which was kept facing the earth by

the attitude-control system, dominated the
configuration of LES-7 (Fig. 18). Solar-cell ar-
rays followed the sun to collect energy as LES-7
revolved during its orbit around the earth. Work
got underway to develop the satellite bus - ~ST r NORTH
consisting of structure and housekeeping sys-

tems, power, propulsion, attitude control, ther-
mal control, telemetry, and telecommand - in
parallel with the development of the MBA and of
the communications system associated with
it [51).
TO EARTH
By early in 1970, it became apparent that
LES- 7 was ahead of its time. Since there was not
enough support in the DoD for the mission, the
funding reqUired for the satellite's development,
launch, and evaluation in orbit was not avail-
able. Lincoln Laboratory, with considerable re-
gret, put aside the LES- 7 flight program. The
critical technology of the MBA was carried
1 SOUTH
through development on the bench and at an

antenna test range [52). In time the MBA con-
cept found application - in the third generation
of the DSCS. Each GE-built DSCS-III [53) car- Fig. 18 - Design study for LES-7.
ries two 19-beam SHF MBAs for transmission
and one 61-beam SHF MBA for reception
(Fig. 19).
demultiplexing, frequency hopping/ dehopping,
Space Communications at Extremely and demodulation, crossbanding, and remodu-
High Frequency lation onboard the satellite.
LES-8 and -9 (masses of 450 kg each) are
LES-8 and -9 are a pair of experimental shown in Figs. 21 and 22; their salient charac-
communications satellites that Lincoln Labora- teristics are listed in Table 1. The military UHF
tory developed and built for the DoD [54, 551. band was augmented by uplinks, downlinks,
They were designed to operate in coplanar, and intersatellite links at extremely high fre-
inclined, circular, geosynchronous orbits, and quency (EHF). That portion of the spectrum held
to communicate with each other via intersatel- out the promise of abundant bandwidth to ac-
lite links (crosslinks), and with terminals oper- commodate many simultaneous users and
ating on or near the surface of the earth. The spread-spectrum systems of modulation and
overall communications system (Fig. 20) pro- demodulation for electromagnetically surviv-
vided for assured communications between a able (i.e., hard, anti-jam) communications links.
limited number of strategic terminals at data For reasons of convenience, operating frequen-
rates ranging from teletype (75 bits/s) to cies in the Ka -band (36 to 38 GHz) were selected.
vocoded voice (2,400 bits/s) and computer data Intersatellite links in the 55-to-65-GHz fre-
exchange (19,200 bits/s). The system design quency range would have been desirable, be-
incorporated a number of band-spreading and cause absorption by oxygen molecules would
signal-processing techniques for electromag- attenuate signals passing through the atmos-
netic survivability, including encoding/decod- phere. However, it soon became apparent that
ing, interleaving/deinterleaving, multiplexing/ the technology of 1971, on which LES-8 and -9

Fig. 19-Artist's concept ofthe Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS)-II/ satellite in orbit. Note the three
waveguide-lens multiple-beam antennas.
had to be based, would not support such an en- developed separately and their first operating
terprise. Very little test equipment was commer- encounter took place after launch. Lincoln
cially available for frequencies above 40 GHz. At- Laboratory conducted extensive end-to-end
tention' therefore, focused on the development testing of communications links before launch,
of the needed components and subsystems at including the terminals that Lincoln Laboratory
Ka-band [56). developed and those developed by the Air Force
One of the strengths of Lincoln Laboratory's and the Navy. The generally smooth course of
program in space communications is that it the communications-link testing in orbit (Fig.
encompasses the development of terminals and 23) owed a great deal to the pre-launch testing
of satellites under one roof. Transmission and at Lincoln Laboratory [57).
reception for satellite links providing substan- The LES-8 and -9 intersatellite links success-
tial anti-jam capability, such as links through fully addressed the key technical problems that
LES-8 and -9, are complex when compared to confront the implementation of satellite-to-sat-
links that rely on unprotected transponders, as ellite communications [58, 59). LES-8 and -9
do links through LES-l, -2, -4, -5, and -6. It were launched together on 14 March 1976. The
would be very difficult ifthe space and terrestrial Titan-IIIC booster placed them in nearly copla-
segments ofa modern MILSATCOM system were nar, circular, geosynchronous orbits with equa-

LES-9 LES-8
",,/
"........
~
"..",;.~.-
_-------_
Ka-Band i
UHF
ft4f
---- ... V . . .
,':.::><:
"' '"
~~
-
Ka-Band
,,
I
/
/
/
~-
ABNCPs
, \
,
/
\
ABNCPs UHF
~~
Elements
\
\
I
\ Ka-Band I
\ ~~ I
"
,, Elements
/
/
//
" "
, -- ~-~~----------~~
-- -- "
/""
Fig. 20 - Configuration of the strategic communications links that LES-B and -9 were designed to support.
torial inclinations of about 25°. The time of day thermoelectric generators (RTG) and have no
for lighting the fuse was chosen so that the solar cells or batteries (61). The Department of
orbital planes were near the ecliptic. This orien- Energy and its contractors did not create the
tation was selected to satisfy the launch require- RTGs easily, because the hot-shoe temperature
ments of the companion Naval Research Labora- of the thermocouple array surrounding the
tory (NRL) SOLRAD-IIA and B satellites and to plutonium-238 heat source is about I,OOO°C at
facilitate a measurement of the performance of the beginning of the mission, which posed chal-
the ultra-low-drift third-generation gyroscopes lenging materials problems. The design of the
from the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory that RTGs had to assure their physical integrity in
LES-8 and -9 carried as flight experiments (60). the event of a launch failure, so that the poten-
Accepting fmal orbits with inclinations about tial environmental hazard would be acceptable.
equal to the latitude of the launch site also During compatibility tests and preparations for
allowed lofting a more massive total payload launch, Lincoln Laboratory had to develop spe-
than would be possible for an equatorial orbit. cial procedures and pay scrupulous attention to
LES-8 and -9 are powered by radioisotope health-physics factors to ensure that workers

