Control Engineering -10ME82 2018

MODULE - 2
MATHEMATICAL MODELS

LESSON STRUCTURE:
2.1. Modeling of Control Systems
2.2. Modeling of Mechanical Systems
2.3. Mathematical Modeling of Electrical System
2.4. Force Voltage Analogy
2.5. Force Current Analogy
2.6. Transfer Functions definition
2.7. Block Diagram:
2.8. Signal Flow Graphs
2.9. Mason’s Gain Formula

OBJECTIVES:
 To develop mathematical model for the mechanical, electrical, servo mechanism and
hydraulic systems.
 To teach students the concepts of block diagrams and transfer functions.
 To teach students the concepts of Signal flow graph.

2.1. Modeling of Control Systems:

The first step in the design and the analysis of control system is to build physical and mathematical
models. A control system being a collection of several physical systems (sub systems) which may be
of mechanical, electrical electronic, thermal, hydraulic or pneumatic type. No physical system can
be represented in its full intricacies. Idealizing assumptions are always made for the purpose of
analysis and synthesis. An idealized representation of physical system is called a Physical Model.

Control systems being dynamic systems in nature require a quantitative mathematical

description of the system for analysis. This process of obtaining the desired mathematical
description of the system is called Mathematical Modeling.

In Unit 1, we have learnt the basic concepts of control systems such as open loop and feedback
control systems, different types of Control systems like regulator systems, follow-up systems and
servo mechanisms. We have also discussed a few simple applications. In this chapter we learn the
concepts of modeling.
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The requirements demanded by every control system are many and depend on the system
under consideration. Major requirements are 1) Stability 2) Accuracy and 3) Speed of Response. An
ideal control system would be stable, would provide absolute accuracy (maintain zero error despite
disturbances) and would respond instantaneously to a change in the reference variable. Such a
system cannot, of course, be produced. However, study of automatic control system theory would
provide the insight necessary to make the most effective compromises so that the engineer can
design the best possible system. One of the important steps in the study of control systems is
modeling. Following section presents modeling aspects of various systems that find application in
control engineering.

The basic models of dynamic physical systems are differential equations obtained by the
application of appropriate laws of nature. Having obtained the differential equations and where
possible the numerical values of parameters, one can proceed with the analysis. When the
mathematical model of a physical system is solved for various input conditions, the results represent
the dynamic response of the system. The mathematical model of a system is linear, if it obeys the
principle of superposition and homogeneity.

A mathematical model is linear, if the differential equation describing it has coefficients,

which are either functions of the independent variable or are constants. If the coefficients of the
describing differential equations are functions of time (the independent variable), then the
mathematical model is linear time-varying. On the other hand, if the coefficients of the describing
differential equations are constants, the model is linear time-invariant. Powerful mathematical tools
like the Fourier and Laplace transformations are available for use in linear systems. Unfortunately
no physical system in nature is perfectly linear. Therefore certain assumptions must always be made
to get a linear model.

Usually control systems are complex. As a first approximation a simplified model is built to
get a general feeling for the solution. However, improved model which can give better accuracy can
then be obtained for a complete analysis. Compromise has to be made between simplicity of the
model and accuracy. It is difficult to consider all the details for mathematical analysis. Only most
important features are considered to predict behavior of the system under specified conditions. A
more complete model may be then built for complete analysis.

2.2. Modeling of Mechanical Systems:

Mechanical systems can be idealized as spring- mass-damper systems and the governing
differential equations can be obtained on the basis of Newton’s second law of motion, which states
that
F = ma: for rectilinear motion

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where F: Force, m: mass and a: acceleration (with consistent units)

T = I α: or Jα for rotary motion

where T: Torque, I or J: moment of inertia and α: angular acceleration (with consistent units)

Mass / inertia and the springs are the energy storage elements where in energy can be stored
and retrieved without loss and hence referred as conservative elements. Damper represents the
energy loss (energy absorption) in the system and hence is referred as dissipative element.
Depending upon the choice of variables and the coordinate system, a given physical model may lead
to different mathematical models. The minimum number of independent coordinates required to
determine completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time defines the degrees
of freedom (DOF) of the system. A large number of practical systems can be described using a finite
number of degrees of freedom and are referred as discrete or lumped parameter systems. Some
systems, especially those involving continuous elastic members, have an infinite number of degrees
of freedom and are referred as continuous or distributed systems. Most of the time, continuous
systems are approximated as discrete systems, and solutions are obtained in a simpler manner.
Although treatment of a system as continuous gives exact results, the analysis methods available for
dealing with continuous systems are limited to a narrow selection of problems. Hence most of the
practical systems are studied by treating them as finite lumped masses, springs and dampers. In
general, more accurate results are obtained by increasing the number of masses, springs and
dampers-that is, by increasing the number of degrees of freedom.

Mechanical systems can be of two types:

1) Translation Systems
2) Rotational Systems.

