Factoring a Polynomial

Dennis Chen
MPP

We discuss how to factor multivariable polynomials by finding its roots and thinking about
symmetry, list some common factorizations, and discuss the Remainder Theorem.

1 Multivariable Polynomials
Denote some polynomial in terms of a1 , a2 , . . . , an as P (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ). Then Q(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )
is a factor of P if and only if it satisfies both of the following conditions:
F deg P ≥ deg Q.
F If Q(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = 0 then P (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = 0.
Also remember that if a polynomial is cyclic, its factors will be cyclic, and if it is symmetric,
its factors will be symmetric.
Example 1.1: a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc

Factorize a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc.

Solution
Note that a cubic is either unfactorable, factored into linears, or factored into a linear
and a quadratic. We start by noting the only possible linear root is a + b + c because of
the symmetry and the fact a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc is monic. Note that when a + b + c = 0,
a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = 0, so a + b + c = 0 is a root. Then note the quadratic root must
also be symmetric (perhaps the quadratic root can be factored). Knowing this, we know
the quadratic factor is something of the form x(a2 + b2 + c2 ) + y(ab + bc + ca). Since
a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc is monic, x = 1 and we also know that the coefficient of abc is 3y = −3,
so y = −1. So a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca). Now finish
by noting that a + b + c = 0 does not imply a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca = 0, so we cannot
further factorize.

This is a solution that goes into a fair amount of rigor to highlight the thought processes.
You don’t need to do this; just guess factors that seem like they’ll work and hope they do. (The
only "proof" you need for a factorization is "we can easily check it works," since this is true.)

2 Common Factorizations
Here’s a list of common (but non-obvious) factorizations you should know well:

1
 F a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca)
F Sophie Germain’s: a4 + 4b4 = (a2 + 2b2 − 2ab)(a2 + 2b2 + 2ab)
F b4 + b2 + 1 = (b2 − b + 1)(b2 + b + 1)

3 Remainder Theorem
The polynomial remainder theorem provides an easy and systematic method to find the remain-
der of a polynomial f (x) when divided by a linear equation x − r. Though the result itself is
rather low-power and obscure, the idea behind it (and the more powerful Generalized Remainder
Theorem) are very important tools when solving certain classes of algebra problems.
Theorem 3.1: Remainder Theorem

The Remainder Theorem states that for polynomial f (x), the remainder of f (x) divided
by x − r is f (r).

Proof: Splitting the Polynomial

Let f (x) = (x−r)p(x)+q. Clearly q is the remainder. Then notice f (r) = (r−r)p(x)+q =
q, as desired.

Of course, the method here can be generalized.

Theorem 3.2: Generalized Remainder Theorem

The Generalized Remainder Theorem states that for polynomial f (x), the remainder of
f (x) when divided by nth degree polynomial g(x) with roots r1 , r2 . . . rn is the (n − 1)th
degree polynomial p(x) that satisfies f (ri ) = p(ri ) for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Proof: Splitting the Polynomial

Let f (x) = g(x)p(x) + r(x). Then notice that for any ri , f (ri ) = g(ri )p(ri ) + r(ri ) = r(ri ).
(Notice that g(ri ) = 0 as ri is defined to be a root of g.)

Here’s an example of a generic remainder theorem problem.

Example 3.1: Roots of Unity

Prove that a − 1|an − 1.

Solution

The remainder of f (n) = an − 1 when divided by a − 1 is f (−(−1)) = f (1) = 1n − 1 = 0.

Now what about the general remainder theorem (where the divisor has a degree larger than
1)? In this case, we turn to factorizing the divisor and using the Chinese Remainder Theorem.

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Example 3.2: Non-monic Linear Divisor

What is the remainder of (x − 2)(x − 5)(x − 6) when divided by 2x + 4?

Solution: Chinese Remainder Theorem

We take (mod 2) and (mod x + 2). By Remainder Theorem, (x − 2)(x − 5)(x − 6) ≡

(−2−2)(−2−5)(−2−6) ≡ −224 (mod x+2), and (x−2)(x−5)(x−6) ≡ x2 (x−1) ≡ x3 −x2
(mod 2). Since −224 ≡ x3 + 2x2 − 3x2 − 6x − 224 ≡ x3 − x2 − 6x − 224 (mod x + 2)
and x3 − x2 ≡ x3 − x2 − 6x − 224 (mod 2), the remainder when divided by 2x + 4 is
x3 − x2 − 6x − 224.

3
4 Problems
Minimum is [40 Ò].

19993 −10003 −9993

[2 Ò] Problem 1 Find 1999·1000·999 .
[2 Ò] Problem 2 (PAMO 2003/3) Does there exists a base in which the numbers of the form:

10101, 101010101, 1010101010101, · · ·

are all prime numbers?

[2 Ò] Problem 3 Find all constants r such that a − r|ar2 + ar − 17a + 15.
[2 Ò] Problem 4 (AIME 1985/3) Find c if a, b, and c are positive integers which satisfy c =
(a + bi)3 − 107i, where i2 = −1.
[2 Ò] Problem 5 (AMC 10B 2020/22) What is the remainder when 2202 + 202 is divided by
2101 + 251 + 1?
[2 Ò] Problem 6 (AHSME 1969/34) Find the remainder when x100 is divided by x2 − 3x + 2.
[3 Ò] Problem 7 (e-dchen Mock MATHCOUNTS) For any ordered pair of integers (a, b) such
that a, b 6∈ {1, 2 . . . 8}, a 6= b, and the remainder of

f (x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) . . . (x − 8)

when divided by x − a and x − b are the same, find a + b.

[3 Ò] Problem 8 (AIME 1991/1) Find x2 + y 2 if x and y are positive integers such that

xy + x + y = 71

x2 y + xy 2 = 880.

[3 Ò] Problem 9 (AIME II 2011/5) The sum of the first 2011 terms of a geometric sequence is
200. The sum of the first 4022 terms is 380. Find the sum of the first 6033 terms.
[4 Ò] Problem 10 (AIME I 2015/3) There is a prime number p such that 16p + 1 is the cube of
a positive integer. Find p.
[4 Ò] Problem 11 (AIME 1987/14) Compute

(104 + 324)(224 + 324)(344 + 324)(464 + 324)(584 + 324)

.
(44 + 324)(164 + 324)(284 + 324)(404 + 324)(524 + 324)

[4 Ò] Problem 12 Consider cubic p(x) such that p(1) = 1, p(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 0. Find
p(5).
[4 Ò] Problem 13 What is the remainder of 177 + 172 + 1 when divided by 3072 ?
[6 Ò] Problem 14 (AIME I√2013/5) The real root of the equation 8x3 − 3x2 − 3x − 1 = 0 can
√
3 3
a+ b+1
be written in the form c , where a, b, and c are positive integers. Find a + b + c.

4
[9 Ò] Problem 15 (AMC 10A 2019/24) Let p, q, and r be the distinct roots of the polynomial
x3 − 22x2 + 80x − 67. It is given that there exist real numbers A, B, and C such that
1 A B C
= + +
s3 − 22s2 + 80s − 67 s−p s−q s−r
1 1 1
for all s 6∈ {p, q, r}. What is A + B + C?

[13 Ò] Problem 16 (AIME 1988/13) Find a if a and b are integers such that x2 − x − 1 is a
factor of ax17 + bx16 + 1.
[13 Ò] Problem 17 (AIME II 2000/13) The√equation 2000x6 + 100x5 + 10x3 + x − 2 = 0 has
exactly two real roots, one of which is m+r n , where m, n and r are integers, m and r are
relatively prime, and r > 0. Find m + n + r.