would not be overexposed to particle radiation. -9 (now between 20° North and 20° South) are
The RfGs were well worth the effort, however; very different from the behavior of most com-
they have perfonned superbly. They provide mercial communications satellites, which are
continuous electrical power through the 70-min stationkept in subsatellite latitude and longi-
eclipses of the sun by the earth that LES-8 and tude to a small fraction of a degree. Such precise
LES-9 experience every day. The compatibility of stationkeeping enables commercial satellites to
these rugged power sources with complex sig- serve customers who own tenninals without a
nal-processing circuitry has been well estab- satellite-tracking capability. What might seem,
lished. These RfGs are similar to the ones that at first, to be a handicap is actually a blessing,
power the NASA/JPL Voyager-l and -2 space- however. The motion of LES-8 and -9 relative to
craft, which have been exploring the outer plan- ground-based tenninals provides a good way to
ets and distant space since 1977. In fact, the test the motion-compensation circuitry oftenni-
measures that were taken to assure the success nals that operate on moving platfonns. More-
of the RfGs in LES-8 and -9 contributed directly over, the daily north/south excursions yield
to the success of the Voyager missions. long intervals of visibility from sites in the Arctic
The daily latitude excursions of LES-8 and and in the Antarctic. The U.S. Naval Support
-10 Feet
Standardized
+Z (Orbit-Plane Electronic
Normal or Pitch Boxes
Axis, Ecliptic North)
UHF Antenna
Radioisotope
Thermoelectric
Generators (RTG)
Gimbaled (-Z2)
Momentum
Wheel (Orbit Tangent
or Roll Axis,
Ecliptic West)
S-Band IR Earth
Telemetry Sensors
Antenna
Fig. 21 -Internal construction and external features of LES-9. LES-B is similar.

ized monitoring ofdata telemetered from the sat-

ellites and on human-engineered arrangements
to facilitate their control, the commitment to
LES-8 and -9 has been met with a minimal
number of people (Fig. 24).
During the prolonged gestation of LES-8 and
-9, faint-hearted observers sometimes asked
whether so complicated a satellite could ever
work. However, both the Laboratory's confi-
dence and the strenuous days that went into
LES-8 and -9 have been justified by the satel-
lites' success.
Mter a few years in orbit, the complexity of
LES-8 and -9 proved to be a benefit: the satel-
lites' many features, alternatives, and backup
modes gave them capabilities that were neither
advertised nor appreciated before launch. For
example, the hopped local oscillator in the
uplink receiver can be set by telecommand, so
the satellite can listen to nearly any frequency
over a broad stretch of the military UHF barld.
Instrument-quality power-measurement cir-
cuitry in the uplink receiver then gives readings
that are telemetered to LESOC. Reduction of an
Fig. 22- LES-B (left) and LES-9 (right) assembled at Cape
Canaveral, Fla. This assembly was hauled over the road extended collection of that data yields a statisti-
from the Satellite Assembly Building to Launch Complex 40 cal analysis of spectrum occupancy at the
for integration with the Titan-IIIC booster and launch. measured frequency by terrestrial terminals, a
technique that is a significant advancement over
Force Antarctica has a regular daily schedule of the less flexible RFI-measurement experiments
access time to LES-9, dUring which business is of LES-5 and LES-6 [48).
transacted and people stationed on the Ice can For another example, consider LES-8's con-
talk with the folks back home. Thanks to LES-8 tributions to radio astronomy. The radio tele-
and -9, the vagaries ofHF radio do not limit com- scopes needed for millimeter- and submillime-
munications with the polar regions. ter-wave observations have to be large and to
LES-8 and -9 represent the high-water mark have highly accurate reflecting surfaces. These
to date of Lincoln Laboratory's program in space surfaces are usually made up of a number of
communications. In addition to the complex precision replicated panels, each a portion of a
communications system, these satellites have paraboloid of revolution. The assembly of the
systems and subsystems for housekeeping primary reflector presents a problem. How can
functions, including attitude control [62], on- one know when the panels are positioned rela-
board (secondary) propulsion [63], telemetry tive to one another so that they best approx-
[64,65], and telecommand. imate the desired overall reflector shape?
Lincoln Laboratory continues to be respon- Techniques have been developed to measure
sible for the upkeep of LES-8 and -9. The Lin- the local shape of a reflector by holographic
coln Experimental Satellite Operations Center analysis of signals received from a distant,
(LESOC) operates and maintains these satel- monochromatic RF source [67, 68J. The Ka ~band
lites, and will continue to serve them as long as transmitting systems of LES-8 - pointed to-
they remain useful [66). By relying on computer- ward an antenna under test - are well suited to
24 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2, Number 1 (1989)

Table 1. LES-8 and -9 Program
SPACECRAFT
• -1000 Ib (Mass) Each

• 3-Axis-Stabilized to Earth
• Circular, Synchronous, Near-Ecliptic, Coplanar Orbits
• RTG Power Supplies
• Ka-Band/UHF Communications
• Spacecraft-to-Spacecraft Cross Linking (K a-Band)
• Flexible Onboard Signal Processing
• Spread Spectrum (Frequency Hopping) for Anti-Jam
• Autonomous Attitude Control and Stationkeeping
• Cold-Gas (Ammonia) Onboard Propulsion
• Comprehensive Telemetry and Telecommand
TERMINALS
• LL Airborne-Command-Post Terminal- 4-ft Antenna (Ka-Band)