The variables that described the motion are displacement, velocity and acceleration.

And also we have three parameters-

 Mass which is represented by ‘M’.

 Coefficient of viscous friction which is represented by ‘B’.
 Spring constant which is represented by ‘K’.

In rotational mechanical type of systems we have three variables-

 Torque which is represented by ‘T’.

 Angular velocity which is represented by ‘ω’
 Angular displacement represented by ‘θ’

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Now let us consider the linear displacement mechanical system which is shown below-

spring mass mechanical system

We have already marked various variables in the diagram itself. We have x is the displacement as
shown in the diagram. From the Newton’s second law of motion, we can write force as

From the diagram we can see that the,

F = F1+F2+F3

On substituting the values of F1, F2 and F3 in the above equation and taking the Laplace transform
we have the transfer function as,

2.3. Mathematical Modeling of Electrical System:

In electrical type of systems we have three variables -

 Voltage which is represented by ‘V’.

 Current which is represented by ‘I’.
 Charge which is represented by ‘Q’.
And also we have three parameters which are active and passive elements –
 Resistance which is represented by ‘R’.
 Capacitance which is represented by ‘C’.
 Inductance which is represented by ‘L’.
Now we are in condition to derive analogy between electrical and mechanical types of
systems. There are two types of analogies and they are written below:

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2.4. Force Voltage Analogy :

In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider a circuit which consists of series
combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor.

A voltage V is connected in series with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram. Now
from the circuit diagram and with the help of KVL equation we write the expression for voltage in
terms of charge, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that-

1. Mass (M) is analogous to inductance (L).

2. Force is analogous to voltage V.
3. Displacement (x) is analogous to charge (Q).
4. Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance R and
5. Spring constant is analogous to inverse of the capacitor (C).

This analogy is known as force voltage analogy.

2.5. Force Current Analogy :

In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider a circuit which consists of parallel
combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor.

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A voltage E is connected in parallel with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram.
Now from the circuit diagram and with the help of KCL equation we write the expression for current
in terms of flux, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that,

1. Mass (M) is analogous to Capacitor (C).

2. Force is analogous to current I.
3. Displacement (x) is analogous to flux (ψ).
4. Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance 1/ R and
5. Spring constant K is analogous to inverse of the inductor (L).
This analogy is known as force current analogy.

2.6. Transfer Functions definition

The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ration of the Laplace transform of
the output variable to Laplace transform of the input variable assuming all initial conditions to be
zero.

2.7. Block Diagram:

A control system may consist of a number of components. In order to show the functions
performed by each component in control engineering, we commonly use a diagram called the
Block Diagram.

A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the function performed by

each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the inter-relationships which

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exists between the various components. A block diagram has the advantage of indicating more
realistically the signal flows of the actual system.

In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional
blocks. The ―Functional Block or simply ―Block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on
the input signal to the block which produces the output. The transfer functions of the components
are usually entered in the corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the
direction of flow of signals. Note that signal can pass only in the direction of arrows. Thus a
block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a unilateral property.

Block diagram of a closed loop system.

The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with reference
input R(s). The closed loop nature is indicated in fig1.3. Any linear system may be represented
by a block diagram consisting of blocks, summing points and branch points. A branch is the
point from which the output signal from a block diagram goes concurrently to other blocks or
summing points.

When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is
necessary to convert the form of output signal to that of he input signal. This conversion is
followed by the feedback element whose transfer function is H(s) as shown in fig 1.4. Another
important role of the feedback element is to modify the output before it is compared with the
input.
The ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the open loop
transfer function.
Open loop transfer function = B(s)/E(s) = G(s)H(s)
The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the feed forward
transfer function.
Feed forward transfer function = C(s)/E(s) = G(s)
If the feedback transfer function is unity, then the open loop and feed forward transfer
function are the same. For the system shown in Fig1.4, the output C(s) and input R(s) are related

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as follows.
C(s) = G(s) E(s)
E(s) = R(s) - B(s)
= R(s) - H(s) C(s)
But B(s) = H(s) C(s)
Eliminating E(s) from these equations
C(s) = G(s) [R(s) - H(s) C(s)]
C(s) + G(s) [H(s) C(s)] = G(s) R(s)
C(s)[1 + G(s)H(s)] = G(s)R(s)

C(s) G(s)
=
R(s) 1 + G(s) H(s)
C(s)/R(s) is called the closed loop transfer function.

The output of the closed loop system clearly depends on both the closed loop transfer
function and the nature of the input. If the feedback signal is positive, then
C(s) G(s)
=
R(s) 1 - G(s) H(s)

2.8. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

An alternate to block diagram is the signal flow graph due to S. J. Mason. A signal flow
graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. Each signal
flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by directed branches. Each node
represents a system variable, and each branch acts as a signal multiplier. The signal flows in
the direction indicated by the arrow.

