BBCQ121D - Business Mathematics PDF

(c) UNIT 20: Case Study
UP
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Business Mathematics
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Course Design
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Advisory Council
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Chairman
Dr Parag Diwan
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Members
Dr Kamal Bansal Dr Anirban Sengupta Dr Ashish Bhardwaj
Dean Dean CIO
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Dr Satya Sheel Dr Sanjay Mittal Mr M K Goel
VP – Academic Affairs Professor – IIT Kanpur Management Consultant
SLM Development Team

Wg Cdr P K Gupta
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Dr Joji Rao
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Dr Neeraj Anand
Dr K K Pandey
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Print Production
Mr Kapil Mehra Mr A N Sinha

Manager – Material Sr Manager – Printing
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Author
R S Bhardwaj
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All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from Hydrocarbon Education Research & Society.
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UP
Course Code: BBCQ-121D
Course Name: Business Mathematics

(c)
Version: July 2013
© MPower Applied Learning Enterprise

UNIT 20: Case Study
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Contents
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Block-I
Unit 1 Number System ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 3
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Unit 2 Factorisation ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 15
Unit 3 Theory of Equations................................ ................................ ................................ .... 25
Unit 4 Solutions of Linear and Quadratic Equations ................................ ........................... 37
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Unit 5 Case Studies................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 51
Unit 6
Block-II pro
Matrices ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 55
Unit 7 Determinants ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 77
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Unit 8 Arithmetic Progression................................ ................................ ............................. 115
Unit 9 Geometric Progression................................ ................................ .............................. 131
Unit 10 Case Studies................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 147
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Block-III
Unit 11 Permutations ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 153

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Unit 12 Combinations ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 167

Unit 13 Ratio and Proportions................................ ................................ ............................... 175
Unit 14 Variations................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 191
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Block-IV
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Unit 16 Shares and Stock ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 205

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Unit 17 Interest and Annuities................................ ................................ .............................. 219

Unit 18 Differential Calculus................................ ................................ ................................ . 241
Unit 19 Composite and Implicit Functions ................................ ................................ ........... 263
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Block-V
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Unit 21 Parametric Functions ................................ ................................ ............................... 287
Unit 22 Applications of Derivatives................................ ................................ ....................... 303
Unit 23 Integral Calculus ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 319
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Unit 24 Definite Integrals................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 341
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Glossary................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 357
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UNIT 1: Number System
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Notes
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BLOCK-I
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Detailed Contents
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Notes
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UNIT 1: NUMBER SYSTEM
___________________ UNIT 3: THEORY OF EQUATIONS
 Introduction  Introduction
___________________
 Properties of Natural Numbers  Linear and Quadratic Equations
___________________
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 Real Numbers  Solutions of Linear and Quadratic Equations
___________________
 Imaginary Numbers (or Complex Numbers)
___________________ UNIT 4: SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR AND
 Prime Numbers and Composite Numbers QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
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___________________
 Introduction
UNIT 2: FACTORISATION
___________________  Solution of a System of Linear Equations in Two
 Introduction
___________________ Variables
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 Concept of Factorisation
___________________ UNIT 5: CASE STUDIES
 Highest Common Factor (HCF)
___________________
 Least Common Multiple (LCM)
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Notes
Activity
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___________________
Discuss in group and
Number System differentiate natural number
from___________________
whole numbers.
___________________
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Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
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 Natural Numbers ___________________
 Properties of Natural Numbers ___________________
 Real Numbers
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___________________
 Complex Numbers
___________________
___________________
Introduction
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In olden days there were no methods of counting the objects. Hence
the counting numbers were invented which are called natural
numbers. These are denoted by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .........The set of these
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numbers is called the set of natural numbers and is denoted by N.
 N  {1, 2, 3, 4,............}. ...(1)
There are infinity of natural numbers and hence N is an infinite

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set.
For the study of any branch of mathematics, it is very essential to
know the basic concepts of mathematics. In this unit we shall
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understand them so that the foundation for higher studies in

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mathematics will be strong.
Properties of Natural Numbers

Set N  {1, 2, 3,.......} be the set of natural numbers.
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1. Closure law:  a, b  N , a  b  N and a  b  N .

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2. Associative law:  a, b, c  N , ( a  b)  c  a  (b  c )
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( ab) c  a(bc )
3. Distributive law:  a, b, c  N ,
a  (b  c )  a  b  a  c
(c)
( a  b)  c  a  c  b  c
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4. Commutative Law:  a, b  N , a  b  b  a and a  b  b  a
Notes
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___________________ 5. Identity Law:  a  N
___________________ 1a  a  1  a
___________________
1 is called the multiplicative identity.
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___________________
To this set N a number 0 is included with a property that
___________________ a  0  0  a  a  a  N . 0 is called the zero or additive identity.
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___________________ The set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,...........} is called the set of whole numbers and
___________________ is denoted by W.
___________________  W  {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,..............} .....(2)
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___________________ Only with the set W it is not possible to find a value of x satisfying
___________________ an equation of the form x  2  0.
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 to this set W, the numbers 1,  2,  3,  4, ....... are added.
These numbers are called negative integers. 1, 2, 3, 4........ are
called positive integers.
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Note: 0 is neither +ve nor -ve.
The set of all positive integers, negative integers together with 0 is
called the set of all integers and is denoted by I or Z.
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 I or Z  {........  4,  3,  2,  1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4......} ...(3)
1, 3, 5, ........ are called odd integers and 2, 4, 6, .......... are called

even integers.
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With the help of only the set Z, it is not possible to find a value of x
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satisfying the equation 2x  3  0.
Hence the set Z was expanded to include such numbers also. These
numbers are called rational numbers.
p
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Definition: A number of the form where p and q are integers,

q
q  0 and p and q have no other common factors except 1, is called
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a rational number. The set of all rational numbers is denoted by Q.

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p 
 : p, q  z , q  0 and p, q have 
 Q  q  ...(4)
no other common factors except 1
 
(c)
Note: All integers are also rational numbers.

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With this set Q alone, it is not possible to find a value of x
Notes
satisfying an equation of the form x 2  2  0. Hence to this set Q
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3 ___________________
the numbers like 2, 4, 5 7 etc., were included which are called
irrational numbers. ___________________
___________________
A number which is not a rational number is called an irrational
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number. ___________________
A number which can be expressed either as a terminating decimal ___________________
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or as a non-terminating periodic (or recurring) decimal is called a ___________________
rational number.
___________________
1
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For example,  0.5 ___________________
2
___________________
1
 0.3333........... ___________________
3
1
 0.142857142857142857...................
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7
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A number which can neither be expressed as a terminating
decimal nor as a non-terminating periodic decimal is called an
irrational number.
3 5
For example, 2, 4, 7 etc.
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Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
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1. The set of all positive integers, negative integers

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together with 0 is called the set of all .....................