• LL Ship Report-Back Terminal- 18-in Antenna (Ka-Band)
• LL Force-Element Terminals (UHF)
• Air Force and Navy Terminals (Ka-Band, UHF)
• LESOC, Lexington, Mass.
this purpose. Three radio-astronomy observato- munications to many small, mobile users.
ries in North America have made use of this LES-8 and -9 and their associated terminals
service and found that using LES-8 to map their demonstrated that UHF and EHF communica-
reflector surfaces at 38 GHz and then adjusting tions systems could be crossbanded in signal-
the panels for a better fit to the desired overall processing satellites and serve the needs of a
shape yields improved performance at frequen- limited number of small, mobile terminals. It
cies many times higher (e.g., 230 GHz). was tempting to try to extend the approach to
As LES-8 and -9 complete 13 years of fruitful meet the needs of a large number of users,
operation in orbit, they have clearly earned their because the relative simplicity and cheapness of
keep many times over. The technologies of UHF terminals made that part of the spectrum
onboard signal processing and ofEHF transmis- attractive.
sion and reception successfully demonstrated Unfortunately, communications systems in
in the LES-8 and -9 Joint Test Program have the military UHF band (225 to 400 MHz) are not
been incorporated in subsequent MILSATCOM convincingly robust, because military UHF does
procurements. The single-channel transpon- not have enough available bandwidth to pro-
ders on the DSCS-III satellites and the Milstar vide required levels of anti-jam protection. Not
communications system itself (see below) have even the proposal of a satellite with a very large
flowed directly from LES-8 and -9. UHF antenna and autonomous adaptive null-
ing sufficed. (Adaptive-nulling antennas are
Switchboards in the Sky used to obtain additional jammer suppression
beyond that achievable by spread-spectrum
Following the launch ofLES-8 and -9 in 1976, techniques [69, 70)). Thus under Lincoln Labo-
Lincoln Laboratory intensively addressed the ratory's new approach, all space-communica-
problem of providing affordable anti-jam com- tions links intended to be survivable were

Fig. 23 - LES-B and -9 communications-system testing in orbit.
assigned to the EHF domain. trum techniques and uplink-antenna beam dis-
The arguments for and against EHF are well crimination, extensive onboard signal process-
known [71, 72]. It has been recognized for some ing, and downlink-antenna beam hopping, a
time that the use of the EHF bands can over- modest-size satellite can simultaneously serve
come the frequency-congestion difficulties af- large numbers of small, mobile users with highly
fecting both civilian and military systems at jam-resistant communication channels. The
lower frequencies. However, the major advan- probability that covert transmissions from ter-
tage to military users is that EHF also supplies minals that wish to remain unnoticed will be
the bandwidths necessary to implement robust, intercepted is also reduced at EHF. On the nega-
anti-jam systems based on spread-spectrum tive side, the effects of rain attenuation on link
technologies. By using advanced spread-spec- operation at EHF require that - to minimize

... ~ .. t&·<; .. ~ !'tU.I·...
o • &'lM . " .
-=
. -
_ "-.._t"_ . .
Fig. 24 - This communications-system status panel in the

Lincoln Experimental Satellite Operations Center (LESOC)
displays data telemetered from LES-B or -9. System-recon-
-
.........
figuration telecommands can be sent simply by pushing

buttons on the block diagram.
outage - the minimum elevation angle of the

satellite relative to the terminal must be signifi-
cantly higher than for lower-frequency systems.
In consultation with its sponsors, Lincoln
Laboratory conceived a strawman EHF system
and built a test-bed satellite with terminal hard-
ware that incorporated the features mentioned Fig. 25 - Andy Howitt sti/l on the job, after the integration
of FL TSAT-7 and its Lincoln Laboratory-built FL TSAT EHF
above and served as a focus for the in-house Package (FEP) at TRW's plant in Redondo Beach, Calif.
technology-development program. The ground-
work for this EHF system concept was laid
during the successful development and demon- pabilities of a FEP, which is an applique, or add-
stration of Ka-band components, subsystems, on, to TRWs FLTSAT UHF/SHF communica-
and systems in LES-8 and -9. The essential tions satellite (Figs. 25-27), are a subset of those
features ofthe strawman EHF system were dem- of a full Milstar-satellite payload [73). These
onstrated on the bench at Lincoln Laboratory in packages have been completed. The first was
1980 and 1981 in the combined operation of the integrated with FLTSAT-7 and was launched by
test-bed satellite with its test-bed terminal. an Atlas/Centaur booster from Cape Canaveral
The EHF system concept and the associated on 4 December 1986; the second will be part of
technologies in development at Lincoln Labora- FLTSAT-8, to be launched late in 1989. The
tory served as a point of departure for thinking electronics and antenna assemblies of each FEP
about EHF systems within the DoD MILSAT- were built by Lincoln Laboratory under very
COM community. In December 1981, the DoD tight power (305-W) and mass (Ill-kg) con-
decided to go ahead with a new enterprise, straints so they would be compatible with the
Milstar (formerly military strategic tactical and existing FLTSAT satellite design. The FEP has
relay satellite), that incorporates many tech- facilitated the early operational test and evalu-
nical features of Lincoln Laboratory's straw- ation of the Milstar EHF/SHF terminals being
man EHF system in its own system and in its developed by the Army, Navy, and Air Force.
Common Transmission Format. The FEP's uplink and downlink frequency
Lincoln Laboratory was asked to support bands, near 44 GHz (EHF) and 20 GHz (SHF),
Milstar development by building two FLTSAT conform to the allocations set at the 1979 World
EHF Packages (FEP). The communications ca- Administrative Radio Conference. The FEP's
The Uncoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989) 27

