Nbsir81 2265 PDF

NATL INST. OF STAND & TECH R.I.C.
Reference
_ N8S - A 11 ID 5
SSL NBSIR 81-2265
Review of Technical Information

on Scaffolds
Structures and Materials Division

Center for Building Technology
National Engineering Laboratory
U.S. Department of Commerce
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, DC 20?'54 -
100
May 1981
. US6
Si-2265
1981
Prepared for
National Institute for occupational Safety and Health

Department of Health and Human Services
Washington, DC 20234
National iruusuu
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JUN i 0 1981
NBSIR 81-2265
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REVIEW OF TECHNICAL INFORMATION
l>5(jD
ON SCAFFOLDS .
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\<isi
B. J. Hunt, S. G. Fattal
Structures and Materials Division

Center for Building Technology
National Engineering Laboratory
U.S. Department of Commerce
National Bureau of Standards
May 1981
Prepared for
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Department of Health and Human Services
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director
- - r ••
'
.
ABSTRACT
This report presents a review of the available literature on scaffolds and is

the third of several inter-related studies of a scaffolding research program
at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) This study was sponsored by the
.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to improve scaf-
folding system performance and reduce the number of work related injuries and
losses
Based on a computerized search of the published literature, technical infor-

mation that could serve to upgrade existing codes and standards for scaffolds
or offer direction to future analytical research is presented. This informa-
tion concerns the design, erection, operation or maintenance of scaffolding
systems. Appendix A presents the 21 types of scaffolds under study. In
addition, U.S. scaffold patent claims and the manufacturers' literature are
reviewed and discussed. Appendix B presents selected finite element structural
analyses of scaffolds.
Keywords: codes and standards; construction safety; design; finite element;

loads; scaffolds; stability; stiffness; strength; structural safety;
work surfaces.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was sponsored by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) , Department of Health and Human Services, Washington,
D.C. The Construction Safety Group of the NBS is grateful to Mr. Peterson
and the Steel Scaffolding and Shoring Institute for providing the experimental
test data that are presented herein. The authors wish to express their grati-
tude to those persons of the NBS staff, in particular Mr. Lou E. Cattaneo,
of Structural Engineering, and Ms. E. Cerutti of the NBS Library, for their
assistance in searching and gathering the literature. In addition, the authors
appreciate the review services of Dr. Kyle Woodward of Earthquake Hazards
and Mr. Leo Skoda of Building Materials.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
ABSTRACT , iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
1. INTRODUCTION I
2. LONG-RANGE SCAFFOLDING RESEARCH PROGRAM 1

2.1 INTRODUCTION 1
2.2 RECENT RESEARCH DEVELOPMENTS 2
3. REVIEW OF THE SCAFFOLDING LITERATURE 3

3.1 INTRODUCTION 3
3.2 DISCUSSION 4
3.2.1 Platforms 6
3.2.2 Support System and Strength 7
3.2.3 Connections 23
3.2.4 Anchorage 28
3.2.5 Foundations 33
3.2.6 Safety Devices 34
3.2.7 Stability 35
3.2.8 Accessways 41
4. SCAFFOLDING MANUFACTURERS’ LITERATURE 48
5. UNITED STATES SCAFFOLD PATENTS 51
6. SUMMARY 52
7. REFERENCES 54
APPENDIX A - 21 MAJOR TYPES OF SCAFFOLDS UNDER STUDY A-l
APPENDIX B - STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCTION SCAFFOLDING B-l
v
,
'
.
1 . INTRODUCTION
This report presents a review of the available technical literature on the

subject of scaffolds used in construction work and other applications. The
study of technical literature on scaffolds is part of an ongoing scaffolding
research program at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
The major objectives of the NBS scaffolding research program are to 1) develop
the necessary technical basis for the improvement of current scaffolding pro-
visions in existing codes and standards and to 2) develop a comprehensive set
of scaffolding standards. This research is in response to an expressed need
to update present scaffolding regulations of the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA). The need is based on the high rate of worker
casualties resulting from scaffolding accidents. In addition, there is a
lack of research and analytical data necessary to formulate reliable criteria
for the design, erection, operation and maintenance of scaffolding systems.
This report consists of seven chapters and two appendices. Chapter 2 presents
background information on the long-range NBS scaffolding research program. A
summary of the completed studies is presented along with a description of the
remaining studies. Chapter 3 discusses the review of the scaffolding litera-
ture. The literature is evaluated for technical content according to certain
scaffolding system categories and the findings are presented. Chapter 4
discusses a review of the scaffolding manufacturers' literature to establish
the intended use of the various scaffolding products. Chapter 5 discusses a
review of United States scaffolding patent claims and Chapter 6 summarizes
the findings of this report. Chapter 7 lists the references cited throughout
this report and Appendix A presents the 21 major types of scaffolds under
study. Appendix B presents finite element structural analyses of selected
scaffolding systems.
2. LONG-RANGE SCAFFOLDING RESEARCH PROGRAM
2 .1 INTRODUCTION
The National Bureau of Standards developed a comprehensive research program

to develop and improve the provisions of codes and standards for scaffolding.
This program will identify the problem aspects of scaffolding which frequently
lead to worker injury or death, develop an approach by which these problem
aspects can be studied through the appropriate analytical methodologies, and
finally, reduce the findings of these studies to a usable form.
A long-range research program was conceived and consists of the following

six major phases.
1. Review and analysis of scaffolding accident records. The causes of

scaffolding accidents resulting in worker casualties were analyzed
based on data from existing accident records. This phase has been
completed and is presented in a separate report [1].
1
.
2 . Review of existing scaffolding codes and standards. Provisions used in

the design, erection, operation and maintenance of scaffolding systems
were reviewed according to certain preestablished criteria. This phase
has been completed and is presented in a separate report [2].
3. Perform a technical review of scaffolding-related literature. Existing

technical information was identified to minimize the chance of research
duplication. The literature review is presented in this report.
4. Perform an in-field study of scaffolding systems currently in use to

provide 1) formal documentation and 2) first-hand research data on current
field practices. This study has been partially completed and a report of
the findings is expected in the near future.
5. Develop a full-scale experimental and analytical research plan to establish

the minimum technical basis by which a set of scaffolding standards can
be formulated. Details of this plan and its formulation are expected in
the near future.
6. Develop performance guidelines and standards for scaffolds to provide

the mechanisms by which the developed technical bases can be applied.
The development of these guidelines will be based upon the results of
the implemented analytical research plan.
2 .2 RECENT RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT
The initial efforts of the scaffolding research program were concerned with
identifying the causes of scaffolding-related worker casualties. Therefore,
the first task performed was a study report, "Analysis of Scaffolding Acci-
dent Records and Related Employee Casualties" [1], which presented an analy-
sis of existing scaffolding accident records involving employee casualties.
Where possible, the causes were identified as a system failure, environmental
factor or as a human factor. Twenty-one major types of scaffolds were iden-
tified for the accident analysis and are presented in Appendix A. The acci-
dent study provided an insight into major safety-related aspects of scaffold-
ing practices and identified some preliminary measures that could be insti-
tuted to mitigate the frequency and consequences of scaffolding-related
accidents
The accident study revealed some interesting trends that provide insight into
the nature of critical safety problems. According to the study, 75 percent
of the accidents were attributed to system failures. At the component level,
failure of anchorages and connections were the most common, followed by
foundation, support element, work platform and safety device failures. The
study also indicated that the remaining 25 percent of accidents were attribu-
table to environmental and human factors. Based on the recommendations of
the accident study [1], a critical review and evaluation of all applicable
scaffolding code and standard provisions was carried out.
2
. .
Applicable codes and standards were gathered and reviewed and the findings
presented in a another report; a "Review of Current Codes and Standards for
Scaffolds" [2] This report presented a critical and comprehensive review
of the provisions in the existing codes and standards used for the design,
erection, operation and maintenance of the twenty-one scaffolding systems
identified in the accident study [1]. The provisions were reviewed according
to a the following criteria: 1) comprehensiveness, 2) consistency, 3) clarity,
4) adequacy and 5) enforceability. The findings of this report served to
identify principle areas of needed scaffolding research.
The review of codes and standards [2, 3, 4] brought into focus deficiencies
in current scaffolding provisions. A prevalent trend was the inclusion of
the clauses that require compliance with certain expected performance
attributes without specifying the necessary criteria by which the level of
performance could be established. Most notable was the absence of definitive
criteria for the design or evaluation of the adequacy of anchors, connections
and foundations. Major deficiencies were noted with regard to the lack of
definitive guidelines for the evaluation of strength and stiffness degradation
with repetitive use, or provision of appropriate criteria for the repair,
maintenance and replacement of damaged components.
The field study is partially complete. The purpose of this task is to gather
pertinent field data on various aspects of scaffolding applications in
construction work for use in the research phase of the program. The types
of information sought include magnitude and distribution of loads, practical
tolerances, structural configurations of various systems, type and material
composition of components, mode of operations, frequency of use according to
type, degradation, and environmental conditions. Field data were collected
from construction sites at three major geographic locations (population
centers) in the U.S. These data are presently being analyzed and will be the
subject of a future report. However, some of the data are used in the struc-
tural analysis portions of Appendix B. The remainder of this report presents
the findings of the literature review and recommendations as to the direction
of future scaffolding research.
3. REVIEW OF THE SCAFFOLDING LITERATURE
3 .1 INTRODUCTION
The prevalent lack of technical bases for the existing scaffolding codes and
standards [3, 4] is primarily attributable to:
1. A scarcity of technical knowledge, and
2. A lack of transfer of technical knowledge, if existing, to the codes and

standards
A comprehensive review of the scaffolding-related technical literature was

performed to identify the severity of the above two attributes.
3
This literature review is directly related to the analysis of accidents and
the review of codes and standards [1,2] previously conducted. The format
and approach developed in the earlier studies is followed herein for purposes
of comparison and to guide future analytical efforts.
A computerized search of published literature on the subject of scaffolds

was performed. This effort used key words related to scaffolding topics
with the following search sources:
° COMPENDIX, Comprehensive Engineering Index, Inc.

° NTIS, National Technical Information Service
° MRIS, Maritime Research Information Services
° DDC, Defense Documentation Center
° United States Patent Claims.
The search identified over 500 publications concerning platforms, falsework

and scaffolding and hundreds of U.S. scaffolding patent claims. Those publi-
cations with applicability to the NBS scaffolding research program were
gathered and reviewed for their technical content. Many of the publications
not gathered concerned off-shore oil well platforms and other unrelated sub-
jects. Literature was found for only a few of the 21 major types of scaffolds
(see appendix A). The tube and coupler and the tubular frame scaffolds (see
type 2 and 3, appendix A), were the most common systems discussed in the
literature. However, reviewed information included scaffolding categories
such as platforms, safety devices, support elements, etc. as is explained
below.
3.2 Discussion
The approach used in this study was to search the literature for technical
information that would be useful in the design, erection, operation and
maintenance of various scaffolding systems. Both theoretical formulations
and experimental developments were of interest; however, the validity of any
past technical efforts was to be clearly established. Therefore, subjects
dealing with theoretical model formulations were of little use unless exper-
imental studies corroborating the theory existed. However, any literature on
analytical modeling, existing without experimental corroboration could serve
as an aid in formulating analytical models for subsequent NBS research and
were thus recognized to be of potential value. In addition, technical research
that addressed 'performance* or 'product' testing of specific scaffold types
were considered in the review because such information may be applied to a
variety of scaffold systems and applications.
As was mentioned, key topics searched and reviewed for technical content
concerned the design, erection, operation and maintenance of construction
scaffolding. Specifically, design strength values for scaffold components
in the form of charts, tables, and graphs which incorporate safety factors,
allowable stresses, load data, and sectional properties were searched. Also
searched were design, erection and manufacturing tolerance values in con-
junction with data concerning the effects of imperfections. Other topics of
interest included load survey data, connection and anchorage capacities, and
foundation design procedures.
4
For purposes of comparison, the scaffolding code provision categories identified
in the previous two studies [1,2] are maintained and the literature is evaluated
for technical content according to each category. These categories are:
1. work platform
2. supporting system
3. strength
4. connections and anchorages
5. foundation
10.
6. stability
7. physical protection
8. accessway
9. environmental safety criteria
special provisions.
In addition, the following definitions, also introduced previously, are used:
Accessway - system which provides access to and from scaffolds
Anchor - component used for securing scaffold to foundation
Anchorage - same as anchor, assembly of anchors
Component - unit used in the assembly of scaffolding systems
Connection - component providing the means of attaching together

various scaffolding components
Element - component or structural unit other than a connec-

tion or anchor
Foundation - everything providing support to the scaffold system
Platform - component(s) comprising the work surface of the

scaffold
Safety devices - physical devices installed for the protection of

employees, such as guardrails, nets, belts,
lanyards and lifelines, screens, etc.
Structural - assembly of components serving a structural or load-

system carrying function.
Subsystem - a system subassembly consisting of more than one

element and one or more connections and/or anchors.
Support element - element of scaffold subsystem which supports the

platform and transmits applied loads to the foun-
dation .
System - assembly of components serving a specific function.
5
,
The following sections discuss the information found in the literature

on each of the above scaffold categories.
3.2.1 Platforms
The scaffolding platform consists of that component(s) comprising the work

surface and in most situations it can be treated as a separate structural
element in the scaffolding system. The platform can be structurally analyzed
(e.g. as a simply or continuously supported beam) independent from the other
scaffold elements and individual structural safety requirements can be ascer-
tained. The remaining scaffold system elements which provide support to the
platform can then be analyzed according to the loading conditions imposed on
the support system by the platform.
According to the accident study [1] approximately 7 percent of all scaffold-