2. All counting numbers are called ..................... numbers.
Real Numbers
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The set of all rational numbers and irrational numbers is called

the set of real numbers and is denoted by R.
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 R  {the set of rationals and irrationals} ...(5)

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R is the biggest real set.
Properties of Real Numbers

(c)
Let R be the set of all real numbers.

1. Closure law:  a, b  R, a  b  R and ab  R
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2. Associative law:  a, b, c  R ( a  b)  c  a  (b  c )
Notes
Activity
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Make ___________________
a chart of additive as ( ab) c  a(bc )
well as multiplicative inverse
___________________
of first 5 prime numbers. 3. Distributive law:  a, b, c  R,
___________________
a  (b  c )  a  b  a  c
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___________________
( a  b)  c  a  c  b  c
___________________
4. Commutative law:  a  R
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___________________
___________________ a b ba and

___________________ ab  ba
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___________________ 5. Identity law:  a  R,
___________________
a0  0  a a
a 1  1  a  a
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0 is called the additive identity and 1 is called the

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multiplicative identity.
6. Inverse law: aR there exists a R such that
a  ( a )  ( a )  a  0. a is called the additive inverse of a
for
1 1  1 
 a  0  R there exists  R such that a      a  1.
a a a
1
is called the multiplicative inverse of a.
a
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Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The set of all rational numbers and irrational numbers
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is called the set of ...................... numbers and is denoted

by ......................
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2. The multiplicative inverse of a is ......................

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Imaginary Numbers (or Complex Numbers)

Now with the help of only the set of real numbers R, it is not
possible to find a value of x satisfying an equation of the form
(c)
x 2  4  0. The numbers which satisfy such equations are called

imaginary numbers or complex numbers.
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1 is called an imaginary unit and is denoted by i.
Notes
Activity
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 i  1 ___________________
Discuss in group to know the
difference between real
 i 2  1, i3  i, i 4  1, i5  i etc., ___________________
number and complex numbers
giving suitable examples of
each.___________________
An imaginary number (a complex number) is represented by a  ib
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where a and b are real numbers and ‘i’ is the imaginary unit. ___________________
Note: All real numbers are complex numbers since any real ___________________
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number x can be represented as x  0 i. ___________________
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C. ___________________
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___________________
___________________
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C  { a  ib : a, b  R and i  1 is the imaginary unit}
Check Your Progress

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Fill in the blanks:

1. Square root of –1 is called an .................... unit and is
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denoted by ....................
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2. An imaginary number (a complex number) is

represented by a .................... ib where a and b are real
numbers and .i. is the imaginary unit.
(c)
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Prime Numbers and Composite Numbers
Notes
Prime number: An integer p > 1 is said to be a prime number if
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___________________
the only positive divisors of p are 1 and itself.
___________________
E.g., 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, .................
___________________
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Composite number: An integer which is not a prime number is
___________________
called a composite number.
___________________
4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, .........................
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___________________
There are infinity of prime numbers and infinity of composite
___________________
numbers.
___________________
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Prime power factorisation: If any positive integer can be
___________________ expressed in the form.
___________________
p11 , p22 , p33 ............. pkk where p1 , p2 , p3 ,......... pk
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numbers and 1 ,  2 , 3 ,............ k are positive integers, then it is
called the prime power factorisation of the given integer.
prime
E.g: (i) 890

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2 890
5 445
89
for
 890  21  51  891
Here 2, 5, 89 are all prime numbers with powers 1.

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(ii) 18900
No
218900
2 9450
3 4725
5 1575
5 525
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5 175
5 35
7
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 18900  22  33  52  71.
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2, 3, 5, 7 are all prime numbers with powers 2, 3, 2, 1 respectively.
Worked Examples
(c)
1. What is a natural number? (or a positive integer)

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Solution: Any counting number is called a natural number.
Notes
1, 2, 3, 4, ................are natural numbers. Natural numbers are
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also called positive integers. ___________________
2. What is a whole number? ___________________
___________________
Solution: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ............. are called whole numbers.
on
___________________
3. What is a negative integer?
___________________
Solution: 1,  2,  3,  4,.......... are called negative integers.
cti
___________________
4. What is an integer?
___________________
Solution: The numbers ........................... 4,  3,  2,  1, 0, 1, 2,
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___________________
3, 4, .................... are called integers.
___________________
5. What is a rational number? ___________________
Solution: A number of the form

p
q
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where p and q are
integers, q  0 and p, q do not have any other common factors

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except 1, is called a rational number.
OR
A number which can be expressed either as a terminating
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decimal or as a non-terminating recurring (or periodic) decimal

is called a rational number.
1 1 2 4
E.g: , , , etc.
2 7 3 9
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6. What is an irrational number?

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Solution: A number which is not a rational number, is called

an irrational number.
OR
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A number which cannot be expressed as a terminating decimal

or as a non-terminating recurring (or periodic) decimal, is
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called an irrational number.

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3
E.g: 2, 5, 4 7 etc.
7. What is a real number?

Solution: All rational numbers and irrational numbers are
(c)
called real numbers.

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2 1 1
Notes E.g: 4, 10, , , , 2, 3 5, 4 7 etc.
3 2 7
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___________________
8. What is an imaginary number?
___________________
Solution: A number of the form a  ib where a and b are real
___________________
numbers and i  1 is an imaginary unit, is called an
on
___________________
imaginary (or complex) number.
___________________
E.g: i,  i, 1  i, 3  2i,  4  7i etc.
cti
___________________
___________________ 9. What is a prime number?
___________________ Solution: An integer p  1 is said to be a prime number if the
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___________________ only factors of p are 1 and p itself.
___________________ E.g: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, .............
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10. What is a composite number?
Solution: A number which is not a prime number is called a
composite number.
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E.g: 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12,................
11. Express the following rational numbers either as a
terminating decimal or as a non-terminating decimal or as a
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non-terminating periodic decimal:

1 1 4 7
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2 7 5 3
Solution:
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No
1
(1)  0.5
2
1
(2)  0.142857142857142857................
7
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4
(3)  0.8
5
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7
(4)  2.3333 ................
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3
12. Express the following decimals as a rational number in the
p
form .
q
(c)
(1) 0.527 (2) 2.74 (3) 41.7 (4) 128.93

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(5) 0.5555... (6) 7.123123123..........
Notes
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Solution
___________________
(1) 0.527
___________________
527 ___________________
=
on
1000
___________________
(2) 2.74
___________________
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274
= ___________________
100
___________________
137
= (dividing by 2)
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___________________
50
___________________
(3) 41.7
___________________
=
417
10
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(4) 128.93
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12893
=
100
(5) Let x = 0.5555..................
for
10x = 5.5555................... (multiplying by 10)

Subtracting, we get
9x  5
t
5
 x
No
5
 0.5555............ 
9
(6) Let x = 7.123123123................
S,
1000x = 7123.123123123.................(multiplying by 1000)

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Subtracting, we get
999x = 7116
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7116 2372
x  
999 333
(c)
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Notes
Check Your Progress
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
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___________________
Assign different no. to different
people and categorize them 1. A number which can be expressed either as a
as ___________________
natural, prime and
composite. terminating decimal or as a non-terminating recurring
___________________
(or periodic) decimal is called a ....................... number.
on
___________________
2. All rational numbers and irrational numbers are called
___________________ ....................... numbers.
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___________________
___________________ Summary
___________________
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In this unit we have discussed basic concepts of mathematics. The
___________________ concept and properties of natural number, integer, real numbers,
rational and imaginary numbers have been explained in detail.
___________________
Lesson End Activity

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Think of any ten numbers of your choice. Categorise them as
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natural, rational, real, prime etc.
Keywords
Composite Number: An integer which is not a prime number is
for
called a composite number.