Fig. 26 - Exploded view of FL TSAT-7 (or -8) and its FEP.
antenna assembly provides an earth-coverage signals received in many narrowband frequency

beam and a mechanically steered ==5° spot bins [74). Had Lincoln Laboratory used the
beam in both the uplink and downlink bands. digital technology available at the time that the
Lincoln Laboratory ha~ put aside its histor- design choices had to be made, carrying out the
ical preference for all-solid-state circuitry in demodulation functions would have been pro-
this instance and .incorporated a traveling- hibitively costly in terms of power and of mass.
wave-tube amplifier (TWrA), plus a spare, in the Because of the rapid advances in VLSI technol-
downlink transmitter, time-shared between the ogy, that may no longer be the case.
two antennas. It has worked well. The second innovation in the FEP is a com-
Two technological innovations are key to the puter-based resource controller that sets up
development of the FEP. First, the application data channels that operate at different data
of surface-acoustic-wave (SAW) chirp/Fourier- rates, via different antenna beams and other
transformation (frequency-difference-to-time- means, to support individual user-communica-
difference) devices developed and fabricated in tions needs. User-service requests are received
Lincoln Laboratory's Solid-State Physics Divi- from each user terminal's computer by the
sion has made it possible for the satellite receiv- onboard access controller. The controller in turn
ers to demodulate simultaneously - with mini- sets up the requested services and informs the
mum demand for dc input power - the MFSK involved user terminals' computers ofits actions

via a downlink order wire. Once a channel has came available in time for their use in FEPs.
been set up, the FEP converts uplink message The experience gained in operating LESOC
formats to downlink message formats and re- for the control of LES-8 and -9 in orbit was
transmits user data via either or both of the directly applicable to the task of controlling a
FEP's two antenna beams. The access controller FEP in orbit. The greater sophistication of the
can be reconfigured by command. Although the FEP (compared to a LES-8 or -9) has resulted
computer-to-computer dialogs between the FEP in a much lower workload in the FEP Operations
and the users' terminals are complex, the re- Center (FEPOCj than in LESOC, where any
qUired human/machine interactions are user- change in the configuration of the satellite's
friendly and are can be easily performed by user- communications system requires human inter-
terminal operators. The particulars of the first vention. The resource controller in the orbiting
switchboard in the sky are given in Ref. 75. FEP carries out most of its computer-to-com-
The communications-system complexity of a puter transactions with users and would-be
FEP is far greater than that ofLES-8 or -9, even users without supervisory intervention. Two
though the FEP's parts count is lower. Inte- FEPOCs have been built: one is installed
grated circuits in the early 1980s, when FEP permanently at Lincoln Laboratory; the other,
design choices were made, were more sophisti- transportable but by no means mobile, has
cated than when LES-8 and -9 were designed in been installed at a Navy facility in Maine. (The
the early 1970s. Also, flyable SAW devices be- Navy is the operational manager of the FEP
FLTSAT Satellite
with FEP
• New - Generation
Communications Satellite
• Onboard Signal Processing
• First Autonomous Satellite-Based

Switchboard
• DAMA System Supporting

Small Mobile Terminals
Fig. 27 - Functional features of the FEP.
The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (l989) 29

Communications System.)
During the FEP program, Lincoln Laboratory
concentrated on the challenging technologies
required for the FEP, taking advantage of the
satellite-bus technologies already developed
and proven in space by TRWs series of FLTSAT
satellites. It has been gratifying that the FEP
aboard FLTSAT-7 arrived safely in orbit and has
worked well since launch. The success of the
FEP program speaks well for Lincoln Labora-
tory's approach to implementation and quality
assurance in building reliable spacecraft.
On the other hand, some of the success of
Lincoln Laboratory's program in space commu-
nications has to be attributed to plain luck. Con- Fig. 29 - Dave Snider shows off the first SCAMP terminal.
sider the case of the FEP carried by FLTSAT-7.
The second procurement of FLTSATs was for
three satellites and included FLTSAT-6, which
carried no FEP, and FLTSAT-7 and -8, each sation of rocket-engine noise, and a series of
carrying a FEP. The sponsor decided to juggle muffled explosions aloft, one of the authors of
the launch schedule and interchange FLTSAT-7 this article, who happened to be at Cape Canav-
and -6 to get an EHF package into orbit as early eral at the time of the launch, said to himself,
as possible. FLTSAT-7 was launched success- "There but for the grace of God and the United
fully on 4 December 1986, as noted above. States Navy went the first FEP."
FLTSAT-6 was launched in the rain on 26 March
1987 and its Atlas/Centaur booster was struck Advanced Extremely High-
by lightning. After the lightning stroke, the ces- Frequency/Super-High-
Frequency Terminals
In another Milstar-related activity, Lincoln
Laboratory designed and built SCOIT (Single-
Channel Objective Tactical Terminal), the ad-
vanced-development model of the Army's Mil-
star EHF/SHF terminal. In 1983 Army person-
nel successfully tested this terminal, mounted
in a tracked military vehicle (Fig. 28), against a
satellite simulator in the field. The Army's pro-
duction version of SCOIT has many of the
features that were first demonstrated in Lincoln
Laboratory's advanced-development model.
As an outgrowth of the SCOITwork, Lincoln
Laboratory conducted a feasibility study in 1983
that resulted in a conceptual design for a man-
portable, Milstar-compatible EHF/SHF termi-
nal. The development of the Single-Channel
Fig. 28 - Lincoln Laboratory's advanced-development Advanced Milstar Portable terminal (SCAMP)
model of the Army SCOTT for EHF satellite communica-
was completed shortly after the launch of the
tions was installed in an armored personnel carrier and
was operated in the field against a satellite simulator by first FEP, and it has operated successfully with
GI crews. ' the FEP (Fig. 29). There are numerous diverse
30 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number J (J 989)