ing accidents reviewed were caused by structural failure of the platform
which usually consisted of wood planking. The review study of the scaffold-
ing codes and standards [2] revealed that there is an apparent lack of
technical basis for the allowable design loads.
The literature search provided limited information on the design of platforms

for use as work surfaces in scaffold systems. However, technical documenta-
tion on wood construction and design does exist. Principal source documents
are the National Design Specification for Wood Construction (NDSWC) [5] and
the accompanying NDSWC Supplement [6] and the Timber Construction Manual [7].
A recent study by Eisenacher [8] pointed out inconsistencies within each part
and between parts of the OSHA Safety Regulations (Parts 1910, 1915, 1916,
1917 and 1926) on allowable design procedures for wood platforms used in
scaffolds. Eisenacher first computed the bending stress in wood planking,
based on the allowable OSHA maximum loadings for given spans and timber sizes.
A near minimum failure strength was selected using the OSHA-specif ied minimum
allowable strength values of 1500 psi and 1100 psi (a contradiction within
the provisions) The computed factor of safety was defined as the minimum
.
allowable strength (OSHA value) divided by the computed stress and multiplied
by an explicit safety factor of 1.3 specified by the American Society of Test-
ing Materials (ASTM) Specifications D2555 [9] and D245 [10]. The computed
factor of safety for each possible OSHA allowable platform configuration was
found to fall in the range of 0.2356 to 5.0167. Most of the computed safety
factors were less than the safety factor of 4 required by the OSHA regulations
[3, 4].
The report on the review of the scaffolding provisions [2] presented the
approach used for the design of timber based on the NDSWC [5] the adopted
ASTM D2555 [9] and D245 [10] procedures. After application of appropriate
modification factors, upper and lower bound factors of safety were computed
for a typical plank configuration and loading. The safety factor was found
to range from 2.7 to 6.9. Once again, these values differ significantly from
the OSHA-specif ied safety factor of 4.0. The NDSWC [5] states within its
preface that these design procedures have been successful and are therefore
widely accepted and followed. The above two works demonstrate that although
6
a rational technical basis does exist for wood design, it has not been
incorporated in the existing scaffolding codes and standards.
No information could be found on design of platforms for specific application

to scaffolds. Construction scaffolds are generally subjected to harsh condi-
tions and require special design consideration to account for the effects of
degradation of materials, load fluctuations and other factors unique to the
construction environment. Such factors are not presently part of any recom-
mended design procedures of scaffolding platforms. Also, present scaffolding
provisions do not address the design of proprietary prefabricated platform
units which are being used with many scaffolding systems.
3.2.2 Support System and Strength
The 'support system' refers to the assembly which provides direct support for
the work platform and that transmits all loads to the foundation. The support
system consists of various structural elements, connection and anchorage com-
ponents, etc. Because of the general nature of the subcategory 'strength', it
has been combined and addressed in this section with 'support system'. Any
literature referring to the structural strength capabilities, directly or
indirectly, of the assembled scaffold system is presented in this section.
An experimental approach by which a support system can be analyzed for strength

characteristics is to assemble a specific scaffolding system and load it to an
observed failure state. This approach has been used extensively in the past.
In 1961, 1963 and 1966, the Steel Scaffolding and Shoring Institute (SSSI)
performed numerous full-scale laboratory tests on a variety of welded tubular
frame-type scaffolds [11,12,13]. The frames used in the testing program were
chosen based on their popularity and frequency of use in the United States.
The configurations selected were primarily referred to as masons-type' frames.
'
The three types of welded tubular frames used in the SSSI studies are shown in
Figures 3.1 through 3.3.
Basically, three types of assemblies were tested under selected loading

configurations. The 1961 test series consisted of six tests on frame type A
and six tests on frame type B (see Figures 3.1 and 3.2). The frames were
assembled into single tower configurations 1.5m (5 ft) square and 1, 2, 3, 5,
7 and 9 frames high for each of the two frame types. Identical concentric
loads were applied to each column leg at a rate of 8.9 kN (2 kip) per minute
with screw-type leveling adjustments set at 305 mm (1 ft) both at the top and
bottom. Ultimate capacity was reached when one of the frames in the assembly
buckled out of plane (or in the plane of the cross bracing). The results
of the 1961 test series are summarized in table 3.1. Figure 3.4 shows a
graphical representation of the test results.
The 1963 tests used the same frame types A and B in three series of distributed
leg loading tests. The first series consisted of 10 tests on frame type B
assemblies with base extensions set at 305 mm at the top and bottom, 1.5m
square in plan, heights of 1 , 2 and 3 tiers and subjected to unequal leg
loads. The procedure consisted of loading either two or three of the four
column legs to 50 and 75 percent of the ultimate frame capacity determined
7
229mm
572mm
i 1.07m
572mm
354mm
229mm
T-1: 41.3mm O.D., 2.4mm ga.
T.-2: 25.4mm O.D., 2.1 mm ga.
Figure 3.1 Welded fabricated tubular 1.5m by 1.5m

frame-type A used in the SSSI studies.
8
229mm
1.07m
686mm
Figure 3.2 Welded fabricated tubular 1.9dm by 1.5m

frame-type B used in the SS5I studies.
9
.
1.5m(5 ft)
< >.
ft)
1.98m(6.5
Figure 3.3 Welded fabricated tubular 1.98m by 1.5m

frame-type C used in the SGSI studies
10
Panel Loading Failure
Type* No. Lifts Height Total Load Time Location
m (ft) kN (kip) min-s lift
B 1 2.6 (8.5) 187.8 (42.2) 6-22 1
B .6 (15.0) 145.5 (32.7) 4-55 1
B 3 65.5 (21.5) 128.6 (28.9) 3-47 2
B 5 10.5 (34.5) 128.6 (28.9) 3-56 1 (* 2
B 7 14 .5 (47.5) 128.6 (28.9) 3-50 2 & 3
B 9 18.4 (60.5) 124.2 (27.9) 3-50 3 & 4
A 1 2.1 (7.0) 265 .2 (59.6) 8-11 1
A 2 3.7 (12.0) 194.5 (43.7) 6-01 2
A 3 5 .2 (17.0) 183 .3 (41.2) 6-25 1
A 5 8.2 (27.0) 185.6 (41.7) 6-35 2 & 3
A 7 11 .3 (37 .0) 179 .8 (40.4) 6-32 4 & 5
A 9 14.3 (47.0) 179.8 (40.4) 7-61 1 & 2
* Type A: See Figure 3.1

Type B: see Figure 3.2
Table 3.1 Results for 1961 SSSI simultaneous

concentric column-leg load tests
11
SSh
3.1.
1961
Table
the
of in
presented
representation
Data
Graphic
tests.
3.4
Figure
12
in the 1961 test series. The remaining leg or legs were continually loaded
(ie. without release) until out-of-plane buckling occurred. Figure 3.5 and
3.6 present plots for some of the test results.
The second series of 1963 tests consisted of load tests using variable leveling
screw extensions on frame type B assemblies all one tier in height and all
column legs were loaded identically to failure at a rate of 8.9 kN per column
per minute. The results of the second test series are presented in table 3.2
Figure 3.7 presents a plot of ultimate total tower load for the various jack
extensions. For this test series, the average critical load capacity, P cr >
for the column leg was greater when the extension was at the bottom of the
frame only. The reasoning for this is not fully understood at this time and
future analytical and experimental studies should address this phenomenon.
The third and final series of 1963 tests consisted of 1.5 m square towers with
three tiers of frame type B and one tier of frame type A (mixed mode) . All
jack extensions were set at 305 mm and each tower was subjected to identical
column leg loading to a failure state as was performed in the second test
series. Figure 3.8 shows the results of the mixed mode tests, where the
abscissa identifies the tier where frame type A was located. The curve fit
to the data shows ultimate column leg capacity was reduced as the frame type
A was placed higher in the assembly. Since field studies show that mixing of
frame types is common practice, especially when a specific platform elevation
is desired, this phenomenon of capacity reduction due to mixed modes warrants
further investigation and should be addressed in future scaffolding standards.
The 1966 SSSI scaffold tests consisted of three series using the open ended
walkthrough frame type C as designed by SSSI to represent those frames
produced by the institute members. This frame type is shown in Figure 3.3.
The 1966 test series revealed very interesting information regarding total
system behavior under varying load patterns. Since this information will be
important to future modeling techniques, it is summarized below.
The first series of tests were performed to determine what effect preload-
ing or pretesting of the frame had on the ultimate scaffold load capacities.
The following tests were performed under identical concentric column
loadings as in the earlier tests. No scaffold jack extensions were used.
I. Test Description Test Numbers
Three (3) Tests - 1 frame high to destruction 1-500 thru 1-502

Three (3) Tests - 3 frames high to destruction 1-503 thru 1-505
Two (2) Tests - frame high to 100% design*

1 1-506 & 1-507
load, then destruction
Two (2) Tests - 1 frame high to 150% design 1-508 & 1-509
Two (2) Tests - 1 frame high to 200% design 1-510 & 1-511
13
[16]
—— 1
1
(14)
125%
-
123%
-
[12]
-
-
STD - 100%
124%
S HO)
-
117%
=S£ - -
75% -J STD - 100%

§ |8] “““I
r
CD i_ _ —1 j
oc
s 75%
e (6)
-
50% L_J
-
~l I
50%
-
[4]
-
[2]
0 i i
12
i i
i
1 2 3 4 3 4
LEG NUMBERS LEG NUMBERS LEG NUMBERS

ONE TIER TWO TIERS THREE TIERS
ONE LEG OVERLOAD
Figure 3.5. Unequal leg loading with one leg overloaded.

Results of tests 1 and 2 (SSS1 1963 series).
14
kN(kip]
LOAD,
LEG
TOWER
LEG NUMBERS LEG NUMBERS

ONE TIER - LEGS IN SAME PANEL ONE TIER - LEGS OPPOSITE
TWO LEGS OVERLOAD
Figure 3.6. Unequal leg loading with two legs overloaded.

Results of tests 3-6 (SSSI 1963 series).
15
Top Jack Bottom Jack Average Leg
Extended Extended Buckling Load
mm (in) mm (in) kN (kip)
0 0 80.7 (18.1)
152 (6) 152 (6) 60.1 (13.5)

152 (6) 0 (0) 58.7 (13.2)
0 (0) 152 (6) 64.5 (14.5)
305 (12) 305 (12) 48.5 (10.9)*

305 (12) 0 (0) 50.7 (11.4)
0 (0) 305 (12) 68 .5 (15.4)
457 (18) 457 (18) 42.3 (9.5)

457 (18) 0 (0) 46.7 (10.5)
0 (0) 457 (18) 61.9 (13.9)
610 (24) 610 (24) 31.6 (7.1)

610 (24) 0 0 39.6 (8.9)
0 (0) 610 (24) 57.4 (12.9)
* Average buckling load found to be 46.9 kb' (10.6 kip) in 1961 5SS1
tests for this configuration.
Table 3.2 Average critical leg buckling loads for frame type B
under different base extension configurations (1963).
(kip)
kN
LOAD,
SYSTEM
ULTIMATE
TOTAL
17
(kip)
kN
LOAD
TOWER
ULTIMATE
TOTAL
0 12
TIER CONSISTING OF THE TYPE A FRAME, 1.5m(5
3
ft)
4
Figure 3.8. Mixed frame inodes, four tiers high, total

ultimate capacity plot for the 1963 tests.
18
I . Test Descriptions (continued) Test Numbers (continued)
Three (3) Tests - frame high to 100% design

1 1-512 thru 1-514
load, then released
Three (3) Tests - 1 frame high to 150% design 1-515 thru 1-517
load, then released
Three (3) Tests - 1 frame high to 200% design 1-518 thru 1-520
load, then released
Test Description Test Numbers
One (1) Test - 3 frames high to destruction 1-521

(after pretesting to 100% of
design; equipment from Tests
1-512 thru 1-514)
1-515 thru 1-517)
1-510 thru 1-520)
Total number of tests = 24
* The design load was defined as the average leg failure load for tests 1-500
through 1-502 divided by a factor of safety of 2.5. The following represents
a summary of the results of this test series.
Summary of I. Test Results
Test Ultimate Tower Test - one frame high
1-500 221 kN (49.6 kip)

1-501 314 (70.5)
1-502 309 (69.5)
Average tower test - 281 kN load total or 70 kN (15.8 kip) per leg.
Design leg load - 28 kN (6 kip) average
Test Ultimate Tower Test - three frames high
1-503 151 kN (34.0 kip)

1-504 157 (35.2)
1-505 160 (36.0)
Average tower test three frames high - 156 kN or 39 kN (8.8 kip) per
leg.
19
,
Test Ultimate Tower Test
1-506 1 frame high 100% design load then 223 kN (50.40 kip)*
destruction
1-507 1 frame high 100% design load, then 321 (72.2)
destruction
1-508 1 frame high 150% design load then 242 (54.4)
destruction
destruction
1-510 1 frame high 200% design load then 292 (65.5)
destruction
destruction
On all of these tests, the pretested load was held for 5 minutes.
Average tower test - 268 kN (60.3 kip)
1-521 3 frames high to destruction after 153 kN (34.4)

pretesting equipment to 100% of
design
1-522 3 frames high to destruction after 158 (35.5)
design
1-523 3 frames high to destruction after 167 (37.5)
design
Average tower test - 159 kN (35.8 kip)
It was concluded that pretesting or preloading the scaffold frames up to the

value of 200 percent of the defined design load had no identifiable effects
on the ultimate capacity of the scaffold system for the frame type tested.
The second series of frame type C tests determined the effects on the
ultimate leg capacities due to ledger or headpiece loading for various
assemblies (see figure 3.3). To avoid any major variations resulting from
localized stiffness characteristics of specific scaffold frame types, four
equally spaced loads were applied to the ledger for all tests. The tests
and the results consisted of the following. Failure was reached when out of
plane buckling occurred.
II . Test Description Test Number
Ledger Loading - 3 frame high tower to destruction 1-524