Natural Numbers: Numbers denoted by 1,2,3,.........are known as
natural numbers.
t
Prime Number: In integer p>1 is said to be a prime number if the

No
only positive divisors of p are 1 and itself.

p
Rational Number: A number of form where p and q are
q
S,
integers, q  0 and p and q have no other common factors except 1,

is called a rational number.
E
Real Numbers: The set of all rational numbers and irrational

numbers is called the set of real numbers.
UP
Questions for Discussion

1. Discuss the various properties of natural number.
(c)
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2. Distinguish between terminating decimal and non-terminating
Notes
decimal. Give suitable examples.
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___________________
3. Write properties of real numbers.
___________________
Further Readings ___________________
on
___________________
Books
___________________
R S Bhardwaj, Mathematics for Economics and Business, Excel
cti
___________________
Books, New Delhi, 2005
___________________
D C Sanchethi and V K Kapoor, Business Mathematics
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___________________
Sivayya and Sathya Rao, An Introduction to Business Mathematics
___________________
Web Readings ___________________
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number
www.tridenttech.edu/NaturalNumbers.pdf
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www.mathsisfun.com/rational-numbers.html
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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number
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(c)
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Notes
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___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
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___________________
___________________
___________________
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___________________
___________________
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(c)
UNIT 2: Factorisation
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Notes
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___________________
Factorisation ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
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 Factorisation ___________________
 HCF ___________________
 LCM
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___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
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In this unit, we will learn about the term factorisation. We will
also discuss the methods of factorisation and methods of finding
highest common factor (HCF) and lowest common multiple (LCM).
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Concept of Factorisation
If a number can be expressed as the product of two or more
numbers, the process is called factorisation.
for
For example, (i) 10  2  5

(ii) 21  3  7
(iii) 156  2  2  3  13
In (i), 2 and 5 are called factors
t
No
In (ii) 3 and 7 are called factors

In (iii) 2, 2, 3, 13 are called factors. Here 2 is a repeated factor. 156
can be written as 22  3  13.
If any positive integer can be expressed in the form of products of

S,
positive integers like this, such an expression is called “Prime

power factorisation”.
E
For example, 2520. The factorisation has to be done as follows.

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3 315
(c)
3 105
5 35
7
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Notes
    
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Taking suitable examples the prime power factorisation of 2520 is   
make a difference between
___________________
factorisation and prime power
factorisation. Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
on
___________________
1. If a number can be expressed as the product of two or
___________________
more numbers, the process is called .....................
cti
___________________
2. If any positive integer can be expressed in the form of
___________________ products of positive integers like this, such an
___________________ expression is called .....................
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___________________
___________________ Highest Common Factor (HCF)

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The HCF of any two numbers is determined by finding the factors
of both the numbers, selecting the common factors among these
factors and then selecting the highest of these common factors. The
HCF of two numbers is also called the Greatest Common Divisor
Re
(GCD).
For example: To find the HCF of 24 and 78.
The factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24
for
The factors of 78 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 13, 26, 39, 78

The common factors of 24 and 78 are 1, 2, 3, 6.
Out of these common factors, the highest is 6.
t
No
HCF = 6.
This method of determining the HCF is not easy because it is a

difficult task to find the factors of bigger numbers.
We apply Euclid’s algorithm for the HCF of the numbers. Let us
S,
illustrate this method for the HCF of 24 and 78.

24) 78 (3
E
72
UP
6
6) 24 (4
24
(c)
00
The last non-zero remainder is 6 which is the HCF of 24 and 78.
le
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
Working in group, assign
___________________
1. The HCF of any two numbers is determined by finding different no. to each individual
to ___________________
find HCF. Compare
....................... different results.
___________________
on
2. The HCF of two numbers is also called the ......................
___________________
___________________
Least Common Multiple (LCM)
cti
___________________
The LCM of two numbers is determined by finding the multiples of
the numbers, selecting the common multiples and then selecting ___________________
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the least of these common multiples. ___________________
For example: Find the LCM of 24 and 78 ___________________
2 24,78 ___________________
2 12,39
2 6,39
pro
3 3,39
1,13
Re
LCM = 23  3  13  312
The HCF and LCM of two positive integers are very useful in
arithmetical calculations.
for
The relation between HCF and LCM is given by

product of the numbers
LCM =
HCF
t
No
Hence we can find the LCM by this formula also.
Procedure for Finding the HCF and LCM of Two Numbers a

and b
(i) HCF: If a < b, divide b by a, let r be the remainder. Divide a by
S,
r, let s be the remainder. Divide r by s let t be the remainder

continue this process till the remainder is 0. The last non-zero
E
remainder is the HCF.

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(ii) LCM: Express a as a product of prime numbers. Express b as a

product of prime numbers. Then LCM = product of highest
powers of all the factors of a and b.
(c)
Worked Examples
(a) What is the HCF of any two integers?
le
Solution: The HCF of any two integers a and b is the greatest
Notes
of all the common factors of a and b.
/Sa
___________________
(b) What is the LCM of any two integers?
___________________
Solution: The LCM of any two numbers a and b is the
___________________
smallest of all the common multiples of a and b.
on
___________________
(c) What is the relation between HCF and LCM of any two
___________________
integers?
cti
___________________
product of the numbers
Solution: LCM = .
___________________ HCF
___________________
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I. Find the HCF of:
___________________
(1) 24 and 36 (2) 20 and 98
___________________
(3) 198 and 221 (4) 8, 20, 24
(5) 147, 98, 273
pro
Solution:
Re
(1) 24) 36 (1 12) 24 (2
24 24
_____ _____
12 00
for
The last non-zero remainder is 12.
HCF of 24 and 36 is 12.
(2) 20) 98 (4 18) 20 (1 2) 18 (9