Definitions:

Node: A node is a point representing a variable or signal.

Branch: A branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes.
Transmittance: It is the gain between two nodes.
Input node: A node that has only outgoing branches. It is also, called as source and corresponds

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to independent variable.
Output node: A node that has only incoming branches. This is also called as sink and
Corresponds to dependent variable.
Mixed node: A node that has incoming and outgoing branches.
Path: A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch arrow.
Loop: A loop is a closed path.
Self loop: It is a feedback loop consisting of single branch.
Loop gain: The loop gain is the product of branch transmittances of the loop.
Non-touching loops: Loops that do not possess a common node.
Forward path: A path from source to sink without traversing an node more than once.
Feedback path: A path which originates and terminates at the same node.
Forward path gain: Product of branch transmittances of a forward path.

Properties of Signal Flow Graphs:

1. Signal flow applies only to linear systems.
2. The equations based on which a signal flow graph is drawn must be algebraic equations
in the form of effects as a function of causes. Nodes
are used to represent variables. Normally the nodes are arranged left to right,
following a succession of causes and effects through the system.
3. Signals travel along the branches only in the direction described by the arrows of the
branches.
4. The branch directing from node Xk to Xj represents dependence of the variable Xj on Xk
but not the reverse.
5. The signal traveling along the branch Xk and Xj is multiplied by branch gain akj and
signal akjXk is delivered at node Xj.

Guidelines to Construct the Signal Flow Graphs:

The signal flow graph of a system is constructed from its describing equations, or by
direct reference to block diagram of the system. Each variable of the block diagram becomes a
node and each block becomes a branch. The general procedure is

1. Arrange the input to output nodes from left to right.

2. Connect the nodes by appropriate branches.
3. If the desired output node has outgoing branches, add a dummy node and a unity
gain branch.
4. Rearrange the nodes and/or loops in the graph to achieve pictorial clarity.

2.9. Mason’s Gain Formula:

The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow graph is

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given by the net gain between input and output nodes and is known as overall gain of the system.
Masons gain formula is used to obtain the overall gain (transfer function) of signal flow graphs.

Gain P is given by

P 
1
P 
 kk k

Where, Pk is gain of kth forward path,

∆ is determinant of graph

∆=1-(sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible combinations
of two non touching loops – sum of gain products of all possible combination of three
non touching loops) + ∙∙∙

∆k is cofactor of kth forward path determinant of graph with loops touching kth forward path. It
isobtained from ∆ by removing the loops touching the path Pk.

Example 1
Obtain the transfer function of C/R of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in Figure

G2

G1 1 C
R 1

-G3

G4

Solution:

There are two forward paths:

Gain of path 1 : P1=G1
Gain of path 2 : P2=G2

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There are four loops with loop gains:

L1=-G1G3, L2=G1G4, L3= -G2G3, L4= G2G4
There are no non-touching loops.
∆ = 1+G1G3-G1G4+G2G3-G2G4
Forward paths 1 and 2 touch all the loops. Therefore, ∆1 = 1, ∆2= 1
Cs  P11 P2  2 G1 G2
 
The transfer function T = Rs  1 G G  G G  G G  G G
1 3 1 4 2 3 2 4

Example 2
Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in
Figure

-H2
R(s) G2 C(s)
1 1 G1 G3 1

H1
-1

There is one forward path, whose gain is: P1=G1G2G3

There are three loops with loop gains:
L1=-G1G2H1,
L2=G2G3H2,
L3= -G1G2G3
There are no non-touching loops.
∆ = 1-G1G2H1+G2G3H2+G1G2G3
Forward path 1 touches all the loops. Therefore, ∆1= 1.
Cs  P11 
The transfer function T = 
Rs  

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OUTCOMES:
At the end of the unit, the students are able to:

 Mathematical modeling of mechanical, electrical, servo mechanism and hydraulic systems.

 To find Transfer function of a system.
 Calculate the gain of the system using block diagram and signal flow graph and to illustrate
the response of systems.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS:
1. What mathematical model permits easy interconnection of physical systems?

2. Define the transfer function.

3. What are the component parts of the mechanical constants of a motor‘s transfer function?
4. Derive the transfer function of a Spring - Mass-Damper – system.
5. Differentiate between FI and FV analogy.
6. Obtain Transfer function of Armature controlled DC motor.
7. Derive transfer function for the Electrical system shown in Figure below.

8. Differentiate between Block diagram and Signal flow graph techniques.

9. Explain the rules for constructing Signal flow graph.
10. Reduce the block diagram shown in Figure 1, to its simplest possible form and find its
closed loop transfer function.

Figure 1

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11. Find C(S)/R(S) for the following system using Mason’s gain rule shown in figure 2.

Figure 2

FURTHER READING:

1. Control engineering, Swarnakiran S, Sunstar publisher, 2018.

2. Feedback Control System, Schaum’s series. 2001.

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