* Test support beam failed; possible premature failure of frames.
20
Summary of II. Test Results
1-52A 3 frame high 159 kN (35.8 kip)

1-525 2 frame high 173 kN (38.8)
1-526 1 frame high 160 kN (36.0)
Average ultimate test load = 16A kN (36.9 kip)
The SSSI report concluded that alterations of the lift height configurations
did not increase or decrease the ledger-load carrying capacity built or
designed into a frame. As the results show, the average failure capacity of
16A kN (36.9 kip) is extremely close for the one, two and three height test
configurations. However, the report failed to observe an extremely important
consideration. The single tier high 1-500 through 1-502 tests resulted in an
average ultimate capacity of 70.3 kN (15.8 kip) per leg. The ledger load in
Test 1-526 for the same frame resulted in a AO.O kn (9 kip) per leg ultimate
capacity. Using the 2.5 safety factor cited above or the present 0SHA- specified
safety factor of A, the allowable leg loads resulted in a AA percent capacity
reduction due to the ledger loading. That is, 16/A = A .0 versus 9/A = 2.25.
Considering that most frame type scaffolds functioning as the platform

support system are subjected to distributed ledger loadings, this apparent
capacity reduction must be considered in future investigations. It is also
observed that this capacity reduction diminishes as the tier height is
increased. This behavior is most probably due to the larger number of struc-
tural redundancies and greater redistribution of overloads in multipletiered
systems. However, tests I-52A through 1-526 represent a very limited sampling
and the trend of decreasing capacity reduction with increasing tier height
should be viewed with caution. Further experimental and supporting analytical
research concerning this important topic of ledger loading is clearly needed.
The third and final series of the SSSI 1966 tests concentrated on the effects
of continuous bracing in consecutive bays on the ultimate capacity of the
system. Again, column legs were identically loaded in a concentric manner as
described previously with no base extensions. All bays were braced to the
full height of each assembly. The following describes the test series and
the results.
III. Test Description Test No.
One test-3 frames high-two bays wide to destruction 1-527

One test-3 frames high-three bays wide to destruction 1-528
One test-3 frames high-four bays wide to destruction 1-529
One test-1 frame high-two bays wide to destruction I-53t)
One test-1 frame high-three bays wide to destruction 1-531
One test-1 frame high-four bays wide to destruction 1-532
21
Summary of III. Test Results
Average Failure
Test Ultimate Tower Test Leg Load
1-527 2 bays wide-3 high 203 kN (45.6 kip) 34 kN (7.6 kip)

1-528 3 bays wide-3 high 211 (47 .4)* 35 (7.9)
1-529 4 bays wide-3 high 401 (90.0) 40 (9.0)
* One frame accidentally not loaded

:
Average Failure
Test Ultimate Tower Test Leg Load
1-530 2 bays wide-1 high 264 kN (59.4 kip) 44 kN (9.9 kip)

1-531 3 bays wide-1 high 437 (93.1) 55 (12.3)
1-532 4 bays wide-1 high 519 (116.6) 52 (11.7)
Tests (1-530 through 1-532) Average Failure Leg Load 50 kN (11.3 kip)
For one frame high towers with 2, 3 and 4 bays, the average leg failure
load was 49.8 kN (11.3 kip) versus the 1-500 through 1-502 one frame and
one bay series, 70.3 kN (15.8 kip) leg capacity; a 30 percent capacity
reduction. However, when the tier height was increased to three, the
capacity reduction became insignificant.
A recent paper by Lightfoot et al. [14] describes the design of a test rig
capable of testing free standing (no side restraints) scaffolding towers up
to 9 m (29.6 ft) high and 1 .8 m (5.9 ft) square for vertical loads up to
890 kN (200 kip) Full scale tower tests were performed and the results com-
.
pared with model predictions of Harung et al. [15] who used manual analytical
calculations, as well as a finite displacements program. The towers were the
'tube and coupler' type (see type 2 appendix A) which are not predominant in
the United States and the geometric details were not given. Harung also
performed experimental tests to determine the characteristic behavior of
uniquely braced small scale scaffold models.
Both the analytical and experimental studies of Harung and Lightfoot showed
that failure to sustain vertical loading was largely due to overall elastic
instability. In addition, the assumption of full fixity at couplings was
verified as reasonable for the scaled models. Verification of this assumption
for full scale scaffolds is pending. These works demonstrated the possibility
of using finite displacements programs as a scaffold design method.
In a recent study by Mansell et al. [16], 'tube and coupler' and 'tubular
frame' scaffold towers were proof loaded. Two loading schemes were employed
using loading cables to study horizontal restraining effects of conventional
test apparatus used by others [14, 15]. Mansell concluded that the strength
and safety of a scaffolding system can be misrepresented by using loading
cables and that standard test procedures should specify proper simulation of
gravity loads as performed by Lightfoot et al. [14].
22
. .
In another study, Lightfoot et al. [17] investigated the collapse strength

of 'tube and coupler' scaffolds of given geometric configurations using eigen-
value and finite displacements programs. The thrust of this paper was to
develop the means by which complex scaffolding systems could be easily modeled
for analysis. This work has limited utility since current software can be
efficiently applied for scaffolding analysis and offers more refined and diverse
capabilities than a linear finite displacements program (see appendix B)
Literature was not found on the categories of 'support systems' and 'strength'
for types of scaffolds other than the steel tubular type (see appendix A)
or components thereof. In a final effort to comprehensively review the
literature for information concerning support elements and strength, documents
concerning falsework were reviewed. Falsework systems typically represent
heavy duty scaffold systems assembled for the purpose of providing temporary
support to a structure under construction. The loads imposed are usually
much larger in magnitude than those for conventional work-platform scaffold
systems. However, the literature was reviewed because of the marked similar-
ities in the assemblies.
Three documents were identified that dealt with the design of scaffolds for
falsework applications [18, 19, 20]. These documents were presented in a
manual format and were developed from basic engineering design approaches.
Designer aids are presented without detailed formulations for carrying out
solutions but highlight the concepts which a designer may need to address.
These documents are referenced where appropriate in the later portions of
this paper.
3.2.3 Connections
A connection is a component used for the attachment of scaffolding elements.

Any physical device used for the purpose of interconnecting scaffold support
elements or braces, or for securing work platforms, accessways and safety
devices to scaffold systems, fall within the scope of this definition. The
accident study [1] indicated that connection failures were the leading cause
of failures involving worker casualties, (17 percent of all cases reviewed).
Therefore, the technical literature was reviewed on the topic of scaffold
connections
Connections are typically swivel or right-angle rigid couplers, sleeve inserts,

pins and welded elements for metal scaffold systems and usually nails and bolts
for wood systems (see Figures 3.9 and 3.10). The 'tube and coupler' scaffold
(type 2 appendix A) uses a manufactured bolting coupler to connect straight
rigid tube elements. According to the accident study [1], this scaffold type
involved no connection failures. However, the metal fabricated tubular frame
(type 3, appendix A) involved 6 (out of 10 cases) connection failures leading
to injury and 8 (out of 17 cases) leading to death. Consequently, the litera-
ture was reviewed for technical content concerning connections for scaffolding
systems in an effort to enhance any future analytical studies.
23
Scaffold fittings: (a) swivel coupler, (bj right angle
or double coupler.
Figure 3.9 Coupler connections for 'tube and coupler'

type scaffold systems.
24
Very little technical information was found concerning metal connections and
their structural characteristics applicable to scaffolding systems. A paper
titled "The Elastic Analysis of Frameworks with Elastic Connections" by Light-
foot et. al. [21] addressed corrective modeling procedures for planar and grid
type frameworks allowing for more realistic elastic joint behavior. These
frameworks consisted of members with joints elastically constrained against
axial and shear forces as well as twisting moments.
Lightfoot developed modified stiffness matrices, based on conventional

approaches, for both frameworks and superimposed them generating a hybrid
space frame model. Various joint fixity factors used previously by Monforton
et al. [22] based on model behavior were applied by means of a special
purpose analysis program. For a tube and coupler portal frame modeled in the
study, it was shown that as the overall in-plane moment-supporting capability
(or rotational fixity) of the coupler is reduced, the planar member approached
a simply-supported condition.
Lightfoot recommended that realistic fixity values for coupler connections be

determined prior to future analysis
. Lightfoot et al. [23] developed a test rig for
scaffold couplers and tested most of the scaffold couplers used in the United
Kingdom to determine their stiffness characteristics for initial elastic beha-
vior. Figures 3.11 and 3.12 show the results of some of the coupler tests
performed with the test rig. It is seen that a variation of tightening torques
had a definite effect on the coupler performance. Lightfoot et al. [24] further
developed the idealization of scaffold couplers by theoretically treating them
as rigid offsets consisting of elastic connections at both ends. This investi-
gation was based on the asumption of linear elastic behavior and offered no
apparent directly usable information.
Field studies have revealed that wood connections are commonly used compositely
with other steel scaffolding systems. Review of the scaffolding codes and
standards [2] showed that most of the provisions were deficient concerning the
topic of wood connections. It was found that CAL/OSHA [25] was slightly more
specific in providing minimum nail sizes and some bolt capacity data. However,
there was a lack of detailed information concerning wood connection geometry,
fastener configuration or quantity, material type, etc.
Many common connections used in scaffolding systems consist of wood with nail
fasteners. The 'common* or 'wire type' nail is the most frequently used.
Only a few of the scaffolding documents such as CAL/OSHA [25] and the
Wisconsin Building Code [26] specify various scaffolding nail requirements
which are in disagreement. Future analytical connection and anchorage studies
could address the validity of the code specifications. Based on loading
conditions and practices determined by field studies, the adequacy of nailed
connections can be determined. For instance, CAL/OSHA allows a minimum of
two 16-penny nails for 51 mm (2 in) lumber used for bracing purposes. Hurd
presents allowable loads for common nails and spikes in "Formwork for Concrete"
[27]. This two nail connection when used with a Southern pine 2 by 4 would
have an ultimate lateral load capacity of 3.6 kN (756 lb) or allowable of
0.96 kN (108 x 2 = 216 lb) when incorporating a factor of safety of 3.5 as
stated by Hurd.
26
See Detail B
Detail B: Pin-sleeve
connection
Caster-wheel connections used for mobility at scaffold base.
Figure 3.10 Typical 'tubular frame' and 'mobile tower'

type scaffold connections.
25
Figure 3.11 Results of shear tests on a Mills swivel
coupler for different tightening torques.
Figure 3.12 Results of twisting tests on a Mills rigid

coupler for different tightening torques.
27
A considerable amount of detailed experimental research has been performed
and documented concerning wood fastening devices by E. George Stern at the
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Wood Research and Wood Construction Labora-
tory [28-35]. Most of Stern's work has been performed for the industrial
wood pallet industry. The literature could be divided into three distinct
groupings: 1) test and performance criteria for nails and staples,
2) performance testing of nails and staples and 3) performance testing of
assembled pallets. Test criteria using the Morgan Impact Bend-Angle Nail
Tester (MIBANT) was developed and presented [28, 29]. The overall performance
of assembled wooden pallets depended on the performance of the nails and
fasteners. The MIBANT tests enabled quality control criteria to be developed
for fastener manufacturing and assessment purposes. Once such criteria were
established, fastener characteristics were identified through pallet perfor-
mance testing.
Numerous papers by Stern address the performance testing of various nails and
staples used with numerous wood classifications [30, 31]. Such topics as
lateral load transmission, withdrawal resistance, toughness, aging effects,
holding power, effects due to coated nails and overall performance and effec-
tiveness were discussed. Other papers described assembled wooden pallet
performance testing for numerous material, fastener type and geometric config-
urations [32, 33]. Overall performance was evaluated for pallets subjected
to drop and load testing. Even the topic of fastening frozen lumber was
addressed [34]; a topic of possible interest for users of woodtype scaffolds
in cold climates.
Based on the above and other exhaustive studies, "Tentative Nailing Standards
for Warehouse and Exchange Pallets" [35] were developed. It is feasible that
a similar process could be followed in developing criteria for scaffolding
fasteners. Existing technical information on wood fasteners should be used
to avoid duplication of effort and to enhance current code provisions for
scaffolding fasteners.
3.2.4 Anchorage
Anchors refer to those components which secure the scaffold system to the
foundation. The scope of this definition addresses only those devices which
physically connect the scaffold to the support foundation at the support
points. The importance of this distinction is emphasized because numerous
mechanisms are employed in securing scaffold systems and they must be
systematically addressed for proper analysis.
The accident study [1] revealed that 17 percent of the scaffolding accidents
leading to injury and 15 percent leading to death were attributed to anchorage
failures. For scaffolding accidents leading to injury only, 6 out of 10
anchorage failures occurred with the 'bracket-type' scaffold (see type 16
appendix A) out of a sample of 22 scaffold types. However, for accidents
leading to death, the leading type was the 'two-point suspension' (see type
10 appendix A) accounting for 8 out of 13 anchorage failures, followed by the
'bracket type' (3 out of 13).
28
The integrity of both scaffold types mentioned above depend primarily on
adequacy of the anchorages. This is because a single anchor provides total
support to part or whole work platforms. The two point suspension scaffolds
usually service high elevations and accomodate more than one worker. Failure
of a single anchor will therefore cause a collapse of the entire work plat-
form. In multi-point suspension systems, however, failure of one anchor
could actually go unnoticed.
Technical literature on anchorage devices in general is quite complex and in