80 18 18
t
_____ _____ _____

No
18 2 00
S,
(3) 198) 221 (1 23) 198 (8

198 184
E
_____ _____
23 14
UP
14) 23 (1 9) 14 (1
14 9
_____ _____
9 5
(c)
le
5) 9 (1 4) 5 (1
Notes
5 4
/Sa
_____ _____ ___________________
4 1
___________________
1) 4 (4
___________________
4
on
_____ ___________________
0
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
(4) 8) 20 (2 4) 8 (2
du
___________________
16 8
_____ _____ ___________________
4 0 ___________________
pro
Now 4) 24 (6
Re
24
_____
00
for
4 is the HCF of 8, 20, 24.
(5) 98) 147 (1 49) 98 (2

98 98
t
_____ _____
No
49 00
S,
Now 49) 273 (5 28) 49 (1

245 28
_____ _____
E
28 21
21) 28 (1 7) 21 (3
UP
21 21
_____ _____
7 00
(c)
HCF of 147, 98, 273 is 7.

le
II. Find the LCM of :
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
(1) 40 and 108 (2) 12 and 48
Search in group the
application areas, where
___________________
calculation of HCF and LCM is
(3) 32 and 210 (4) 14, 42, 12 (5) 3, 4, 16, 12
significant.
___________________ Solution:
on
___________________ (1) 2 40
___________________ 2 20  40  23  5
cti
___________________ 2 10
5
___________________
___________________ (2) 2 108
du
2 54
___________________
3 27  108  22  33
___________________
39
3
pro
LCM of 40 and 108 is 23  5  33  1080.
Re
(3) 2 12
26  12  22  3
3
for
2 48
2 24
2 12  48  24  3
26
t
No
LCM of 12 and 48 is 24  3  48.
(4) 2 32
2 16
S,
28  32  25
24
E
2
UP
2 210
3 105  210  2  3  5  7
5 35
(c)
LCM of 32 and 210 is 25  3  5  7  3360

le
(5) 2 14
Notes
7  14  2  7
/Sa
___________________
2 42
___________________
3 21  42  2  3  7
7 ___________________
on
2 12 ___________________
26  12  2 2  3
___________________
3
cti
___________________
LCM of 14, 42, 12 is 22  3  7  84
___________________
(6) 3 = 3
du
___________________
4= 22 ___________________
16 = 24 ___________________
12 = 22 × 3
LCM of 3, 4, 16, 12 is 24  3  48
pro
Re
III. (1) The HCF of two numbers is 2 and LCM is 450. If one of the
numbers is 50, find the other.
Solution:
Let the other number be x.
for
HCF of x and 50 is 2.
LCM of x and 50 is 450.

t
Product of the numbers = 50x.

No
The formula is
product of numbers
LCM =
HCF
S,
50x
 450 
2
E
 50 x  2  450
2  450
UP
x  18
50
The other number is 17.

(c)
le
2. Find the least number divisible by 20 and 22.
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Solution:
___________________ The least number divisible by 20 and 22 is the LCM of 20 and

22.
___________________
on
2 20
___________________
210  20  22  5
___________________
5
cti
___________________
2 22
___________________ 11  22  2  11
___________________
du
LCM of 20 and 22 is 22  5  11  220.
___________________
the least number divisible by 20 and 22 is 220.
___________________
3.
pro
Find the greatest number less than 250 and divisible by 4 and
10.
Solution:
Re
The smallest number divisible by 4 and 10 is their LCM.
24
2  4  22
for
2 10
 10  2  5
5
LCM of 4 and 10 is 22  5  20.

t
Any higher number divisible by 4 and 10 is a multiple of the

No
LCM 20.
i.e., 1  20, 2  20, 3  20, 4  20 etc.
A multiple of 20 less than 250 is 12  20  240

S,
The greatest number less than 250 and divisible by 4 and 10

is 240.
E
Check Your Progress

UP
Fill in the blanks:

1. The LCM of two numbers is determined by ......................
2. The HCF and LCM of two positive integers are very
(c)
useful in ...................... calculations.

le
Summary
Notes
If a number can be expressed as the product of two or more
/Sa
___________________
numbers, the process is called factorisation. Factorisation is the
process of using the distributive law to reverse the process of ___________________
multiplying out brackets. When the value of an expression has to ___________________
on
be calculated, the factorised form of the expression is often the
___________________
easiest to compute. Sometimes, a common factor is not
immediately obvious, but some grouping of terms or ___________________
cti
rearrangement leads to a factorisation that gives a final expression ___________________
that is much simpler to evaluate than the initial one. ___________________
Factorisations of algebraic expressions are worth looking out for
du
___________________
because they usually make evaluation of the expression
considerably easier. The first step is always to look for the highest ___________________
common factor (HCF) of a set of terms. ___________________
Lesson End Activity

pro
1. Find the HCF and LCM of the following numbers:
Re
(1) 210, 252 (2) 108, 48
(3) 12, 40 (4) 7, 14, 42
(5) 5, 12, 32 (6) 3, 4, 16, 12
for
(7) 72, 135 (8) 506, 1863

(9) 15, 28, 108, 105 (10) 8, 12, 16, 24
t
Keywords
No
Factorisation: If a number can be expressed as the product of

two or more numbers, the process is called factorisation.
Factors: Factors are numbers, you can multiply to get another
S,
number.
E

UP
1. What do you understand by lowest common multiple (LCM)?

Find LCM of 506 and 1863.
2. What is the highest common factor of any two integers (HCF)?
Find HCF of 24 and 36.
(c)
le
3. If the HCF of any two integers is 2 and LCM is 450, if one of
Notes
the numbers is 50, find the other.
/Sa
___________________
4. Find the LCM and HCF of 3,4,16,12.
___________________
5. Find the smallest number divisible by 24 and 144.
___________________
on
6. Find the least number divisible by 4 and 10.
___________________
___________________
7. Find the least number divisible by 3, 27, 5.
cti
___________________ 8. Find the greatest number less than 2300 divisible by 20 and
22.
___________________
9. Find the greatest number less than 1500 and divisible by 16
___________________
du
and 18.
___________________
10. The HCF and LCM of two numbers are respectively 12 and 72.
___________________
If one of the numbers is 36, find the other number.
pro
11. The LCM and HCF of two numbers are respectively 156 and 1.
If one of the numbers is 12, find the other number.
Re
Further Readings
Books
for

t
No
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number
www.tridenttech.edu/NaturalNumbers.pdf
S,
www.mathsisfun.com/rational-numbers.html
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number
E
UP
(c)
UNIT 3: Theory of Equations
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Discuss in group, the
Theory of Equations application areas
___________________
theory
where
of equation is used.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Equation ___________________
 Equivalent Equation ___________________
 Linear and Quadratic Equations
du
___________________
 Solution of Linear and Quadratic Equation
___________________
___________________
Introduction
pro
Theory of equations are frequently used in solving the problems of
business. A statement of equality containing one or more variable
is known as an equation. Two or more equations are said to be
Re
equivalent if they have the same solution. In this unit, we study
the methods of solving linear and quadratic equations.
for
Linear and Quadratic Equations