needs for limited-capability terminals of this that the heterodyne approach will result in
class, which offer most of the advantages of smaller. lighter LASERCOM packages, with less
Milstar communications without the full range power demand for the same communications
of options. capability.
Although Lincoln Laboratory began to pre-
Optical Space Communications pare in 1985 for a demonstration of heterodyne
LASERCOM technology in orbit. program con-
The success of optical communications for straints have ruled it out for the present. The
some terrestrial applications is undeniable. The Laboratory is now building an engineering
technologies oflasers and oflow-loss fiber optics model of a complete heterodyne LASERCOM
have led to cables that are providing serious system. which will address all critical techno-
competition to communications satellites in the logical areas and issues. When the world is
long-haul marketplace. However, optical space ready for LASERCOM, the technology will be
communications has been the "wave of the available.
future" for many years. The advent of the laser,
with its promise of coherent radiation across the Future Developments in Space
transmitting apertures and correspondingly Communications
fine, high-gain antenna beams, has led to very
encouraging link-performance calculations. To The next goal for reliable MILSATCOM sys-
the best of the authors' knowledge. however. no tems is the extension to high-data-rate applica-
one has yet demonstrated a nontrivial optical tions of the robust. jam-resistant technologies
intersatellite link in space. for low-data-rate applications that FEP has
Lincoln Laboratory once considered putting demonstrated. Considering the large band-
optical intersatellite links on LES-8 and -9, in widths that will be required, these new systems
addition to the millimeter-wave links. The opti- will most likely be implemented at EHF, at least
cal feature was dropped from the satellites' for the uplinks and downlinks. The effects ofbad
configuration in late 1971 when it became clear weather. even clouds. on optical links between
that the current state of the art in solid-state satellites and terminals on the surface of the
laser-diode technology was inadequate for a earth seem certain to rule out LASERCOM for
flight experiment, and that the project's re- applications in which consistent link availabil-
sources could not support an optical link. Prog- ity is important. However. optical links between
ress in available components, coupled with new satellites and airborne platforms flying above
insights in system design, has since made it the weather may meet specific military needs.
attractive to resume work in this area. often The technology of RF intersatellite links has
called LASERCOM. been amply demonstrated in orbit by LES-8 and
Lincoln Laboratory is now developing a tech- -9 and by NASA's tracking-and-data-relay-sat-
nology base for high-data-rate intersatellite ellite system [78]. It is only a matter of time. and
links that could be realized with small-aperture. of continued support, until LASERCOM inter-
lightweight. low-power optoelectronic pack- satellite links are similarly demonstrated.
ages. The approach taken uses solid-state Intersatellite link technologies have not yet
GaAlAs laser diodes and Si-diode detectors found civilian application. The INTELSAT-6 se-
operating in a heterodyne mode [76. 77]. ries ofcommunications satellites [79], the first of
Modulated-eontinuous-wave transmission and which will be launched in late 1989. was de-
heterodyne detection will be combined in the signed well after the LES-8 and -9 intersatellite
system design to provide communications sig- links had been demonstrated in orbit. However,
nificantly superior to the more commonly used it was not found economically justifiable to
systems based on pulsed transmission and include intersatellite links in the INTELSAT-6s.
direct energy detection (commonly known as nor does it appear to be planned for the next
the photon-bucket approach). It is projected generation. the INTELSAT-7s, now under pro-
The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2. Number 1 (1989) 31

curement for launches starting in 1992. Never- (Golem Press, Boulder, CO. 1973). pp. 91-92.
5.1.1. Shapiro, "Last of the West Ford Dipoles," Science 154,
theless, the time for civilian intersate1lite links 1445 (1966).
will come. 6. "TELSTAR" in Ref. 2, pp. 295-298. See also Ref. 3.
pp.9-1O.
7. "Tapes Studied for Clues in HBO Interference," Aviat.
Week Space Techno!., May 1986, p. 28.
Conclusions 8. W.E. Morrow, Jr.. "The Lincoln Experimental Communi-
cations Satellite and Terminal Program," AlAA Paper