abundance. Numerous anchorage devices are available such as concrete inserts
and expansion types as well as power driven steel and wood fastening devices.
Technical literature providing specific scaffolding anchorage information was
not found. Therefore,, pertinent information which might serve to aid future
studies was extracted from the more general anchorage literature and is
presented below.
Recent research concerning anchorage mechanisms typically used with mechan-

ical equipment applications in nuclear power plants was performed by the
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) [36]. The tests were performed to deter-
mine the limiting load capacities and anchorage requirements for concrete
inserts, anchor bolts, welded studs and expansion anchors subject to direct
tension, direct shear and combined tension and shear. The purpose of the TVA
anchorage research program was to provide further insight regarding anchorage
design and performance beyond the existing conventional design approaches in
an effort to meet those design requirements unique to nuclear power plant
considerations. The overall goal was to match anchorage requirements with
existing and available anchorage systems thus reducing to a minimum the number
of anchorages requiring special final design consideration.
The TVA research program was divided into three parts. The first was con-
cerned with the determination of anchorage embedment requirements for various
systems through tensile pullout tests. The second part examined the shear
strength for the tensile type anchors and the third involved combined tension
and shear tests on various anchor systems. Although some of the testing was
concerned with particular proprietary products, these products could apply to
scaffolding systems as well. In the first part, initial pullout tests were
performed for open-section concrete channel inserts, embedded 19 mm (.75 in)
A307 bolts and 16 mm (.625 in) stud groups in standard concrete. Additional
tests performed included edge effects and a comparison of epoxy and grouted
bolt performance.
A formulation was developed for the necessary embedment length to assure that
steel (anchor) failure would occur before concrete (foundation) failure. It
was found, based on a limiting stress of 4 /f^ from ACI-318 (11.10.3) [37] and
the ASTM A307 minimum tensile strength requirements (Table 2) [38] , that an
embedment length of eight diameters in 144 kN/m^ (3 ksi) concrete would assure
steel failure of a A307 bolt. When edge distance became less than 6 diameters,
an increase in embedment of one diameter, per each diameter less than 6 (for
edge distances > 3 diameters) was required. The following formulation was
presented, based on a half cone pullout failure mode, to permit the steel
anchor to develop its full capacity.
29
.: ^
+ 0.58
(L in) _> /p
J /f 3.1
where:
L = embedment length, inches
m = edge distance, L/3 < m < L, inches
P = ultimate pullout force, pounds
f^ = concrete compressive strength, psi.
For concrete compressive strength of 144 kN (3 ksi) and the specified ASTM
A307 proof load, the following simplified formulation was presented for A307
bolts
(L + m) > 14d 3.2
where:
L = embedded length 8d
m = edge distance > 3d
d = bolt diameter, inches
Tests clearly indicated that a minimum side cover was required to fully
restrain the developed lateral pressure resulting from full bearing load
transfer at the head of the bolt for 19-mm (.75-in) A307 bolts at 51 mm
(2 in) edge distance and 25-mm (1-in) A490 bolts at 114 mm (4.5 in) edge
distance. For deep embedments, it was determined that this lateral pressure
was approximately one-fourth of the bolts tensile capacity. The formulation
presented recommends that the design yield strength of the steel bolt should
not exceed:
f < 67 /Vc (m/d) 2 3.3

y
where
fy = steel yield strength, psi

m = distance from edge to bolt center line, inches
d = bolt diameter, inches
Other interesting concepts presented in the TVA study included epoxy and
grouted 19-nm A307 bolts and expansion anchors. Cored receiving holes
developed poor bond due to the smooth interface. It was found that by
roughening the polished walls, load capacities equal to those for embedded
bolts were developed. The general mode of failure for tensile loading of
expansion anchors tested by TVA was anchor slip. Preloading of such anchors
was not recommended because of the slip characteristics.
30
,
The TVA anchorage studies were performed using massive concrete-block test
specimens with no reinforcing steel. A study concerned with design loads for
concrete inserts was performed by Reichard et al. [39] and used 114-mm (4.5-
in) flat slab reinforced concrete specimens. Because these test specimens
are more representative of those encountered in scaffold systems (i.e. rein-
forced concrete walls, ceilings, floors, etc.) the paper was reviewed for
technical information which might be of use in later scaffolding develop-
ments.
The study was performed for independently mounted malleable iron concrete
inserts capable of accepting 19-mm (.75-in) threaded rods. These inserts are
fastened to the inside face of the formwork prior to concrete placement and
the investigation was limited to cast-in-place embedment lengths equivalent
to the anchor length of 79 to 95 mm (3.125 to 3.75 in). Reinforcing steel
consisted of No. 5 bars at 152 mm (6 in) on centers in slabs of various span
lengths. Some findings are presented below.
It was concluded that for concrete strengths within a range of 144 to 240
kN/m (3 to 5 ksi) and densities of 1840 to 2400 kg/m (115 to 150 pcf)
the average static pullout strengths for anchors placed centrally in 1.2 m
(4 ft) square specimens could be approximated by:
P = 2.0 + 0.0012 W /fl 3.4

u c
where:
P
u =
specimen pullout strength, (kip)
W = concrete unit weight, (pcf)
f^ = concrete compressive strength, (psi)
This formulation is of use for scaffold anchorages placed adequate distances

from the edges of the reinforced concrete slabs, walls, etc. However, tests
performed on slabs continuous over two 3.05 m (10 ft) spans indicated the
pullout strengths computed by equation 3.6 could be 10 percent too high
because of flexural cracking. A capacity reduction factor of 0.9 was recom-
mended to accomodate for flexural cracking. The TVA studies [36] also
recommended that minimum reinforcing be used in certain pullout tests since
the high strength A490 bolts developed flexural cracking in the massive
unreinforced specimens being used and this influenced the anchorage ultimate
capacity. Flexural steel considerations should therefore be incorporated in
building designs to account for scaffolding anchorage loads in addition to
the conventional building loads. Examples of scaffolding systems where such
anchorages can be used are shown in appendix A (see types 8, 9, 10, 11, 16).
Another interesting and useful concept presented by Reichard [39] concerned

the effects of reinforcement cover. Test results displayed a linear capacity
reduction of pullout strength on the 1.2 m (4 ft) square specimens with
144 kN/m^ (3 ksi) normal weight concrete to be 6.23 kN (1.4 kip) per inch of
additional cover beyond 19 mm ( .75 in) of initial minimum cover to a maximum
31
: .
of 76 mm (3 in) of cover. This behavior was attributed to the interaction

of the reinforcing steel with the pullout failure cone. With increasing cover,
the steel intersects less of the cone and thus less of the insert load is
transferred through dowel action. Once again, such behavior should be recog-
nized for scaffolding anchors used with foundations, where considerable concrete
cover can be encountered, such as end-fill panel walls, deep ceilings, etc.
Other capacity reduction factors were developed for both fatigue and sustained
loading conditions. Mechanized suspension scaffolds (see types 9, 10 and 11
appendix A) frequently induce fatigue loads due to the repetitive winding and
ratcheting devices. Reduction factors were recommended for sustained loads
(0.85) and for fatigue loads (0.70 and 0.65 for semi-lightweight and normal
weight concrete respectively). In addition, experimental scatter factors
of 0.82 and 0.75 for normal and semi-lightweight concrete respectively were
recommended. All of the above reduction factors were then applied to equation
3.6 as follows:
P = B (2.0 + 0.0012W 3.5
where
B = appropriate capacity reduction factor.
This formulation was presented for the 19-mm (.75-in) anchors tested for the
stated foundations. It was recommended that the fatigue and sustained factors
would not be cumulative because of the remote possibility of both conditions
occurring simultaneously.
The topics discussed thus far have dealt with only anchorages in concrete.
Other anchorage systems commonly used consist of wood with nails, bolts and
welded steel or power driven steel fasteners. Numerous proprietary anchor-
age and fastening devices are available with the manufacturer's recommended
applications and design capacities. Discussing such devices individually is
beyond the scope of this review and as was recommended in the TVA [54] study,
the manufacturer's claims should be checked against sound engineering design
principles
3.2.5 Foundations
Foundation designates that part of the total system which provides support to
the scaffold. In this context, the foundation may consist of the ground
(footing and flooring) upon which the scaffold bears as well as any other
supporting structure such as a partially completed wall of a building to
which the scaffold may be attached. Connections between the scaffold and the
foundation have been treated as anchorages. In reviewing the multiple scaf-
folding types presented in appendix A, various "types" of foundation supports
are feasible. With the 'fabricated tubular frame' type, the foundation might
consist of the earth or concrete floor slabs as well as the wall which pro-
vides lateral support. For many of the 'suspension' types, the foundation
consists of floor slabs, roof parapets, structural steel elements etc. Thus
it becomes evident that scaffolding foundations are not restricted to soils.
32
The accident study [1] indicated that 14 percent of the scaffolding accidents
attributed to foundation failures lead to worker injury and 5 percent to
worker death. The review of scaffolding codes and standards [2] revealed major
deficiencies and ambiguities among the various provisions regarding the topic
of foundation. In addition, failure of the foundation component of a scaf-
folding system can lead to major collapse resulting in catastrophic conse-
quences. A recent investigative study of the Willow Island cooling tower
collapse in West Virginia [40] indicated that the most probable cause of the
collapse was due to the imposition of construction loads on the concrete
shell structure before adequate strength to support those loads was developed.
The resulting catastrophe of this "foundation” failure was the death of 51
men who where working on a scaffold system supported by the shell.
Many scaffolding foundations are constructed at grade level and appear to

receive little design consideration. Thornley [41] rates temporary structures
such as scaffolding and falsework with least importance allowing permissible
foundation settlements that ’’vary too widely to tabulate." However, as was
cited in the review of scaffolding codes and standards [2], many of the
provisions contain generalized statements that foundations must be "sound",
"rigid" and "capable of supporting the maximum intended load without
settlement or displacement". Much of the foundation literature offers infor-
mation concerning permanent structures which might be readily applicable to
scaffolding and is therefore included herein.
Gaylord [42] presents tabulated information concerning the consistency of

cohesive (clay) soils as obtained from standard penetration tests. Gaylord
concluded the standard penetration test provides the best information that
can be economically obtained and used in most routine in-situ situations.
Modification of the standard penetration test for surface conditions intended
to support scaffolding systems appears feasible and deserves further consider-
ation.
The previously cited publication produced by the Joint Committee of the

Concrete Society and Institution of Structural Engineers [18] offers compre-
hensive information on the design of temporary structures. Concise informa-
tion on various design topics is discussed and critical aspects are high-
lighted. Sections 4.10.1 - 4.10.2 of the manual mention the possibility
of differential settlement between the permanent structure and the falsework.
Section 5.9 addresses the topic of soils and presents some tabulated informa-
tion on bearing capacities and modification factors. This publication serves
to comprehensively address many of the topics of critical importance to safe
design of temporary falsework systems. Much of the detailed technical infor-
mation used in the engineering analysis is omitted. Instead, key areas
deserving the design engineer's attention are highlighted in conjunction with
substantial reference information in concise graphical and tabular form. It
is recommended that this manual be referred to during future development of
scaffolding foundation guidelines.
The California Division of Structures produced a manual on falsework design

that provides administrative guidelines for the Division's field engineers
in charge of bridge construction on State highway projects [19]. The manual
33
provides an approach to bridge falsework design, materials, construction,
inspection and contract administration. Similar to the Joint Committee's
publication [18] ,
detailed engineering formulations are not specified and
are left to the 'responsible party'. The manual does present a comprehensive
outline for foundation design and it is recommended that this manual be
referred to during future research.
Grant [20] provides a systematic outline for falsework design, from the
selection of the proper scaffold system for the job application to the design
of its foundation; all based on a similar approach used in the above two
documents. Grant does not provide specific design details or procedures, but
instead offers a check-list approach to the design process. One of these
check-list items is to determine the bearing capacity of soils. Grant
provides general soil capacity information and discusses a mechanism to
appropriately transfer the loads to a sloped foundation.
3.2.6 Safety Devices
Safety devices protect employees from falls, air-borne objects and other
environmental hazards. Some scaffolding safety devices consist of guardrails,
safety nets and screens while other devices which are worn by the individual
workers include hard hats, eye protection glasses, etc. Positive fall protec-
tion devices include a personnel safety belt or harness fastened to an inde-
pendently supported lifeline. The accident study [1] revealed that 3 percent
(2 cases) of the accidents leading to injury and 21 percent (18 cases) lead-
ing to death were primarily related to safety devices. It was also noted that
nearly three times as many secondary causes (48 versus 18 cases) as primary
causes leading to death were related to safety device failure. Review of the
individual accident records revealed that a significant portion of the cases
involved noncompliance with existing OSHA regulations. The review of scaf-
folding codes and standards [2] revealed major inconsistencies in the existing
safety device provisions and the regulations were unclear. Since safety
device-accident relationships have been indicated, the literature is reviewed
for technical information of use to future scaffolding research. Since fall
protection devices and guardrails are the most common safety devices used,
fall protection devices are discussed first followed by guardrails.
Steinberg [43] presents a comprehensive literature study on personnel fall-

safety equipment. Steinberg's paper served as a comprehensive descriptive
manual for fall-safety equipment and did not offer technical information
which could forseeably be used in scaffolding safety device research.
Steinberg presents the literature on the physical and anthropometric basis
of fall-arrest. In addition, the paper offers substantial and definitive
terminology regarding the various fall system components and classifications.
Also, consumer-product-type testing information for many of these components
is presented. Unfortunately, the enhancement of safe scaffolding practices
involves research studies beyond any type-specific product analysis and a
study of the product use in the field is needed.
34
Fattal et al. [44] conducted a study of guardrails used for the protection of
employees from occupational hazards. The report compiled anthropometric data
and its interrelationship with guardrail geometries for use in experimental
work which was documented in another study [45]. The experimental study
included resistance testing of guardrail components under static and dynamic
loads using human subjects and an anthropomorphic dummy. Nonstructural tests
were also carried out to determine the geometric requirements for guardrail
safety. Based on these investigations, a model performance standard and a
design guide for guardrail systems was prepared.
In order to determine an appropriate guardrail design load, an experimental