An equation of the form ax  b  0 where a  0, b are constants, is
called a linear equation in the variable x.
t
An equation of the form ax 2  bx  c  0 where a  0, b, c are

No
constants is called a quadratic equation in the variable x.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
S,
1. Theory of equations is frequently used in ................... of

business.
E
2. A statement of equality containing one or more variable

UP
is known as an ...................
Solutions of Linear and Quadratic Equations

(c)
A value of x which satisfies the given equation is called a solution

or a root.
le
Fundamental theorem: An equation of degree n has exactly n
Notes
roots.
/Sa
___________________
Hence a linear equation has exactly one root and a quadratic
___________________
equation has exactly two roots.
___________________
(i) The linear equation ax  b  0 has exactly one root
on
___________________
b
x (where a  0)
___________________ a
cti
___________________ (ii) The quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 has exactly two roots
___________________
b  b2  4ac b  b2  4ac
x i.e. x and
___________________
du
2a 2a
___________________ b  b2  4ac
x
___________________ 2a
pro
These roots can also be found by factorisation.
Note: The expression b2  4ac is called the discriminant and is

denoted by . If b2  4ac  0 then the roots are rational and equal
Re
b
i.e.,  .
2a
If b2  4ac  0 and positive, then the roots are real and distinct.
for
If b2  4ac  0 and negative, then the roots are imaginary and

distinct.
Worked Examples
t
No
Solve the following equations

1. 2x  1  0
Solution:
S,
2x  1  0
Here a  2, b  1
E
b ( 1)
Solution is x  
a 2
UP
1
x is the solution.
2
(c)
2. 5x  3  0
le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
5x  3  0
___________________
Here a  5, b  3
___________________
b ( 3) ___________________
solution is x  
on
a 5
___________________
3 ___________________
x is the solution
5
cti
___________________
3. 3x  11  0
___________________
Solution:
du
___________________
3x  11  0 ___________________
Here a  3, b  11 ___________________
solution is x 
b 11
a

3
pro
11
Re
x is the solution
3
4. 7x  0
Solution:
for
7x  0
 7x  0  0
Here a  7, b  0
t
No
b 0
x   0
a 7
 x  0 is the solution
x 2  5x  6  0
S,
5.
Solution:
E
x 2  5x  6  0
UP
(a) by using the formula:

a  1, b  5, c  6
b  b2  4ac
(c)
x
2a
le
Notes 5  25  24
x 
2
/Sa
___________________
5 1
___________________ x 
2
___________________
on
5 1 5 1
___________________ x  and
2 2
___________________
i.e., x  3, x  2 are the solutions.
cti
___________________
(b) by factorisation
___________________
___________________
x 2  5x  6  0
du
___________________  x 2  2x  3x  6  0
___________________  x ( x  2)  3( x  2)  0
pro
 ( x  2) ( x  3)  0
 ( x  2)  0, ( x  3)  0
Re
 x  2, x  3 are the solutions.
6. 4x 2  1  0
Solution:
for
4x 2  1  0
(a) by using the formula

a  4, b  0, c  1
t
No
b  b2  4ac
x
2a
0  0  16
x
24
S,
4
 x
24
E
1 1
x , are the solutions.
UP
2 2
4x 2  1  0
(c)
 (2x )2  12  0
le
 (2x  1) (2x  1)  0 [using a 2  b2  ( a  b)( a  b)]
Notes
/Sa
 2x  1  0, 2x  1  0 ___________________
1 1 ___________________
x  , x  are the solutions.
2 2
___________________
on
2
7. 6 x  5x  1  0 ___________________
Solution: ___________________
cti
(a) By using the formula ___________________
a  6, b  5, c  1 ___________________
du
___________________
b  b2  4ac
x ___________________
2a
___________________
x
5  25  24
12
pro
5 1
x
12
Re
5 1 5 1
x ,
12 12
6 4
for
x ,
12 12
1 1
x ,
2 3
t
No
6 x 2  5x  1  0
 6 x 2  2x  3x  1  0
 2x (3x  1)  1 (3x  1)  0
S,
 (3x  1) (2x  1)  0
E
 3x  1  0, 2x  1  0
UP
 3x  1, 2x  1
1 1
x , x
3 2
(c)
8. x 2  6x  8  0
le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________ a  1, b  6, c  8
___________________
b  b2  4ac
on
x
___________________ 2a
___________________ 6  36  32
x
cti
___________________ 2
___________________ 6  4
x
___________________ 2
du
___________________ 6  2
x
___________________
2
x
2
, pro
6  2 6  2
2
 x  2,  4 are the solutions.
Re
x 2  6x  8  0
 x 2  2x  4 x  8  0
for
 x ( x  2)  4 ( x  2)  0
 ( x  2)( x  4)  0
t
 x  2  0, x  4  0
No
 x  2, x  4
9. x2  x  1  0
Solution:
S,

a  1, b  1, c  1
E
b  b2  4ac
UP
x
2a
1  1  4
 x
2
(c)
le
1  3
 x Notes
Activity
2
/Sa
___________________
Discuss in group, the nature of
1  3 i roots of quadratic equation
 x 2
ax ___________________
+ bx + c = 0. Assuming
2 different values of a, b and c
find___________________
roots and comment upon
on
1  3 i 1  3 i their nature.
 x , ___________________
2 2
___________________
10. 2x 2  x  1  0
cti
___________________
Solution:
___________________
du
___________________
2x 2  x  1  0 ___________________
a  2, b  1, c  1 ___________________
x 
b  b2  4ac
2a
pro
Re
1  1  8
x
22
1  9
x
4
for
1  3
x
4
1  3 1  3
x ,
t
4 4
No
1
x , 1
2
S,
2x 2  x  1  0
 2x 2  2x  x  1  0
E
 2x ( x  1)  1( x  1)  0
UP
 ( x  1)(2x  1)  0
 ( x  1)  0, (2x  1)  0
(c)
1
 x  1, x  .
2
le
Notes
11. x 2  x  1  0
/Sa
___________________ Solution:
___________________ x2  x 1  0
___________________ a  1, b  1, c  1
on
___________________
b  b2  4ac
x
___________________ 2a
cti
___________________ 1  1  4
x
___________________ 2 1
___________________ 1  5
du
x
___________________
2
___________________ 1  5 1  5
x ,
2 2
pro
12. Solve the equation by formula method 12x 2  23x  24.
Solution:
Re
12x 2  23x  24
 12x 2  23x  24  0
Here a  12, b  23, c  24

for
b  b2  4ac
x
2a
23  232  4(12)( 24)

t

2  12
No
23  529  1152


24
23  1681

S,
24
23  41

E
24
23  41 23  41
UP
i.e., x  and x 
24 24
18 64
i.e., x  and x 
24 24
(c)
3 8
i.e., x  and x  .
4 3
le
13. Solve the equation
Notes
/Sa
2 5 7
  ___________________
x  4 x  3 x 1
___________________
Solution:
___________________
on
Multiply the given equation by the LCM
___________________
( x  4) ( x  3)( x  1), we get
___________________
cti
2( x  3)( x  1)  5( x  4)( x  1)  7( x  4)( x  3) ___________________
 2x 2  8x  6  5x 2  25x  20  7 x 2  49 x  84 ___________________
du
___________________
 7x 2  33x  26  7 x 2  49 x  84
___________________
 7x 2  33x  26  7 x 2  49 x  84  0
___________________
 16 x  58  0
58
pro
x
16
Re
29
x
8
for
a a b b
   where a  b
x b x a
Solution:
t
Multiply the given equation by the LCM