In the more than 30 years since the U.S.S.R.'s 68-429, AlAA 2nd Communications-Satellite-Systems ConJ,
Sputnik-1 launch, space communications has San Francisco, 8-10 Apr. 1968.
9. H. Sherman, D.C. MacLellan, and P. Waldron, "The
reached a high level of maturity. The mission Lincoln Satellite Technology Program through 1 January
failures that occasionally besmirch the record of 1968: An Annotated Bibliography," Lincoln Laboratory
Technical Report 450 (12 June 1968). OTIC #AD-679559.
each spacefaring nation cannot obscure the 10. "IDCSP" in Ref. 2, pp. 167-170. See also Ref. 3, pp.
numerous remarkable, and useful, achieve- 75-76.
11. H. Sherman, D.C. MacLellan, RM. Lerner, and P. Wal-
ments that have taken place. Notable among dron, "Lincoln Experimental Satellite Program (LES-l, -2,
them are the contributions of space communi- -3, -4)." J. Spacecr. Rockets 4, 1448 (1967).
cations, both economically and in terms of in- 12. "LES-l or -2 (Identical)" in Ref. 2, pp. 175-177. See also
Ref. 3, p.14.
creased international stability. Space commu- 13. J.W. Craig, W.R Crowther, P.R Drouilhet, Jr., J.N.
nications allows national leaders to stay in Harris, F.E. Heart, B.H. Hutchinson, I.L. Lebow, P.G.
McHugh, B.E. Nichols, P. Rosen, S.B. Russell, and
touch with one another, and it gives them more J. Tierney, "The Lincoln Experimental Terminal," Lincoln
control over their military resources, thus re- Laboratory Technical Report 431 (21 Mar. 1967). OTIC
#AD-661577.
ducing the possibility of accidental war. 14. L.W. Bowles, "Parametrtc Amplifiers in the Lincoln Ex-
Space communications has changed the way perimental Terminal," Record oj Northeast Electronic Re-
search and Engineering Mtg., Boston, 3-5 Nov. 1965, p. 212.
that societies function and interact, and it prom- 15. "LES-4" in Ref. 2, pp. 183-185. See also Ref. 3, pp.
ises to do far more. To quote the science-fiction 14-15.
writer Arthur C. Clarke (who first suggested the 16. J.B. Rankin, M.E. Devane, and M.L. Rosenthal, "Multi-
function Single-Package Antenna System for Spin-Stabi-
geostationary communications satellite), "What lized Near-Synchronous Satellite," IEEE Trans. Antennas
we are building now is the nervous system of Propag. AP-17, 435 (1969).
17. A.G. Stanley and J.L. Ryan, "Charged-Particle Radia-
mankind, which will link together the whole tion Environment in Synchronous Orbit," Lincoln Labora-
human race, for better or worse, in a unity which tory Technical Report 443 (15 May 1968). OTIC
#AD-677284.
no earlier age could have imagined (80)." 18. D.M. Snider, "A Theoretical Analysis and Experimental
Confirmation of the Optimally Loaded and Over-Driven RF
Power Amplifier," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices ED-14, 851
Acknowledgments (1967)
19. A Braga-IlIa and D.M. Snider, "Transmitted-Power
We are indebted to many people inside and Maximization in Communication Satellites," J. Spacecr.
Rockets 6, 173 (1969).
outside Lincoln Laboratory for assistance in the 20. C.A. Lindberg, "A Shallow-Cavity UHF Crossed-Slot
preparation of this history of Lincoln Labora- Antenna." IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. AP-17, 558
(1969).
tory's space-communications program. We are 21. "SYNCOM" in Ref. 2, pp. 291-·293. See also Ref. 3, pp.
proud to have had the opportunity to chronicle 12-13.
22. L.A Greenbaum and RA Boucher, "VHF Teletype Dem-
their accomplishments. We acknowledge a spe- onstrations: Hughes Aircraft Co., Ref. 2230.3/152 (23
cial debt to the Lincoln Laboratory Library, and June 1964); NASA-CR-57989.
23. AL. Johnson, "Two Hundred Years of Airborne
to the Archives Department in particular. Communications," Aerospace Historian 31, 185 (1984).
24. "VHF Aircraft Satellite Relay-Final Report of Flight
Test", Report No. 481-1016-958, Bendix Radio Division,
References Baltimore, MD (April 1965).
25."ATS-l through - 5" in Ref. 2, pp. 231-235. See also Ref.
1. "Project West Ford Issue." Proc. IEEE 52,449-606 (1964). 3, pp. 18-21.
2. "Project West Ford" in Compendium oj Communication 26. G. Ploussios, "Electromagnetic Noise Environment in
and Broadcast SateUites - 1958 to 1980 (IEEE, New York, the 200 MHz to 400 MHz Band on Board Aircraft," Proc. IEEE
1981), pp. 299-302. 54,2017 (1966).
3. D.H. Martin. "West Ford." in Communication Satellites 27. G. Ploussios, "City Noise and Its Effect upon Airborne
1958-1988 (Aerospace Corporation, EI Segundo. CA. 1988). Antenna Noise Temperatures at UHF," IEEE Trans. Aerosp.
pp.8-9. Electron. Syst. AES-4, 41 (1968).
4. P. Beckmann, Eco-Hysterics and the Technophobes 28. G. Ploussios, "Noise Temperatures of Airborne Anten-
32 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2. Number 1 (l989)