impact loading of a laboratory model guardrail system was performed. An
ultimate unfactored peak load of 2.2 kN (498 lb) was determined (95th
percentile anthropometric data incorporated) and reduced to 1 .3 kN (300 lb)
by incorporating the safety factor used in the design of steel flexural
elements [46]. Figure 3.13 shows a graph of the test data. These test data
were used to develop a relationship (Figure 3.14) between the dynamic force-
to-weight ratio of the test subject and the stiffness of the guardrail system
relative to the mock-up system used in the tests.
Fattal presented design approaches for guardrail systems. However, the topics
of connection capacity and performance were not addressed. It is recommended
that the field study guardrail information be used to select representative
guardrail systems and these systems be subjected to further laboratory testing
without duplicating those tests already performed by Fattal.
3.2.7 Stability
The term instability, in the simple dictionary sense, pertains to a state in

which the slightest change causes still further change. Rolling, overturning,
buckling of a leg in compression or excessive drift are some of the typical
conditions of scaffolding instability. Present regulations require that scaf-
folds be braced and laterally supported at specified intervals [2]. However,
no design provisions are given to determine size of bracing elements or
anchorages used as lateral supports. The accident study [1] reported that
numerous casualties resulted from worker loss-of-balance which was attributed
to stability problems.
The falsework design manual by the Joint Committee [18] emphasizes the need to
incorporate stability requirements in falsework design. Under design detail-
ing, the topic of lateral loads is addressed. These include wind and dynamic
effects of moving loads as well as loads produced by secondary effects such as
thrust shores (outriggers in the case of scaffolds), guys and tension shores.
It was noted that thrust shores will tend to reduce vertical downward forces
while guys will increase them. Also, differential settlement would lead to
load redistribution to the various system components and must be accounted
for in the design process. Each situation described could lead to local or
overall instability conditions and result in unsafe conditions.
35
700
600
. 500
RATIO
lb
F.,
400
FORCE
WEIGHT
TO
300
RESULTANT
FORCE
200
RESULTANT
100
0 10 20 30 40
HEEL DISTANCE . 0. in
Figure 3.13. Dynamic and static force on the top rail

exerted by the 95th percentile dummy vs.
heel distance from centerline of rail.
36
-Mb
1b),
189
W
(for
FORCE
DYNAMIC
RESULTANT
STIFFNESS RATIO, k /k
s m
Figure 3.14 Relationship between dynamic force-to-weight

ratio of subject and stiffness of guardrail
system relative to the mock-up rail.
37
)
In an attempt to ensure both lateral and longitudinal stability, the California

Falsework manual [19] specifies that all falsework must be capable of resisting
an 'assumed* horizontal load in any direction. This 'assumed' load is to be
the sum of the actual horizontal loads due to equipment, construction sequence
etc., including an allowance for wind, but not less than two percent of the
total supported dead load. The falsework bracing system is to provide adequate
strength to resist any developed overturning or collapse moment. The over-
turning and collapse moment values are to be determined similarly by the
resultant overturning force acting at its appropriate distance above the
ground; however, the term collapse moment refers to that moment resulting in
localized instability (collapse) as opposed to overturning. It is the engi-
neer's responsibility to recognize and account for all factors contributing
to the overturning moment.
The California manual addressed the design for wind quite extensively. For
high capacity shores, the manual refers to the Uniform Building Code, section
2308(g) [47]. However, for other systems of lower capacities (more represen-
tative of scaffolds), the minimum horizontal force due to wind effects is
specified as the sum-of-the-products of wind impact areas and the following
applicable wind pressure values. The wind impact area is the gross projected
area of the falsework and the unrestrained structure.
Wind Pressure Values
For Members Over

Height of Impact Traffic Openings At Other
Area Above Ground (H) and Bents Adjacent Locations
m (ft) kN/m^ ( psf kN/m^ (psf)
0 < H < 9.14 96 Q 72 Q

0 < H < (30) (2) Q (1.5) Q
9.14 < H < 15.24 120 Q 96 Q

(30) < H < (50) (2.5) Q (2) Q
H > 15.24 144 Q 120 Q

H > (50) (3) Q (2.5) Q
where:
Q = 1 + 0.2 W,
<10
W = width of the falsework system (ft) measured normal to the
projected area of the falsework.
The effects of shielding on the wind impact area are addressed. If adjoining
bents are rigidly connected, in the engineers judgement, then the wind load
may be distributed to the adjacent bent. The manual offered very concise
design examples for calculating the overturning moment due to the specified
minimum force (two percent dead load), transverse wind loads and a stability
check due to cable bracing between towers. It is recommended that this manual
be referred to during the development of future scaffolding performance guide-
lines.
38
A comprehensive study of wind loading on falsework was performed by Nix et
al. [48] They used full size installations of modular tubular frame false-
.
work in the NASA-Ames Research Center wind tunnel subjected to 44 m/s (100
mph) winds. Tests considered various tower spacings, wind velocities,
oblique incidence angles and variation in the number of tower units in the
wind stream. Conclusive findings reported include a design method based on
an empirical wind velocity model and the experimental test data. Some of the
Nix information is highlighted below.
Figure 3.15a shows the modular frame unit, assembled to heights of 7 m (23
ft). The towers were independently situated with no intermediate cross-
bracings. Figure 3.15b through 3.15d summarize the test tower layout
configurations, the concept of wind incident angle and the force and moment
resultants determined under the various wind loadings. Nix presented
normalized plots of the test data which yielded an 'effective area' for a
given wind velocity. This 'effective area' is in units of length squared
and is the equivalent 'solid' area the wind impacts with a force equal to
the dynamic pressure. If the 'effective area' is divided by an applicable
model area, a drag, side or lift coefficient is obtained.
This novel concept was introduced because a drag coefficient for a false-
work tower would prove to be meaningless. That is, there is no single
dimension which will characterize a falsework tower. Therefore, to avoid
interpretation difficulties the drag data were presented in terms of an
'effective area' which is also referred to as normalized drag. Figure 3.16
is a plot representing the normalized drag concept for one and four tower
configurations at zero degrees skew and Figure 3.17 is a similar plot for a
wind incidence of 90 degrees.
The primary goal of the research effort was to develop sufficient experimen-
tal information to permit rational design of wind-resistant bracing for false-
work structures. Various factors suspected of influencing the structural
integrity of a falsework system subjected to wind loadings were investigated.
These included:
1 . downwind spacing of falsework units

2 . angle of incidence of the wind
3. effects of adjacent falsework units
4. number of falsework units downwind, and
5. wind velocity.
Each of these factors was discussed and presented in the paper. A summary
of their individual significance was reported as follows.
1. Not significant.
2. Highly significant - peak at 10° for falsework bent in-plane
forces, 80° for out-of-plane forces.
See figures at the end of chapter.
39
. . .
3. Highly significant - wind load reduced due to upstream generated

turbulance
4. Significant - conservative value obtained from twelve-tower tests
for typical falsework installations.
5. Significant - decrease in effective area with velocity.
Both Figures 3.16 and 3.17 present some interesting concepts and served as a
comparison with the method of the Uniform Building Code (UBC) [65] where the
normalized drag was computed by the UBC method (Section 2308). Both figures
demonstrate the adequacy and inadequacy based on the given conditions. The
effects of shielding in the four-tower arrangement becomes apparent in
Figure 3.16 when the normalized drag at 161 km/h (100 mph) is compared with
the single and four tower arrangements. The latter develops only 70 percent
of the former. Figure 3.17 shows that at a 90 degree skew angle, both the
one and four tower arrangements develop higher values of 'normalized drag'
and behave in a similar fashion due to the independence of the four towers
(i.e., towers are not interconnected).
Nix also presented a design method based on the research efforts and findings.
This design method is compared with the methods described in the previously
discussed California Falsework [19] manual using the Wind Impact Area (WIA)
method
For the computation of a falsework-bent wind overturning movements, Nix

recommended the following equation:
M=AxNxPxa 3.8a
M = total falsework bent overturning moment

A = equivalent drag area
N = number of towers per bent
P = design pressure
a = height factor.
The equivalent drag area, A, is computed by selecting the appropriate

effective area per foot for the design wind velocity in Figure 3.18. This
value is then modified by an appropriate tower factor yielding the equiva-
lent drag area. Based on these studies, the following tower factors were
recommended
Tower Factor Conditions
0.80 bents with > 4 towers for out-of-

plane forces
0.90 d.o. for in-plane-forces
1.00 bents < 4 towers for both

directions
40
, .
The height factor, a, and the design pressure, P, were approximated through
common velocity gradient and dynamic wind presure formulations. These are,
2
a = h /2 + h 3 /730, and
3.8b
P = 0.0256 (V) 2
where:
h = falsework height, feet

V = wind velocity, ft/s
For a given example considering a six tower falsework bent, 4.9 m (16 ft) in
height subjected to 34 m/ s (75 mph) wind, the in-plane overturning moment, M,
was calculated by Nix (equations 3.8a) and found to be 258 m-kN (190 ft-kip)
Using the WIA method [19], M was found to be 488 m-kN (360 ft-kip) for 1.2
kN/m2 (25 psf) .The major variation was attributed to the fact that the WIA
does not account for the number of towers as a variable. The Nix equation
3.8a yields larger design loads than the WIA method for configurations of 12
or more towers.
It is recommended that future scaffolding analytical modeling developments use

the comprehensive information presented by Nix where applicable. It is also
recommended that in conjunction with the Nix information, other technical wind
literature sources, such as that presented by Simiu et al. [49], be used to
obtain appropriate information (e.g. building geometry effects, wind velocity
profile, etc.) for studying the effects of wind on scaffold structures.
Building geometries and relative locations will have a substantial effect on
the forces developed by the scaffold and are not addressed in the current
falsework design literature.
3.2.8 Accessways
Accessway refers to the means of access to and egress from the scaffold work
platform. As was cited in the review of scaffold codes and standards [2]
except for suspension-type scaffolds, most codes and standards call for ladder
or other type of access devices to the work surface. The review study found
the scaffolding provisions to be lacking in specific information regarding
scaffold accessways. However, the study also stated that codes and standards
do exist for ladders, stairs, etc. which are devices commonly used as scaffold
accessways. No other specific literature regarding specific scaffolding
accessway information was found.
The accident study [1] reported that for accessways, no cases of primary
causes of accidents led to injury and only one case led to death. Only a
small number of accidents were attributed to secondary causes related to
accessways. The application of an accessway device to a scaffolding system
appears more important than the integrity of the device itself. Therefore,
technical research (e.g. structural analysis, etc.) regarding scaffold
accessways does not appear warranted at this time. However, accessway
information obtained in the field study should be referred to in future
research activities. In particular, the type of accessway provided for given
41
scaffolding systems should be identified along with the methods of use. As
was discussed in the accident study [1], accessways were classified under the
category of system failure since safe access must be provided through the
scaffolding system as a whole. Failure to provide an appropriate access
device can lead to unsafe practices and injury.
42
1
lull
wen
Figure 3.15a. Modular falsework unit studied in

the wind tunnel by Nix et al.
TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3
/S\ raizing
( \ p o C_ f \
v_y
Ed p \n/)
ojhijej
nz l i
TEST 4 TEST 5 TEST 6
Figure 3.15b. Plan view of wind load study tower

test configurations.
43
Figure 3.15c. Wind load study reference point
forces and moments.
Figure 3.15d. Wind load study tower orientation for

a given wind incidence angle.
44
s
Figure 3.16 Variation of normalized drag with velocity

for zero degrees skew (Nix et al.).
45
50.00
O N - 1, ONE TOWER
A N = 4, FOUR TOWERS
145.00
+ N = 1, ONE TOWER (UBC METHOD)
140.00
35.00
FT**2
30.00
(D/Q)
X 4- — f »
—— 4
(1/N)
25.00
20.00
15.00
I-
4- +
20 40 60 80 100
MIND VELOCITY. MPH
Figure 3.17. Variation of normalized drag with velocity

for 90 degrees skew (Nix et al.).
46
IN-PLANE
A OUT-OF-PLANE
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.S0
FT*x2/FT
1.00
Efl/H,
0.50
0.00
-L , , 1
H 1
1
0 - 20 40 60 80 IOC
WINO VELOCITY. MPH
Figure 3.18. Variation of design effective area,EA, per foot

of tower height, H, with velocity (Nix et al.).
47
,
4. SCAFFOLDING MANUFACTURERS’ LITERATURE
In the review of existing scaffolding codes and standards [2], the manufac-
turers' literature was not presented. In an effort to establish a better
understanding of scaffolding products, this literature was gathered and
reviewed herein. The objectives of this review are to better understand
the manufacturer’s:
1. intended use of a given scaffold product,