No
abx, we get
a 2b  a 2 x  ab2  b2 x
 a 2 x  b2 x  a 2b  ab2
S,
 ( a 2  b2 ) x  ab ( a  b)
E
 ( a  b)( a  b)x  ab ( a  b)
UP
ab ( a  b)
x
( a  b)( a  b)
ab
x
a b
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
x 2x 1
 
5 7 3
___________________
Solution:
___________________
on
Multiply the given equation by the LCM 5  7  3
___________________
___________________ We get 21x  30 x  35
cti
___________________   9x  35
___________________ 35
 x
___________________ 9
du
___________________ 16. 0.8 x  0.7  1.7 x  2.75  4.7 x
___________________ Solution:
pro
Rearranging the equation, we get
0.8 x  1.7 x  4.7 x  2.75  0.7
Re
 7.2x  3.45
3.45
 x 
7.2
for
345
 x 
720
69 23
   0.479
144 48
t
 x  0.479
No
17. Find two numbers whose sum is 58 and difference is 10.

Solution:
Let x be one of the numbers.
S,
the other number has to be 58  x as the sum of two

numbers has to be 58.
E
The difference is given to be 10.

UP
 x  (58  x )  10
 x  58  x  10
(c)
 2x  58  10
 2x  68
le
 x  34
Notes
/Sa
and the other number is 58  x  58  34  24.
___________________
the numbers are 34 and 24.
___________________
Check Your Progress ___________________
on
Fill in the blanks: ___________________
1. A value of x which satisfies the given equation is called ___________________
cti
a ..................... or a ..................... ___________________
2. A ..................... equation has exactly one root and a ___________________

..................... equation has exactly two roots.
du
___________________
___________________
Summary
___________________
pro
A linear expression equated to zero is called a linear equation.
Thus the general form of a linear equation is ax  b  0 where
a 0.
Re
An equation of the type: ax  by  c  0 is called a linear equation
in two variables. A linear equation with more than one variable
has infinite number of solutions.
for
Lesson End Activity

Calculate the roots of quadratic equation px2 + qx + r = 0.
t
Keywords
No
Equation: A statement that two expressions (connected by the

sign=) are equal.
Linear Equation: A Linear expression equated to zero is called a
S,
linear equation.
E

UP
1. When the solutions of quadratic equation are termed as

rational and equal, real and distinct and imaginary and
distinct.
2. Solve the following equation:
(c)
(i) 4 x  8  2x  5
le
3 4 7
Notes (ii) + = ; x  1, 2 or3
x –1 x – 2 x – 3
/Sa
___________________
3. Solve the following equations
___________________
(i) 2x  3  0 (ii) 4 x  5  0 (iii) 3x  12  0
___________________
on
3
___________________ (iv) 7x  0 (v) 8x  16  0 (vi) 9x  0
2
___________________
1
cti
___________________ (vii) 2x  0 (viii) 17x  1  0 (ix) 10x  50  0
2
___________________
x 1 x
___________________ (x) 7x  14  0 (xi)   0 (xii) 2  7x  8  1  0
du
x x 1
___________________
___________________ Further Readings
Books
pro
Re
for
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_equations
www.neiu.edu/~bhdayton/theq/ -
t
faculty.nps.edu/gragg/Theory_Of_Equations.pdf
No
archive.org/details/theoryofequation030499mbp
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 4: Solutions of Linear and Quadratic Equations
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Consider different linear
Solutions of Linear and Quadratic equations in two variables and
___________________
compare them.
Equations ___________________
on
___________________
Objectives ___________________
cti
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Linear Equation
du
 Linear Equation in two Variables ___________________
 Solution of a System of Linear Equations in two Variables ___________________
___________________
Introduction pro
As we have already discussed, the basics of linear equations in unit
3. Now, in unit 4, we will be discussing solving a system of linear
Re
equations in two variables and how to apply these methods to
business problems.
Solution of a System of Linear Equations in Two

for
Variables
A system of linear equations in two variables is given by the
equations
t
No
a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 ...(1)
a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 ....(2)
Methods of Finding the Solutions of a System of Linear

S,
Equations
a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 ...(1)
E
a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 ...(2)
UP
I. Method: Substitution method
Find the value of y from equation (1).

a1 x  c1
(c)
i.e., y  
b1
le
Substitute this value of y in (2) and determine the value of x.
Notes
/Sa
___________________  ( a1 x  c1 ) 
i..e, a2 x  b2    c2  0
 b1 
___________________
___________________ b2 ( a1 x  c1 )
 a2 x   c2
on
b1
___________________
___________________ Multiply by b1 .
cti
___________________  a2b1 x  a1b2 x  b2c1  b1c2
___________________
 ( a2b1  a1b2 )x  b2c1  b1c2
___________________
du
b2c1  b1c2
___________________  x
a2b1  a1b2
___________________
pro
This value of x is substituted in y 
( a1 x  c1 )
b1
 a (b c  b c ) 
  1 2 1 1 2  c1 
Re
( a b  a1b2 )
i.e., y   2 1 
b1
a1b2c1  a1b1c2  a2b1c1  a1b2c1

i.e., y 
b1 ( a2b1  a1b2 )
for
b1 ( a1c2  a2c1 )
i.e., y 
b1 ( a2b1  a1b2 )
a1c2  a2c1
t
i.e., y 
a2b1  a1b2
No
This method is called substitution method.