nas at UHF: Lincoln Laboratory Technical Note 1966-59 31-33.

(6 Dec. 1966). DTIC #AD-644829. 56. F.J. Solman. C.D. Berglund. RW. Chick. and B.J.
29. "LES 3" in Ref. 2. pp. 179-181. See also Ref. 3. p.14. Clifton. ''The K. Systems of the Lincoln Experimental Satel-
30. K.L. Jordan. Jr.. "Measurement of Multipath Effects in lites LES-8 and LES-9." AlAA Paper 78-562. 7th Com-
a Satellite/Aircraft UHF Link." Proc. IEEE 55. 1117 (1967). munications-Satellite-Systems ConI. San Diego. 24-27
31. W.W. Ward and a.E. Nichols. "Lincoln Experimental Apr. 1978. p. 208. This paper contains a bibliography of
Satellite-5 (LES-5) Transponder Perfonnance in Orbit:' other papers on K. -band technology for LES-8 and -9. It was
Lincoln Laboratory Technical Note 1968-18 (1 Nov. 1968). also published in J. Spacecr. Rockets 16. 181 (1979).
DTIC #AD-68642 I. 57. L.J. Collins, L.R Jones. D.R McElroy. D.A. Siegel. W.W.
32. D.C. MacLellan. H.A. MacDonald. P. Waldron. and H. Ward. and D.K. Willim. "LES-8/9 Communications-System
Shennan. "Lincoln Experimental Satellites 5 and 6." Prog- Test Results." AlAA Paper 78-599. AIAA 7th Communica-
ress in Astronautics and Aeronautics 26. Communication tions-Satellite-Systems Corif-. San Diego. 24-27 Apr. 1978.
Satellites Jor the 70s: Systems. Eds N.E. Feldman. C.M. p.471.
Kelly (MIT Press. Cambridge. MA. 1971). pp. 375-398. 58. D.M. Snider and D.B. Coomber. "Satellite-to-Satellite
33. "LES 5" and "LES 6" in Ref. 2. pp. 187-193. See also Ref. Data Transfer and Control." AlAA Paper 78-596. AIAA 7th
3. pp. 15-17. Communications-Satellite-Systems ConI. San Diego. 24-27
34. W.L. Black. B. Howland. and E.A. Vrablik. "An Electro- Apr. 1978. p. 457.
magnetic Attitude-Control System for a Synchronous 59. W.W. Ward. D.M. Snider. and RF. Bauer, "A Review of
Satellite:' J. Spacecraft 6. 795 (1969). Seven Years of Orbital Service by the LES-8/9 EHF Inter-
35. M.L. Rosenthal. M.E. Devane. and B.F. LaPage. "VHF satellite Links," IEEE Int. ConI on Communications. Boston.
Antenna Systems for Spin-Stabilized Satellites." IEEE 19-22 June 1983. p. EI.1.1-10.
Trans. Ant. and Prop. AP-17. 443 (1969). 60. L.J. Freier. RN. Masters. J.A. DeFrancesco, RA Harris.
36. I.L. Lebow. K.L. Jordan. Jr.. and P.R Drouilhet. Jr., G.J. Blakemore. and RA Jeffery. "Third-Generation Gyro
"Satellite Communications to Mobile Platfonns," Proc. IEEE System Final Report." Report R-843 1. Charles Stark Draper
59. 139 (1971). Laboratory. Inc. (February 1975).
37. "TACSAT" in Ref. 2. pp. 225-227. See also Ref. 3. 61. C.E. Kelly and C.W. Whitmore. "Perfonnance of the
pp.77-78. Multi-Hundred-Watt Radioisotope Thennoelectric Genera-
38. "MARlSAT" in Ref. 2. pp. 51-53. See also Ref. 3. p. 84. tor (MHW/RTG) Power Source for the LES-8/9 Satellites."
39. "FLTSATCOM" in Ref. 2. pp. 159-161. See also Ref. 3, AlAA Paper 78-534. AIAA 7th Communications Satellite
pp.87-90. Systems Corif-. San Diego. 24-27 Apr. 1978. p. 728.
40. "LEASAT" in Ref. 2. pp. 171-173. See also Ref. 3. pp. 62. F.W. Floyd. C.H. Much. N.P. Smith. J.R Vernau. and
93-95. J.P. Woods. "Flight Perfonnance of the LES-8/9 Three-Axis
41. "Volna 1 through 7 Series" in Ref. 2, pp. 87-89. See also Attitude-Control System." AlAA Paper 80-050 I. AIAA 8th
Ref. 3. pp. 104-105. Communications-Satellite-Systems ConI. Orlando. FL.
42. "SKYNET-4" in Ref. 3. p. 95. 20--24 Apr. 1980. p. 159.
43. E.A. Bucher. "UHF Satellite Communication dUring 63. C.K. Much and F.W. Floyd. Jr.. ''The Cold-Ammonia
ScinWlation." Lincoln Laboratory Technical Note 1975-10 Propulsion System for the Lincoln Experimental Satellites.
(5 Aug. 1975). DTIC #AD-A014801/5. LES-8 and -9." Proc. oj the JANNAF Propulsion Meeting 76.
44. D.P White. "A Time-Diversity Coding Experiment for a Atlanta. GA, 7-9 Dec. 19763.491.
HF/VHF Satellite Channel with Scintillation: Equipment 64. F.W. Sarles. Jr., J.H. Helfrich. P.F. McKenzie. and J.K.
Description," Lincoln Laboratory Technical Note 1977-22 Roberge. ''The LES-8/9 Telemetry System: Part I. Flight-
(1 Sept. 1977), DTIC #AD-A047102. System Design and Performance." Record oj Int. Telemetry
45. L.E. Taylor and S.L. Bernstein, ''TACS: A Demand As- Corif- 78. Los Angeles. 14-16 Nov. 1978. p. 645.
Signment System for FLEETSAT," IEEE Trans. Commun. 65. J.H. Helfrich, AM. Gjelsvik. C.M. Rader. D.C. Rogers.
COM-27. 1484 (1979). and C.E. Small, ''The LES-8/9 Telemetry System: Part II.
46. W.J. Guman and D.M. Nathanson. "Pulsed Plasma Mi- Ground-Tenninal Design and Performance." Record oj Int.
crothruster Propulsion System for Synchronous-Orbit Telemetry Corif- 78. Los Angeles. 14-16 Nov. 1978. p. 657.
Satellite," J. Spacecraft 7. 409 (1970). 66. W.W. Ward. "Developing. Testing. and Operating Lin-
47.AA Braga-IlIa, "Automatic Orbit Control of the Lincoln coln Experimental Satellites 8 and 9 (LES-8/9)." Lincoln
Experimental Satellite LES-6," Lincoln Laboratory Technical Laboratory Technical Note 1979-3 (16 Jan. 1979). DTIC
Report 469 (10 July 1969), DTIC #AD-697955. #AD-A069095/8.
48. W.W. Ward. RL. Sicotte. K.H. Hurlbut. and 67. J.C. Bennett, AP. Anderson. P.A Mcinnes, and AJ.T.
C.J. 2arnites. Jr., 'The Results of the LES-5 and Whitaker. "Microwave Holographic Metrology of Large Re-
LES-6 RFI Experiments," Lincoln Laboratory Technical Note flector Antennas:' IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. AP-24.
1970-3 (6 Feb. 1970); Supplement 1 (2 July 1970). DTIC 295 (1976).
#AD-709766. 68. D.B. Shaffer. "A Portable Holographic Antenna Mea-
49. RT. Prosser. "The Lincoln Calibration Sphere." Proc. surement System." AlAA Paper 88-0794. AIAA 12th In!.
IEEE 53. 1672 (1965). Communications-Satellite-Systems Corif-. Arlington. VA.
50. "DSCS-II" in Ref. 2. pp. 151-153. See also Ref. 3, pp. 13-17 Mar. 1988, p. 196.
80--82. 69. J.T. Mayhan. "Adaptive Antenna Design Considerations
51. "LES 7" in Ref. 2, pp. 195-197. See also Ref. 3, p. 17. for Satellite Communication Antennas," lEE Proc. F and H
52, A.R Dion and L.J. Ricardi, "A Variable-Coverage Satel- 130. 98 (1983).
lite Antenna System." Proc. IEEE 59. 252 (1971). 70. J .1'. Mayhan and F.W. Floyd. "Factors Affecting the Per-
53. "DSCS-III" in Ref. 2. pp. 155-158. See also Ref. 3, pp. fonnance of Adaptive Antenna Systems and Some Evalu-
90-92. ation Techniques," Lincoln Laboratory Technical Note 1979-
54. F.W. Sarles, Jr., L.W. Bowles. L.P. Farnsworth, and 14 (9 Aug. 1979), DTIC #AD-A08171 1/4.
P. Waldron. "The Lincoln Experimental Satellites LES-8 and 71. W.C. Cummings, P.C. Jain. and L.J. Ricardi. "Funda-
LES-9," EASCON-77 Record, Arlington. VA. 26-28 Sept. mental Perfonnance Characteristics That Influence EHF
1977. p. 21-1A, IEEE No. 77CH1255-9. MILSATCOM Systems." IEEE Trans. Commun. COM-27.
55. "LES 8 and 9" in Ref. 2, pp. 199-206. See also Ref. 3. pp. 1423 (1979).