2. degree of recognition of the existing scaffolding codes and
standards
3. method of determining the product ultimate capacity and factor
of safety.
Much of the literature gathered was proprietary in nature and did not offer
straightforward information regarding the above objectives. For instance,
determining the intended application of a manufacturer's 'tubular frame’ type
scaffold with regard to load ratings was not easily discerned. The term
"standard scaffolding" was used by most of the manufacturers. Few of the
scaffold brochures offered load capacity and intended-use type information.
Additional literature providing part of this information was obtained through
separate requests from certain manufacturers.
With regard to the existing scaffolding regulations reviewed in the previous

study [2], the classification of a scaffold duty-rating was indirectly repre-
sented by the allowable platform permissible loading and span length. The
literature of the major manufacturers of the ’tubular frame’ type scaffold
(type 3 appendix A) were reviewed. The literature does not convey clearly
the definitions or system classifications as described by the current codes
and standards [3, 4]. The ’tubular frame’ system type was chosen based on its
common familiarity and use in construction applications.
One scaffold manufacturer referred to the frame-type as a "standard 5 foot

wide center girt panel". Product data available within the brochure specified
the allowable column leg load and allowable uniform ledger load with a stated
4 to 1 factor of safety incorporated. Recalling the SSSI studies [11, 12,13],
it was pointed out that the assembled configuration (tier height, number of
bays, jack extensions, etc.) was relevant to the ultimate load carrying capa-
city of the scaffold system. The SSSI studies displayed a possible capacity
reduction of as high as 44 percent for a ledger-type loading under certain
circumstances. It is not known whether or not the allowable load values
presented have incorporated such effects.
Another manufacturer referred to the frame-type scaffold as a "standard end

frame". The basic brochure did not display intended application, classification
or load capacities. Other literature was obtained that showed the test results
for frames stacked 3 high. The ultimate load per leg was 50.42 kN (11.33 kip)
and the allowable load per leg was 13.62 kN (3.06 kip) resulting in a factor
of safety of 3.7 which, when rounded up, yields the OSHA-specif ied 4.0. Tests
were performed with the leveling screws set at 305 mm (12 in) bottom only.
According to the SSSI studies [12], this represents the least conservative
48
. .
mode and a 30 percent capacity reduction is possible. The ledger loading

capacity presented by the manufacturer reflected an appropriate capacity
reduction.
Another manufacturer used the terminology "standard frames". Information

concerning intended application, classification and loading capacities was
not presented in the basic brochure. A separate document was obtained which
presented the load capacities with a statement indicating a 4 to 1 safety
factor and based on towers 3 tiers or higher with bottom base extension at
305 mm (12 in). A ledger load capacity reduction existed for that frame
similar to those reductions reviewed above. However, other frames are
presented with considerably lower ledger capacity reductions and some with a
reduction value of zero. Also, it is claimed that the open-ended frame types
have a higher ledger load capacity than column load capacity which was in
direct conflict with the SSSI study [12] and warrants further investigation.
Another manufacturer used the terminology "end frames" and no distinct

classification or loading capacity were presented in the basic brochure.
Independent test information was obtained on a tower 4 frames high and with
unknown leveling screw extensions. This information presented a safety
factor of 4.01 with no data concerning ledger loadings.
Another manufacturer used the terminology "sectional steel scaffolds" and

failed to further identify intended application and classification. Loading
capacity information was not presented in the scaffolding brochure.
Another manufacturer used the terminology "sectional steel scaffolds" and

failed to further identify intended applications and classification.
Loading capacity information was not presented in the scaffolding brochure.
Other information of interest that was found to be common among the brochures
included the following:
o Accessways are supplied as separate components and their

intended use is directly implied.
o Horizontal in-plane cross braces are supplied as separate

components and are suggested or recommended to be used with
rolling scaffold towers.
o Frames are to be pinned at the connections, and casters

bolted to the frames (some brochures more specific than
others)
o All cross-bracing is to be used for each lift with no

patterns or skipping in assembled systems. No climbing is
to be done on the cross-bracing.
o Some brochures approve mixed-mode applications (see Figure

3.10)
49
o Guardrails are to be provided on all four (4) sides.
o Assembled towers with a 4 to 1 aspect ratio are to be

"secured". Some brochures state that "tie-in" devices or
"heavy wire" are to be used at 7 .6 m (25 ft) vertical and
9.1 m (30 ft) horizontal dimensions.
o Side brackets are to be used as work surfaces only, and not

to carry loads. Most brochures state that the user should
account for overturning effects when using brackets on
’mobile towers' where others do not intend such use and
state so.
o Most of the brochures present a set of recommended safety rules

as reprinted from the Scaffolding and Shoring Institute.
It appears that the scaffolding manufacturers have attempted to develop good

scaffold products. However, there needs to be a concerted effort toward
standardization of information necessary to assure that the products are used
as their developers intended and to assure safe scaffolding practices. It
is recommended that in any future development of scaffolding guidelines and
standards, all efforts incorporate the manufacturers’ needs in presenting
the products and the users' needs of understanding the proper application of
the product. In addition, the findings of the field survey should be
reviewed and compared with the information in this section to determine the
degree of such communication.
5. UNITED STATES SCAFFOLD PATENTS
Over two hundred United States scaffolding patent claims were identified by
means of the computerized literature search. For the purpose of completeness,
the listings of these claims were reviewed and those with apparent utility
were gathered and reviewed. It is out of the scope of this paper to present
any of these claims in their entirety. However, it is recognized that such
patent claims have been developed, or demonstrate the potential to be developed,
into viable scaffolding components or whole systems. Therefore, in an effort
to facilitate future developments of scaffolding safety guidelines and stan-
dards, certain discussions are presented below.
Many of the patent claims gathered and reviewed dealt with novel structural
scaffolding connections. Most of these connections applied to 'tube and coup-
ler' type scaffolds (see type 2, appendix A). Many of the connection devices
consist of components integral to the overall performance once assembled.
Loss of components such as locking pins, wedges, bolts, etc., during field
practice is very common resulting in incomplete assemblies and lower margins
of safety. Also, many of the patents introduce prefabricated components
that could be prone to fatigue failure over prolonged use (e.g. sharp angles,
open sections, etc.). The introduction of voids (pin-holes, slots, etc.), as
is the case with many of the novel devices, can reduce the structural capacity
of the system components. It is recommended that any future scaffolding
safety guidelines or standards account for such new product developments by
means of appropriate provisions.
Other patent claims dealt with special devices to be used in conjunction with
scaffolding systems to facilitate the work being performed. One such device
was a light fixture hoist assembly shown mounted on the edge of the platform
on a 'mobile ladder stand' type scaffold (type 4, appendix A). Such a device
will inadvertently affect the geometric stability and might not be initially
accounted for in the development of the safety standards. Another device
anchors the scaffold plank to the support element. From the patent claim
figures, such devices appear to introduce environmental hazards that could
trip a worker. Such hazards were discussed in the accident study [1] and
were cited as the cause of a number of accidents.
Certain patent claims introduce novel scaffolding 'bracket type' and

'suspension type' systems (type 9, 10 and 16, appendix A) in which the
overall structural integrity and system stability are questioned. Two of the
suspended-type claims imply that an endless number of work platforms can be
introduced for high-rise building facade work.
It is recognized that a patent claim does not cover the details necessary to
satisfy the research aspects of this study. However, it is recommended that
prior to any market application of novel scaffolding inventions, these
inventions comply with the existing scaffolding codes and standards. In
addition, it is recommended that the future scaffolding safety guidelines
and standards recognize that novel inventions are necessary to advance
scaffolding state-of-the-art and to include them in the scope of any newly
established provisions.
51
6 . SUMMARY
The review of the literature presented in this report is the third of four
tasks of the NBS Scaffolding Research program. The review identifies the
problem aspects of construction scaffolding and consolidates scaffolding
research information on which future research efforts can build. It identi-
fies the scaffolding-related research previously performed and, based on the
research findings, presents the major scaffolding related safety problems
and areas of warranted future research.
Adhering to a format developed in two previous scaffolding studies [1,2] the

literature was searched and reviewed for technical content which may enhance
future studies while minimizing the chance of duplication of efforts. Infor-
mation on the design, erection, operation and maintenance of construction
scaffolding systems was searched. Most of the information presented can be
applied to these topics. However, little information was found that directly
addressed the erection, operation or maintenance of scaffolding systems.
For the 21 types of scaffolds under study, only the 'tube and clamp' and
'tubular frame' types (see appendix A) were found to be specifically addressed
in the literature. Certain technical information was found and was presented
on the topics of: work platforms; support system and strength; connections;
anchorages; foundations; stability; safety devices; and accessways. It was
shown that the existing codes and standards for scaffolds failed to recognize
much of this information.
Many work platforms consist of wood planking. It was shown that standard wood
design procedures are not recognized by the existing codes and standards and
should be incorporated. In particular, the OSHA [3, 4] specified overall
safety factor of 4 .0 can not be obtained when using certain OSHA specified
wood plank sizes and span lengths in conjunction with approved WDSWC [5] wood
design procedures.
Under the category of support system and strength, the findings were presented
on tests performed on 'tubular frame' scaffolding towers. The structural
effects were presented on interchanging different scaffolding frames (i.e.,
mixed mode), continuous bracing of scaffolding towers, concentrically loading
columns versus uniformly loading top ledgers, and use of top and bottom jack
extensions. Many of these topics call for further research prior to the
development of comprehensive scaffolding standards.
Under the category of connections, additional research is called for on

coupler devices used integral with various scaffolding systems. Deficiencies
in the existing code provisions on nailed wooden connections are pointed out.
Investigative studies are called for with special attention to gathering
field practice information.
Design equations were presented for certain concrete anchorage systems. These
equations account for steel anchor placement in reinforced concrete and are
designed to assure the anchor develops full capacity before concrete failure.
Edge distances and amount of concrete cover are taken into account. A good
52
deal of past research has been performed on nailed connections and this
information is referenced.
No specific design, maintenance, etc. information was found for scaffolding

foundatons. However, various references were cited which provide general
outlines to be used by scaffolding system designers.
Field practice information on worker fall protection is needed. Information

does exist on the science of fall-arrest and the performance capabilities of
the safety devices themselves. However, it is pointed out that the practices
in which the worker employs the fall-arrest device are not fully documented.
Also, detailed information is presented on guardrail design. This informa-
tion needs to be extended by incorporating field practice information on
guardrail systems.
Considerable state-of-the-art information is presented on wind overturning

effects on scaffolding towers. A design procedure is presented and compared
with the Uniform Building Code Wind Impact Area method [47, 48]. This procedure
should be included in future developments of scaffolding standards.
No specific information was found on the topic of scaffolding accessways.

Information obtained from field study practices on accessways is currently
being reviewed. The findings of the field study are expected to be presented
in a separate report in the near future.
The scaffolding manufacturers’ literature was reviewed and discussed in

order that field practice information could be compared. It was found that
the manufacturers’ literature generally fails to communicate the current
scaffolding code and standard requirements. The need to standardize scaffold
load rating procedures was identified. Currently, the manufacturers test
their scaffolding products under various assembled configurations and load
applications. Standard test procedures should include field conditions such
as foundation settlement, anchorage devices, unsymmetrical platform loads,
etc. Finally, the manufacturers' brochures need to effectively communicate
to the scaffold user the appropriate limits of the scaffold system for all
intended field applications.
For completeness, United States scaffolding patent claims were searched and
reviewed. It was revealed that many patent claims are incognizant of the
current scaffolding code and standard provisions and may not enhance safe
scaffolding practice if adopted without close review.
53
.
7. REFERENCES
1. Fattal, S.G., Mullen, C.L., Hunt, B.J., Lew, H.S., Analysis of Scaffold-
ing Accident Records and Related Emloyee Casualties, NBSIR 79-1955,
National Engineering Laboratory, National Bureau of Standards,
Washington, D.C., 1980. (see appendix B)
2. Fattal, S.G., Mullen, C., Lew, H.S., Hunt, B.J., Review of Current Codes
and Standards for Scaffolds, NBSIR 79-1937, National Engineering Labora-
tory, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1980. (see Appen-
dix C).
3. Occupational Safety and Health Standards, Federal Register Part 1910,

Occupational Safety and Health Administration, U.S. Department of Labor,
Washington, D.C., 1974.
4. Construction Safety and Health Standards, Federal Register Part 1926,

Occupational Safety and Health Administration, U.S. Department of Labor,
5. National Design Specification for Wood Construction, National Forest

Products Association, Washington, D.C., 1977.
6. Design Values for Wood Construction, National Forest Products Associa-

tion, Washington, D.C., 1978.
7. Timber Construction Manual, American Institute of Timber Construction,

John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y., 1974.
8. Eisenacher, E.A., Evaluation of OSHA Scaffolding Standards, Newport News

Shipbuilding, Newport News, Virginia, 1979.
9. Standard Methods for Establishing Clear Wood Strength Values, ANSI/ASTM:

D2555-78, Part 22, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978.
10. Standard Methods for Establishing Structural Grades and Related Allow-
able Properties for Visually Graded Lumber, ASTM: D245-764, Part 22,
American Society of Testing and Materials, 1974.
11. Results of Steel Scaffold Testing, Scaffolding and Shoring Institute,

Cleveland, Ohio, 1961.
12. Report of SSSI Tests Conducted at Beaver-Advance Corp., Ellwood City, Pa.,
Steel Scaffold and Shoring Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, 1963.
13. Report of SSSI Tests Conducted at Steel Scaffolding Co., Division of

Patent Scaffolding Co., Uniontown, Pa., Steel Scaffolding and Shoring
Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, 1966.
14. Lightfoot, E., Duggan, D.M., Rig for Failure Tests on Scaffold Towers,
Materiaux Et Constructions, v. 8 n. 48, Nov-Dec, pp. 473-479, 1975.
54
15. Harung, H.S., Llghtfoot E., Duggan, D.M., The Strength of Scaffold
Towers Under Vertical Loading, Structural Engineer, v. 53, n. 1,
p. 23-30, January 1975.
16. Mansell, Donald S., Agelidis, Nick, Proof Loading of Scaffolding,