II. Method: Elimination method
S,
The elimination of one of the unknowns can be done in the

following method. The given equations are
E
a1 x  b1 y  c1 ...(1)
a2 x  b2 y  c2 ...(2)
UP
Multiply equation (1) by b2 and equation (2) by b1

we get a1b2 x  b1b2 y  b2c1
(c)
a2b1 x  b1b2 y  b1c2

le
Subtracting, we get ( a1b2  a2b1 )x  b1c2  b2c1
Notes
/Sa
b1c2  b2c1 ___________________
x 
a1b2  a2b1
___________________
b2c1  b1c2 ___________________
or x 
on
a2b1  a1b2
___________________
Similarly multiply (1) by a2 and (2) by a1
___________________
cti
We get a1a2 x  a2b1 y  a2c1 ___________________
a1a2 x  a1b2 y  a1c2 ___________________
du
___________________
Subtracting, we get ( a2b1  a1b2 ) y  a1c2  a2c1
___________________
a c  a2c1
y 1 2 ___________________
a2b1  a1b2
III. Method: Cross multiplication method

pro
a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 ...(1)
Re
a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 ....(2)
x y 1
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1
for
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2
x y 1
 
b1c2  b2c1 a2c1  a1c2 a1b2  a2b1
t
x 1
No
 
b1c2  b2c1 a1b2  a2b1
b1c2  b2c1 b c bc

 x which is the same as x  2 1 1 2
a1b2  a2b1 a2b1  a1b2
S,
y 1
and 
a2c1  a1c2 a1b2  a2b1
E
a2c1  a1c2 a c  a2c1

which is the same as x  1 2
UP
 y
a1b2  a2b1 a2b1  a1b2
Note: While solving the system of linear equations, anyone of these

methods can be used.
(c)
le
Notes
Check Your Progress
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
___________________
___________________
1. ax + by – c = 0 is a form of ..................... equation.
___________________ 2. A system of linear equations in two variables is
on
given by the equations.....................
___________________
___________________ Worked Examples
cti
___________________ I. Solve the following system of equations:
___________________ In these problems, all the three methods are illustrated.
___________________
du
1. 2x  y  1
___________________
xy4
___________________
Solution:
pro
By substitution method:
2x  y  1 ...(1)
Re
xy4 ...(2)
1.  y  2x  1. Substituting this in (2), we get
x  2x  1  4  3x  3
for
3
x  i.e., x  1
3
Substituting this value of x in (1), we get
t
No
2(1)  y  1
 y  1  2
i.e., y  3
S,
By elimination method:
2x  y  1 ...(1)
E
xy4 ...(2)
UP
Adding (1) and (2), we get

3x  3
(c)
3
x  1
3
le
i.e., x  1
Notes
/Sa
Multiply (2) by 2
___________________
(1)  2x  y  1
___________________
2  (2)  2x  2 y  8 ___________________
on
Subtracting, we get 3 y  9 ___________________
___________________
 y  3
cti
___________________
By cross multiplication method: The equations are
___________________
2x  y  1  0
du
___________________
x  y4 0
___________________
x y 1 ___________________
2
1
1
1
1
4
2
1
1
1
pro
x y 1
 
Re
4  1 1  8 2  1
x y 1
i.e.,  
3 9 3
for
3 9
x  , y
3 3
i.e., x  1 , y  3
t
2. 3x  5 y  1
No
4x  7 y  2
Solution:
By elimination method
S,
3x  5 y  1 ...(1)
E
4x  7 y  2 ...(2)
Multiply (1) by 7 and (2) by 5

UP
21x  35 y  7
20 x  35 y  10
(c)
Adding 41x  17
le
Notes 17
x
41
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________ 12x  20 y  4
on
___________________ 12x  21 y  6
___________________ Subtracting 41 y  2
cti
___________________
2
___________________ y
41
___________________
du
By substitution method
___________________
3x  1
___________________ From (1) y
5
pro
Substituting this in (2), we get
 3x  1 
4x  7  2
 5 
Re
 20 x  21x  7  10
 41x  17
for
17
 x
41

t
 17 
No
3    5y  1
 41 
51
 5y  1
41
S,
51  41
 5y 
41
E
10
 5y 
41
UP
2
 y
41
By cross multiplication method: The equations are

(c)
3x  5 y  1  0
le
4x  7 y  2  0
Notes
/Sa
x y 1
___________________
3 5 1 3 5
___________________
4 7 2 4 7
___________________
on
x y 1
  ___________________
10  7 4  6 21  20
___________________
x y 1
cti
  
17 2 41 ___________________
17 2 ___________________
 x and y 
du
41 41 ___________________
3. 3.5x  7.2 y  1.6 ___________________
2.4 x  8.3 y  9.1 ___________________
Solution:
pro
We shall do this problem by one of the methods say cross
Re
multiplication method. The other methods are left as exercise.
3.5x  7.2 y  1.6
2.4 x  8.3 y  9.1

for
Multiply both the equations by 10
35x  72 y  16 ...(1)
24 x  83 y  91 ...(2)
t
No
x y 1
35 72  16 35 72
24  83  91 24  83
x y 1
 
S,
6552  1328 384  3185 2905 1728
x y 1
 
E
7880 2801 4633

UP
7880 2801
x  and y 
4633 4633
7880 2801
i.e., x  and y 
4633 4633
(c)
le
4. 3x  4 y  2
Notes
/Sa
___________________ 5x  7 y  0
___________________ Solution:
___________________ 3x  4 y  2 ...(1)
on
___________________
5x  7 y  0 ...(2)
___________________
cti
___________________
21x  28 y  14
___________________
___________________ 20 x  28 y  0
du
___________________ Subtract: x  14
___________________ Substitute this value of x in (1), we get
3(14)  4 y  2
 4 y  2  42
pro
Re
 40
 y  10
 x  14, y  10
for
5. Solve the following by substitution method

3x  4 y  7
4x  3 y  5
t
No
Solution:
3x  4 y  7 ...(1)
4x  3 y  5 ...(2)
S,
(1)  3x  7  4 y
7  4y
x ...(3)
E
3
UP
 7  4y 
4   3y  5
 3 
(c)
Multiply by 3
 28  16 y  9 y  15
le
25 y  28  15
Notes
Activity
/Sa
 25 y  28  15  13
Do ___________________
you observe any difference
in result, while solving a
13 system
___________________
of equation by
 y .
25 different methods?
___________________
on
Substituting this value of y in (3), we get
___________________
 13  ___________________
7  4 
 25 
cti
x ___________________
3
___________________
175  52

du
3  25 ___________________
___________________
123 41
i.e., x  
75 25 ___________________
 x
41
25
and y 
13
25
.
pro
6. Find two numbers whose sum is 58 and difference is 10.
Re
Solution:
Let x and y be the two numbers.
it is given that
for
x  y  58 ...(1)
x  y  10 ...(2)
t

No
2x  68
68
x 
2
S,
 x  34

E
34  y  58
UP
y  58  34
 y  24
the two numbers are 34 and 24.

(c)
le
7. The price of 2 kgs of rice and 5 kgs of wheat is 85 and price of
Notes
3 kgs of rice and 8 kgs of wheat is 132. Find the prices of rice
/Sa
___________________
and wheat.
___________________
Solution:
___________________
Let the prices of rice and wheat be x and y respectively.
on
___________________
It is given that 2x  5 y  85 and 3x  8 y  132
___________________
We shall solve these two equations by cross multiplication.
cti
___________________
x y 1
___________________
2 5  85 2 5
___________________
du
3 8  132 3 8
___________________
x y 1
___________________   
5( 132)  8( 85) ( 85)3  ( 132)2 2  8  3  5

x

pro
y

1
660  680 255  264 16  15
x y 1
Re
  
20 9 1
x 1 y 1
  and 
20 1 9 1
for
 x  20 and y  9
the price of rice is 20 per kg and
the price of wheat is 9 per kg.

t
No
8. A father is 40 years older than his daughter. In 10 years, the

father’s age will be 16 years more than 3 times the age of his
daughter. Find the present ages.
Solution:
S,
Let the present age of the daughter be x years.
the present age of the father is x + 40 years.