72. C.J. Waylan and G.M. Yowell, "Considerations for 76. V.W.S. Chan. "Space Coherent Optical Communication
Future Navy Satellite Communications," EASCON-79 Rec- Systems - An Introduction" J. Lightwave TechnoL LT-5,
ord. Arlington, VA. 9-11 Oct. 1979, p. 623, IEEE No. 637 (1987).
79CH 1476- I. 77. V.W.S. Chan. "Intersatellite Optical Heterodyne Com-
73. D.R. McElroy. "The FEP Communications System: munications Systems: Lincoln Laboratory Journal I, 169
A1AA Paper 88-0824, A.IAA 12th Int. Communication-Satel- (1988).
lite-Systems Conj, Arlington. VA. 13-17 Mar. 1988, p. 395. 78. "TDRSS/Advanced WESTAR" in Ref. 2, pp.139-147.
74. D.M. Hodsdon. "A Satellite FSK Demodulator Using an See also Ref. 3. pp. 152-156.
Analog Chirp Fourier Transformer: A1AA Paper 88-0856, 79. "INTELSAT VI" in Ref. 3. pp. 59-63.
A.IAA 12th Int. Communications-Satellite-Systems Con].. Ar- 80. A.C. Clarke. "The Social Consequences of Communica-
lington. VA. 13-17 Mar. 1988. p. 561. tions Satellites: presented at the 12th Int. Astronautical
75. M.D. Semprucci, "The First 'Switchboard in the Sky': An Congress. Washington, 1961. "Voicesfrom the Sky (Harper
Autonomous Satellite-Based Access/Resource Controller," and Row, New York, 1965), p. 139.
Lincoln Laboratory Journal I, 5 (1988).
WILLIAM W. WARD was FRANKLIN W. FLOYD was

born and raised in Texas. He raised in Chattanooga,
served in the Army Signal Tenn. He received a B.E.E.
Corps in the Pacific dUring degree with highest honors
World War II. After the war, from the Georgia Institute of
Bill received a B.S. degree Technology in 1961. After
from Texas A&M University two years in the Army Signal
and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees Corps. he joined Lincoln
from the California Institute of Technology, all in electrical Laboratory as a member of its Staff Associate Program,
engineering. He joined Lincoln Laboratory in 1952 and has through which he earned a Ph.D. in electrical engineering
devoted the last 23 years to space communications. primar- from MIT in 1969. He then joined the Communications
ily to the development of reliable satellite links that serve the Division and contributed to a variety of spacecraft electron-
diverse needs of the military and civilian user communities. ics systems. He was responsible for the attitude- and orbit-
He helped to deSign, build. test, and operate LES-5 and -6 control systems ofLES-8 and -9 and for the satellite ground-
and served as Associate Project Leader for LES-8 and -9. Bill control center (LESOC). Frank served as the FEP Program
is now the Associate Leader of the Communication Technol- Manager for four years and then for three years as Associ-
ogy Group. He has been an IEEE Regional Outstanding Lec- ate Head of the Communications Division. He recently left
turer and an A1AA DistingUished Lecturer and is a Senior Lincoln Laboratory to join Stanford Telecommunications,
Member of the IEEE. Inc.. as Vice President of its new Space Systems Operation.

Thirty Years

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thirty Years

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thirty Years

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

W. W. Ward and F. W.

Thirty Years of Research and Development in

The goal ofLincoln Laboratory's program in space communications is the development

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (J 989) 5

6 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

tion of an artificial reflector that consisted of a

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2, Number 1 (1989) 7

8 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2, Number 1 (1989)

embarked on a program to improve the design of

- contributed to the decision to design LES-l

10 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

Fig. 7 - LET-1 set up for operation with LES-1.

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2, Number 1 (1989) 11

well as it could under the handicap of being in

Space Communications at mtra-High

12 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2, Number 1 (1989) 13

cation-system designers were able to con-

dicular to the near-equatorial orbit plane.

14 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

large quantities of UHF terminals. Since more

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2, Number 1 (1989) 15

I LES-5 l' ~--f=~~~~b!;~~~~~~~~~~W~ <~;SB:;d

Slot Antennas t==:j~f-----l:J~~=:t~=lJ2~~~~~ Thermal

16 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

ing and mitigating sources of uplink RFI is Space Science

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989) 17

Fig. 15 - These black boxes are the subsystems of a

(LCS) deserve mention [49]. Each sphere (Fig.

18 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989) 19

The MBA, which was kept facing the earth by

consisting of structure and housekeeping sys-

through development on the bench and at an

20 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989) 21

22 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

Fig. 21 -Internal construction and external features of LES-9. LES-B is similar.

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989) 23

ized monitoring ofdata telemetered from the sat-

24 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal, Volume 2, Number 1 (1989)

Table 1. LES-8 and -9 Program

• -1000 Ib (Mass) Each

• LL Airborne-Command-Post Terminal- 4-ft Antenna (Ka-Band)

The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989) 25

Fig. 23 - LES-B and -9 communications-system testing in orbit.

26 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

... ~ .. t&·<; .. ~ !'tU.I·...

Fig. 24 - This communications-system status panel in the

figuration telecommands can be sent simply by pushing

outage - the minimum elevation angle of the

The Uncoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989) 27

Fig. 26 - Exploded view of FL TSAT-7 (or -8) and its FEP.

antenna assembly provides an earth-coverage signals received in many narrowband frequency

28 The Lincoln Laboratory Journal. Volume 2. Number 1 (1989)

• Onboard Signal Processing

• First Autonomous Satellite-Based

I LES-5 l' ~--f=b!;~~~~~~W~ <~;SB:;d