American Society of Civil Engineers, Preprint 3610, October 23-25,
1979.
17. Lightfoot, E., Olivetto, G., The Collapse Strength of Tubular Scaf-
fold Assemblies, Proceedings Institution of Civil Engineers (London)
v. 63, p 2, pp. 311-329, June 1963.
18. Falsework, Report of the Joint Committee, The Concrete Society and
The Institution of Structural Engineers, July 1971.
19. California Falsework Manual, Division of Structures, Sacremento, Cali-

fornia, 1977.
20. Grant, M., Scaffold Falsework Design, Cement and Concrete Association,
Reedprint, Ltd., 1978.
21. Lightfoot, E., Le Messurier, A.P., Elastic Analysis of Frameworks

with Elastic Connections, ASCE Journal Structural Division, v.100,
n. ST6 pp. 1297-1309, June 1979.
,
22. Monforton, G.R., Wu, T.S., Matrix Analysis of Semi-Rigidly Connected

Frames, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, v. 89, n.ST6,
December 1963.
23. Lightfoot, E., Bhula, D., A Test Rig for Scaffold Couplers, Materiaux
Et Constructions, v. 10, n. 57, 1977.
24. Lightfoot, E., Bhula, D., The Idealization of Scaffold Couplers for
Performance Tests and Scaffold Analysis, Materiaux Et Constructions,
v. 10, n. 57, 1977.
25. State of California Construction Safety Orders (CAL/OSHA), Building

News, Inc., Los Angeles, California, January 1976.
26. Wisconsin Administrative Code, Madison, Wisconsin, 1971.
27. Hurd, M.K., Formwork for Concrete, The American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, Michigan, 1979.
28. Stern, G.E., MIBANT Test Criteria for Pallet Nails, n. 115, Virginia
Wood Research and Wood Construction Laboratory, Blacksburg, Virginia,
December 1972.
29. Stern, G.E., Reconfirmation of MIBANT Test Criteria for Pallet Nails,
n. 122, VPI, December 1973.
55
I
30. Stern, G.E., Lateral Load Transmission by 2 1/2 inch 15-gauge Stenco
Staples, n. 92, VPI, June 1970.
31. Stern, G.E., Plastic Coated Nails for Tomato Pallet Bins, n. 93, VPI,
July 1970.
32. Stern, G.E., Effectiveness of 2 1/2 inch Fasteners in Deckboard-

Stringers Joints for Permanent Warehouse Pallets, n. 99, VPI, January
1971.
33. Stern, G.E., Staple Versus Nail for Pallet Assembly, n. 102, VPI, April
1971.
34. Stern, G.E., Hardened-Steel Versus Stiff-Stock Nails in Warehouse Pallets,

n. 125, VPI, May 1974.
35. Tentative Nailing Standards for Warehouse and Exchange Pallets, n. 129,
VIP, October 1974.
36. Cannon, R.W., Burdette, E.G., Funk, R.R., Anchorage to Concrete, Tennes-
see Valley Authority, Report CEB 75-32, 1973.
37. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-77,11. 10.3),
American Concrete Institute, 1977.
38. Carbon Steel Externally and Internally Threaded Standard Fasteners, ASTM
A 307-74, Table 2, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974.
39. Reichard, T.W., Carpenter, E.F., Leyendecker, E.V., Design Loads for Inserts
Embedded in Concrete, BSS 42, National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D.C., 1972.
40. Lew, H.S., Fattal, S.G., Shaver, J.R., Reinhold, T.A., Hunt, B.J., Inves-
tigation of Construction Failure of Reinforced Concrete Cooling Tower at
Willow Island, West Virginia, NBSIR 78-1578, National Bureau of Standards,
41. Thornley, J.H., Foundation Design Practice, Columbia University Press,

N.Y., 1959.
42. Gaylord, E.H., Jr., Gaylord, C.N., Structural Engineering Handbook,

McGraw Hill, 1968.
43. Steinberg, H.L., A Study of Personal Fall-Safety Equipment, NBSIR 76-

1446, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1977.
44. Fattal, S.G., Cattaneo, L.E., Turner, G.E., Robinson, S.N., Personnel
Guardrails for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents, NBSIR 76-1132,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1976.
56
45 . Fattal, S.G., Cattaneo, L.E., Investigation of Guardrails for the
Protection of Employees from Occupational Hazards, NBSIR 76-1139,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1976.
46. Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute of Steel Construction,

Inc., 101 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017, 1977.
47. Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Officals,

1973.
48. Nix, H.D., Bridges, C.P., Power, M.G., Wind Loading on Falsework-Phase
I, Division of Structures, California Department of Transportation,
Sacramento, California, 1975.
49. Simiu, E., Scanlan, R.H., Wind Effects on Structures. An Introduction

to Wind Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, 1978.
57
\
,
'
.
APPENDIX A
21 Major Types of Scaffolds Under Study
A-l
2 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Type Name Page
1 Wood pole scaffold a) single post A-3

b) double post A-4
2 Tube and coupler scaffold A-5
3 Fabricated tubular frame scaffold A-
4 Manually propelled mobile ladder stand and scaffold tower A-8
5 Vehicle-mounted elevating and rotating A-9
6 Telescoping work platform A-9
7 Self-propelled elevating work platform A-9
8 Outrigger scaffold A-10
9 Adjustable multiple-point suspension (masons' or stone-setters)

scaffold . A-ll
10 Two-point suspension (swinging) scaffold A-ll
11 Single-point suspension scaffold A-ll
12 Boatswains' chair A-12
13 Needle beam scaffold A-12
14 Float or ship scaffold A-12
15 Catenary scaffold A-12
16 Bracket (carpenters' bracket) scaffold A-13
17 Square (bricklayers' square) scaffold A-14
18 Horse scaffold A-14
19 Ladder jack scaffold A-15
20 Window jack scaffold A-15
21 Pump jack scaffold A-16
A-
3
Type la
Figure A.l. Wood pole scaffold - (a) single post.
A-
4
Type lb
Figure A. 2. Wood pole scaffold - (b) double post
A-
5
RIGHT ANGLE CLAMPS (TYP.)
PLANKING
DETAIL ’C
RUNNER
BEARER (BEARER COUPLER

RESTING ON RUNNER COUPLER)
CONNECTORS
(DETAIL 'A')
NAIL BASE PLATES TO WOOD SILLS

AFTER ERECTING FIRST LEVEL
OF FRAMES
•-POST OR LEG
DETAIL 'B'
6'-0" MAX.
DETAIL 'B'
Type 2
Figure A. 3. Tube and coupler scaffold.
A-
Figure A. 4. Fabricated tubular frame scaffold
7
Figure A. 5. Tubular frame subsystems.
A-
8
(b) Type 4
scaffold (tower).
Figure A. 6. Manually propelled mobile (a) ladder stand and (b)
A-
9
UflE53
1
1
wt-Min
(b) Type 6 (c) Type 7
Figure A. 7. (a) Vehicle-mounted elevating and rotating, (b) telescoping, and

(c) self-propelled elevating work platforms.
A-
Type 8
Figure A. 8. Outrigger scaffold

Fi
A- 10
(c) Type 11
Figure A. 9. (a) Adjustable multiple-point (masons' or stone-setters'), (b) two

point (swinging), and (c) single-point suspension scaffolds.
A-ll
PLATFORM
(d) Type 15
Figure A. 10. (a) Boatswain's chair, and (b) needle beams, (c) float or ship,
and (d) catenary scaffolds.
A- 12
Type 16
Figure A. 11. Bracket (carpenters' bracket) scaffold.
A- 13
(b) Type 18
Figure A.1Z. (.a; Square ^bricklayers square; ana id; norse scarroias.
A- 14
(a) Type 19
(b) Type 20
Figure A. 13. (a) Ladder jack and (b) window jack scaffolds.
A-15
Type 21
Figure A. 14. Pump jack scaffold.
A-16
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
B.l INTRODUCTION B-3

B. 2 COMPUTER SOFTWARE B-3
B. 3 ANALYTICAL MODELS B-4
B.3.1 Selected Scaffolding Models B-4
B.3.2 Analysis of Top Ledger Leading for Plane frames B-4
B.3.3 Analysis of a Scaffold Tower for Anchor and
Foundation Effects B-5
B. 4 SUMMARY B-7
B. 3 FIGURES AND TABLES B-8
B. 6 REFERENCES B-24
B-2
.
B.l INTRODUCTION
This appendix presents a demonstration analysis of the 'tubular frame' type

scaffolds using a finite element program. Individual components of the 'tub-
ular frame' scaffold as well as an entire system are modeled. A description
of the computer software, the analytical models, the analysis and the findings
of the study are presented.
The purpose of this appendix is to demonstrate an approach by which in-depth

analysis of scaffolding systems can be performed. It is intended that the
approach demonstrated below for a selected number of topics be used in future
in-depth analytical efforts.
B .2 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
The 'tubular frame' scaffold was modeled using a general purpose structural
analysis system, POLO-FINITE [1,2]. POLO (Problem Oriented Language Organi-
zer) [3] is a system designed to aid in the solution of civil engineering
problems by providing software tools to support the development of engineering
application software. Some of the features of POLO are problem oriented
translation, dynamic memory allocation, data management and subsystem inte-
gration. FINITE is a general purpose computer program for the analysis of
linear and nonlinear structures subjected to static loads. FINITE serves as
a sophisticated analytical tool with multilevel substructuring and static
condensation modeling features. When used appropriately, these features lead
to considerable saving of manpower and computer time. During execution,
FINITE operates under the POLO supervisor which makes use of the unique data
base and memory management features mentioned above.
Many general purpose structural analysis computer programs are in existence.

POLO-FINITE was selected for the following reasons:
o The POLO II supervisor facilitated data input and other execution

requirements which often inhibit the efficient use of conventional
programs
o FINITE contains a diverse finite element library and the internal

organization is such that new finite elements and nonlinear mate-
rial models can easily be installed; a possible need concerning
future scaffolding analyses.
o FINITE enabled the idealization of the scaffolding structure in

the form of mathematical models through recursive formulations
of previously defined elements and structural models. Also, cost
savings were possible through the substructuring and static con-
densation features.
B-3
B .3 ANALYTICAL MODELS
B.3.1 Selected Scaffolding Models
From among the 21 types of scaffolds shown in appendix A, the 'manufactured

tubular frame' is modeled. This system is structurally more complex than
other types and is used in diverse applications (i.e. heavy masonry loading,
multistory facade work, etc.). Chapter 3 presented the results of numerous
full scale experimental tests performed on the 'tubular frame' system and many
questions were raised concerning the structural performance of these systems
under realistic field conditions. Therefore, two common 'tubular frame'
subsystems are modeled to demonstrate a general approach by which some of
the topics presented earlier can be investigated further.
The modeled frames are the open-ended and step-type shown in Figures B.l and
B.2. Each consists of similar integrally welded high-strength structural
steel tubing and differ only in assembled geometry. FINITE was used to analyze
these frames by using previously defined planeframe (later using spaceframe)
elements. These are assembled as depicted in Figure B.7 to form a higher
level structure, SCAFFOLD. Structure BENT consists of 24 nodes and 31 elements.
Structure FRAME consists of 17 nodes and 19 elements. Each frame was statically
condensed to form a new structure each consisting of 1 element and 8 nodes.
Figure B.3 shows BENT-CONDENSED, the condensed version of the structure BENT
where nodes 3,8,16 and 20 are shared with cross bracing elements and 1,9,14
and 22 are shared with other frames when assembled to form the higher level
structure (see Figure B.7). It is noted that structure BENT-CONDENSED represents
the idealized structural stiffness characteristics of structure BENT but the
number of nodes and elements has been reduced which leads to computational
efficiency during solution of the higher level structure, SCAFFOLD.
Structure SCAFFOLD is a higher level structure formed by assembling four

copies of BENT-CONDENSED three times vertically and interconnecting them with
previously defined 'planetruss' bracing elements as shown in Figure B.7.
'Spaceframe' elements were used for the initial formulation of structure BENT
since the cross bracing elements connect at unique nodes not common to the
frame connections 1,9,14 and 22 and out-of-plane lateral forces are introduced
in the three-dimensional structure SCAFFOLD.
B.3. 2 Analysis of Top Ledger Loading for Planeframes
The Steel Shoring and Scaffolding Institute (SSSI) and the scaffolding
manufacturers had determined the ultimate capacity of 'tubular frame' tower
assemblies by concentrically loading the frame column legs until buckling
occurred (see chapter 3). Unless the scaffold tower is used as shoring or
falsework, this loading scheme does not represent the manner in which scaf-
fold systems are normally loaded. Instead, load carrying platforms bring
uniformly distributed or pattern type loads onto the top frame ledger (ele-
ments 24-26, 29 of Figure B.l). Information in the SSSI studies revealed
that the ledger loading scheme could result in a capacity reduction of as high
as 44 percent compared with column loading. Therefore, a planeframe finite
element analysis is performed to assess the effects of both loading schemes.
B-4
For comparison, the frames are subjected to a total load of 8.9kN (2 kip),
either concentrated at the columns or uniformly distributed along the top
ledger (see Figures B.4 through B.6). The exaggerated deflections of the
frames subjected to each loading are shown in the same figures. Although no
scale is used, the deflected shapes are relative to each other and indicate
the overall displacement mode.
As expected, most of the applied column loads were transferred directly to

the supports modeled as pinned connections. However, ledger loading intro-
duces true frame bending action. Many of the intermediate elements are
required to transfer significant forces. Horizontal reactions developed at
the supports are considerably larger for the ledger loading. These reactions
will often be transferred to adjoining frames and not necessarily to founda-
tions. It is interesting to note the order of magnitude by which the 'step-
type frame' sidesways under the ledger loading due to the nonsymmetrical
geometry (see Figure B.6). Further investigation of this behavior is recom-
mended since it may prove to be advantageous to alternate the ladder side
when vertically stacking these frames. However, any tradeoff with accessway
safety must first be studied.
B.3.3 Analysis of a Scaffold Tower for Anchor and Foundation Effects
For the system described above and shown in Figure B.7, a model analysis is
performed. The purpose of this analysis is to demonstrate an approach for
modeling an assembled scaffolding system using finite element analysis and
to gain insight on the overall response of the system modeled under various
loading and support conditions.
Two live loading conditions are used in conjunction with the system dead
loads. The first consisted of uniformly distributed ledger loads of 2.6
N/mm (14.6 lb/ in) on the top three frames. These loads are based on the
OSHA specified 2.4 kN/m^ (50 psf) maximum platform loading and represent the
resulting reactions transferred to the support system. The second loading
condition consisted of a 12.8 N/mm (73.5 lb/in) uniformly distributed load
along one half of the top ledgers. This loading condition represents the
pattern determined from the initial field studies as well as its location
on the platforms.
For both loading conditions, spring elements are used to model the anchor-
ages at nodes 73 and 77 (see Figure B.7). The anchor locations are based
on the OSHA requirements for "ties" at vertical spacings of 8 m (26 ft) and
horizontal spacings of 9 m (30 ft) for the 'tubular frame' system. Although
the model studied is only 4.2 m (14 ft) wide, two anchors are employed.
Two-dimensional spring elements are used to model the anchorages.
The final parameter investigated addresses the foundation constraints. The

field study has shown that numerous foundation conditions encountered with
the tubular frame' scaffold are not representative of pinned or fixed conditions.
'
Often, base plates are not used and the open-ended tubular columns rest
directly on planks, soft earth, concrete floors, etc. A common condition
encountered is mudsills or planks with the supporting earth partially or
completely washed out.
B-5
.
Under these conditions, the support is capable of rotating as well as trans-

lating with varying degrees of resistance. Therefore, rather than model the
supports as pinned or fixed, stiff spring elements are placed in the x-y-z
directions at four of the six supports (see Figure B.7). Two supports, nodes
2 and 6, are left totally unrestrained to represent the condition of com-
plete foundation wash-out. Absolute (rigid) constraints are not not employed
because the scaffold foundations studied are incapable of such behavior.
That is, if a foundation were to wash out or settle appreciably, the scaffold-
ing column leg, base plate or screw jack would not be forced to displace by
an equivalent amount because a fixed mechanism does not exist.
Figure B.7 and B.ll depict the scaffolding models subjected to the two loading
conditions. The support reactions and the forces developed in the anchorages
are shown in Table B.l. For the field loading case, the forces developed
in the anchorages were about three times greater than those developed under
the OSHA allowable loads, .8 kN versus .3 kN (176 versus 57 lb). In addition,
the support reactions are considerably larger for the field loading case and
therefore the individual system support elements function differently. Fig-
ures B.8-B.10 and B.12-B.14 show selected portions of the scaffolding system
and the representative axial forces developed in each member for both loading
cases
Figures B.8 and B.12 show the axial forces developed in the bottom two outside
frames (elements 1 and 9) for each loading condition. Both frames developed
equivalent forces due to symmetry about the central frames. The overall ten-
sion and compression behavior is similar for both loading cases; however,
the order of magnitude and distribution of forces is quite different. Fig-
ures B.9 and B.13 show the axial forces developed in the bottom center frame
(element 5) for both loading conditions. Once again, the general behavior
of each frame is similar but the magnitude of the forces is quite different.
Figures B.10 and B.14 show the axial forces in the plane truss cross-bracing
members for those members in the plane containing nodes 2-6-78 of structure
SCAFFOLD. Only these members are shown because they are the most critically
loaded, being above the unsupported foundations 2 and 6. The compression and
tension patterns are the same for both loading cases and the magnitude is
larger for the second loading case. The compression and tension behavior of
the cross-bracing is a result of nodes 2 and 6 settling and forcing the cross-
bracings (sloped down toward the center) to undergo compression. The nodal
displacements for the top and bottom nodes are shown in the same figures. The
exaggerated deflected shapes of the outside column legs represent the same
mode shapes portrayed in the SSSI tests (see chapter 3) at the time of failure.
B-6
B .4 SUMMARY
The 'tubular frame' type scaffold (type 3 appendix A) is modeled using a

general purpose finite element program. Individual tubular frames are
modeled as plane frames subjected to concentrated column loads and uniformly
distributed ledger loads. The general displacement modes for each condition
are then compared. It is concluded that the two loading schemes cause
different structural behavior for each frame type studied and this behavior
warrants further investigation.
An assembled 'tubular frame' system, 4 tiers high and 2 bays wide, is modeled
under OSIIA specified loads and actual field loads. Foundation and anchorage
parameters are modeled for both loading cases. The overall performance of
the systems is discussed by graphically displaying critical axial forces and
certain deflected mode shapes.
The analysis performed on the 'tubular frame' scaffold served the purpose of
demonstrating an approach by which these systems could be analyzed. Also,
insight was gained on the overall response of the system modeled under various
parameters. It is intended that the approach presented here be carried out
in more detail in future analytical scaffolding research efforts.
B-7
FIGURES AND TABLES
B-8
1.5 m |5 ft)
colio
Ico
to
CD
E
GO
CTJ
T-1 : 41 .3 mm O.D., 2.4 mm ga

T-2: 25.4 mm O.D., 21 mm ga
1 22
Figure B.l Open-ended tubular frame scaffold structure

'bent' with 24 nodes and 31 elements.
B-9
mm
51
—
<
<
mm
387
ft)
(5 @
m 3
1.5
-<
mm
311
Figure B.2 Step-type tubular frame scaffoid

frame with 17 nodes and 19 structure
elements.
B-10
STRUCTURE BENT-CONDENSED
Figure B.3 Statically condensed structure ’bent’ with 8

nodes and 1 element.
B-ll
4.45 kN 4.45 kN
(1 kip) (1 kip)
0.005
Figure B.A Structure 'bent* deflected shape under concen-

trated column loads.
B-12
5.8 N/mm (0.0334k/in)
Figure B.5 Structure 'bent' deflected shape under uniform

ledger load.
B-13
4.45 kN 4.45 kN
(1 kip) (1 kip)
5.8 N/mm
(0.0334 k/in)
* I I l
1
LOADING I LOADING II
5 6 7
Figure B.6 Structure ’frame’ deflected shapes under concen-

trated column and uniform ledger loads.
B-14
Y
W2 = 5.1 N/mm = 29.2 Ib/in
W} = 2.6 N/mm = 14.6 Ib/in
STRUCTURE SCAFFOLD
Figure B.7 Structure ’scaffold’ with 78 nodes and 44 elements

2
under OSHA specified 2.4 kN/m (50 psf) loading.
B-15
Structure Scaffold OSH A Loading
Element 1 and 9 Axial forces (lb)
Figure B.8 Axial forces in elements 1 and 9 of structure 'scaf-

fold' under OSHA specified loads.
B-7 6
Structure Scaffold OSHA Loading
Element 5 Axial forces (lb)
Figure B.9 Axial forces in element 5 of structure 'scaffold'

under OSHA specified loads.
B-17
Structure Scaffold OSHA Loading
Cross Bracing Forces (lb)
Figure B.10 Structure 'scaffold* cross-bracing forces and

deflected shape for OSHA specified loads.
B-18
Y
^Z
= 25.7 N/mm = 147 Ib/in
= 12.8 N/mm = 73.5 Ib/in
STRUCTURE SCAFFOLD
Figure B . 1 1 Structure ’scaffold' with 78 nodes and 44 elements

under field loading conditions.
B-19
Structure Scaffold Field Loading
Element 1 and 9 Axial forces (lb)
Figure B .12 Axial forces in elements 1 and 9 of structure

'scaffold' under field loads.
B-20
Element 5 Axial forces (lb)
Figure B.13 Axial forces in element 5 of structure

scaffold under field loads.
B-21
225
.315" .315"
1 lb = 4.45 N 1 in = 25.4 mm

Cross Bracing Forces (lb)
Figure B.14 Structure scaffold cross-bracing forces

and deflected shape for field
loads.
B-22
OS HA LOADING FIELD LOADING
Force lb* Force lb

Node x y z X y z
1 57 848 1 174 1565 .4
2 - - - -
3 8 922 17 1139
4 -8 1458 -17 5127
5 57 848 -1 174 1565 -.4
6 - - - -
73 -57 - -174 -
77 -57 — — -174
* 1 lb f = 4.45 N
Table B.l Foundation and anchor reaction forces

for both loading cases.
B-23
B.5 References
1. Lopez, L.A., FINITE: An Approach to Structural Mechanics Systems,

International Journal of Numerical Methods in Engineering, v. 11, n. 5,
1977.
2. Dodds, R.H., Numerical and Software Requirements for General Nonlinear

Finite Element Analysis, Civil Engineering Studies, SRS n. 454,
,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1978.
3. Lopez, L.A., POLO-Problem Oriented Language Organizer, International

Journal of Computers and Structures, v. 2, n. 4, 1974.
B-24
NBS-114A (REV. 9-7*1
U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. 1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. X§acip>erif* Accession No.

m\
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA -
SHEET NBSIR 812265

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. Publication Date
May 1981
Review of Technical Information on Scaffolds
6 . Performing Organization Code
7. AUTHOR(S) 8. Performing Organ. Report No.
B. J. Hunt and S. G. Fattal

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. Project/Task /Work Unit No.
•
'
.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 11. Contract/Grant No.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
WASHINGTON, DC 20234
12. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street, City, st*t e , ZIP) 13. Type of Report & Period Covered
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Washington, D.C. 20234
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
| |
Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.
16. ABSTRACT
(A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or
literature survey, mention it here.)
This report presents a review of the available literature on scaffolds and is

the third of several inter-related studies of a scaffolding research program at the
National Bureau of Standards (NBS) This study was sponsored by the National.
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to improve scaffolding system
performance and reduce the work related injuries and losses.
A computerized search of the published literature was performed and technical

information that could serve to upgrade existing codes and standards for scaffolds
or offer direction to future analytical research has been presented. This information
concerned the design, erection, operation or maintenance of scaffolding systems.
Appendix A presents the 22 types of scaffolds under study. In addition, U.S. scaffold
patent claims and the manufacturers’ literature was reviewed and discussed. Appendix
B presents selective model analyses of scaffolds.
17, KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order ; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name;
separated by semicolons)
Codes and standards; construction safety; design; finite element; loads; scaffolds;
stability; stiffness; strength; structural safety; work surfaces.
18. AVAILABILITY [^} Unlimited 19. SECURITY CLASS 21.NO. OF

(THIS REPORT) PRINTED PAGES
For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

| |
UNCLASSIFIED 102
20. SECURITY CLASS 22. Price
I 1 Order From Sup. of Doc., U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC (THIS PAGE)
20402, SD Stock No. SN003-003-
$ 11.00
pyl Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield,
UNCLASSIFIED
VA. 22161
USCOMM-DC
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NATL INST. OF STAND & TECH R.I.C.

Review of Technical Information

Structures and Materials Division

National Institute for occupational Safety and Health

Structures and Materials Division

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

This report presents a review of the available literature on scaffolds and is

Based on a computerized search of the published literature, technical infor-

Keywords: codes and standards; construction safety; design; finite element;

2. LONG-RANGE SCAFFOLDING RESEARCH PROGRAM 1

3. REVIEW OF THE SCAFFOLDING LITERATURE 3

4. SCAFFOLDING MANUFACTURERS’ LITERATURE 48

5. UNITED STATES SCAFFOLD PATENTS 51

APPENDIX A - 21 MAJOR TYPES OF SCAFFOLDS UNDER STUDY A-l

APPENDIX B - STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCTION SCAFFOLDING B-l

This report presents a review of the available technical literature on the

2. LONG-RANGE SCAFFOLDING RESEARCH PROGRAM

The National Bureau of Standards developed a comprehensive research program

A long-range research program was conceived and consists of the following

1. Review and analysis of scaffolding accident records. The causes of

2 . Review of existing scaffolding codes and standards. Provisions used in

3. Perform a technical review of scaffolding-related literature. Existing

4. Perform an in-field study of scaffolding systems currently in use to

5. Develop a full-scale experimental and analytical research plan to establish

6. Develop performance guidelines and standards for scaffolds to provide

2 .2 RECENT RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

3. REVIEW OF THE SCAFFOLDING LITERATURE

1. A scarcity of technical knowledge, and

2. A lack of transfer of technical knowledge, if existing, to the codes and

A comprehensive review of the scaffolding-related technical literature was

A computerized search of published literature on the subject of scaffolds

° COMPENDIX, Comprehensive Engineering Index, Inc.

The search identified over 500 publications concerning platforms, falsework

In addition, the following definitions, also introduced previously, are used:

Accessway - system which provides access to and from scaffolds

Anchor - component used for securing scaffold to foundation

Anchorage - same as anchor, assembly of anchors

Component - unit used in the assembly of scaffolding systems

Connection - component providing the means of attaching together

Element - component or structural unit other than a connec-

Foundation - everything providing support to the scaffold system

Platform - component(s) comprising the work surface of the

Safety devices - physical devices installed for the protection of

Structural - assembly of components serving a structural or load-

Subsystem - a system subassembly consisting of more than one

Support element - element of scaffold subsystem which supports the

System - assembly of components serving a specific function.

The following sections discuss the information found in the literature

The scaffolding platform consists of that component(s) comprising the work

According to the accident study [1] approximately 7 percent of all scaffold-

The literature search provided limited information on the design of platforms

No information could be found on design of platforms for specific application

3.2.2 Support System and Strength

An experimental approach by which a support system can be analyzed for strength

Basically, three types of assemblies were tested under selected loading

T-1: 41.3mm O.D., 2.4mm ga.

T.-2: 25.4mm O.D., 2.1 mm ga.

Figure 3.1 Welded fabricated tubular 1.5m by 1.5m