E
After 10 years, daughter’s age will be x + 10 and father’s age

UP
will be x  40  10  x  50 years.
It is given that
x  50  3( x  10)  16
(c)
 x  50  3x  30  16
le
 x  50  3x  46
Notes
/Sa
 3x  x  50  46
___________________
 2x  4 ___________________
 x 2 ___________________
on
the present age of daughter is 2 years and the present age of ___________________
the father is 2 + 40 = 42 years. ___________________
cti
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
du
___________________
1. The present age of mine is x, before 5 years it was
___________________
.......................
___________________
pro
2. Price and quantity of a commodity are .......................
related.
Summary
Re
Solutions of a system of linear equations can be found by:
(i) substitution method (ii) elimination method, and (iii) cross
multiplication method.
for
If a, b and c are real constants with a 0, an equation that can be

2
written as ax  bx  c  0 is called a quadratic equation.
The formula for solving quadratic equation is given by

t
b  b2  4ac
No
x
2a
An equation of degree n has exactly n roots. Hence a linear
equation has exactly one root and a quadratic equation has exactly
two roots.
S,
Lesson End Activity

E
Compare and contrast the methods of solving pair of linear

UP
equations. Illustrate your answer considering suitable examples.
Keywords
(c)
Quadratic Equation: An equation of the form ax 2  bx  c  0 ,

where a 0, b, c are constant, is called a quadratic equation.
le
Root: A value of the variable which satisfies the given equation is
Notes
called a solution or root.
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
1. Discuss any two methods of finding the solutions of a system of
on
___________________ linear equations.
___________________
2. An investor wants to invest 15,000 in two types of bonds. He
cti
___________________ earns 12% in first type and 15% in the second. Find his
___________________ investment in each of his total earning is 1950.
___________________ 3. Solve the following equations by formula method and by
du
factorisation method:
___________________
___________________ (i) x 2  2x  1  0 (ii) x 2  5x  6  0 (iii) x 2  x  6  0
(vii) 2x 2  8  0
pro
(iv) 2x 2  11x  9  0 (v) 4 x 2  2x  15  0 (vi) x 2  x  1  0
(viii) 3x 2  5x  1  0
(ix)  x 2  5x  1  0 (x) 9x 2  30x  25  0

Re
45
(xi) x 2  4 x  0 (xii) 3x   24
x
x 1 x 2 1 1 1 1
for
(xiii)   (xiv)   
x x 1 3 x 1 x 1 x  2 x  2
1
(xv) x  1 (xvi) x 2  1  1x  2  76  0
x
t
4. Find two numbers whose difference is 8 and product is 20.

No
5. Find two consecutive numbers such that 5 times the smaller

number is equal to 5 more than three times the greater
number.
S,
6. Find two numbers whose sum is 32 and their product is 252.

7. 2 years ago, elder brother’s age was 3 times the square of his
E
younger brother’s age. After 3 years, elder brother’s age will be

4 times his younger brother’s age. Find their present ages.
UP
8. Find two consecutive integers such that 10 times the smaller

number is 5 times the bigger number.
9. A father is 40 years older than his daughter. In 10 years, the
(c)
father’s age will be 16 years more than three times the age of
his daughter. Find their ages.
le
10. The price of a book is 5 more than twice the price of a pen. If
Notes
the price of the pen is 10, find the price of the book.
/Sa
___________________
11 A father is 34 years older than his son. In 5 years, the father’s
age will be two more than twice the age of the son. Find their ___________________
ages. ___________________
on
12. Find two consecutive numbers such that 5 times the smaller ___________________
number is equal to 4 more than twice the greater number. ___________________
cti
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
du
Books ___________________
R S Bhardwaj, Mathematics for Economics and Business, Excel ___________________

Books, New Delhi, 2005 ___________________
D C Sanchethi and V K Kapoor, Business Mathematics pro

Re
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_equations
www.neiu.edu/~bhdayton/theq/ -
for
faculty.nps.edu/gragg/Theory_Of_Equations.pdf
archive.org/details/theoryofequation030499mbp
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 5: Case Study
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Studies ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
After analyzing these cases, the student will have an appreciation of the
concept of topics studied in this Block. ___________________
cti
___________________
Case Study 1: Finding Points of Intersection of a
Linear-Quadratic System of Equations ___________________
du
___________________
Marina is a set designer she has a banner on an angle across an
archway. She is working with the equations y = 0.24x + 7.2 and ___________________
y = 0.48x2 + 4.8x, where x represents the horizontal distance and y
the vertical distance, both in metres, from one foot of the archway. ___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
Questions:
1. Determine the coordinates of the points where the two
functions intersect.
S,
2. Interpret the solutions in the context.

E
UP
(c)
le
Case Study 2: Solve a Problem Involving a Linear-Quadratic
Notes System
/Sa
___________________
Dudley Do-Right is riding his horse. Horse, at his top speed of 10
___________________ m/s toward the bank, and is 100 m away when the bank robber
begins to accelerate away from the bank going in the same
___________________ direction as Dudley Do-Right. The robber’s distance, d, in metres,
on
away from the bank after t-seconds can be modelled by the
___________________ equation d = 0.2t2.
___________________ (a) Write a corresponding model for the position of Dudley Do-
Right as a function of time.
cti
___________________
(b) Will Dudley Do-Right catch the bank robber? If he does, find
___________________ the time and position where this happens. If not, explain why
not.
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
tfor
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
BLOCK-II
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Detailed Contents
le
Notes
/Sa
UNIT 6: MATRICES
___________________ UNIT 8: ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
___________________
 Matrix  Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)
___________________
on
 Types of Matrices
___________________ UNIT 9: GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G.P.)
 Algebra of Matrices
 Introduction
___________________
 Transpose of a Matrix
Concept of Geometric Progression
cti

___________________
UNIT 7: DETERMINANTS  nth Term of a G.P.
___________________
 Introduction  Sum to ‘n’ Terms of a G.P.
___________________
du
 Determinant  Sum to Infinity of a G.P.
___________________
 Minor and Cofactor of an Element of a Square
___________________
Matrix UNIT 10: CASE STUDIES

Adjoint and Inverse of a Square Matrix
Solution of a System of Linear Simultaneous

pro
Equations: (Cramer’s Rule)
Re
 Cramer’s Rule
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Consider any square matrix
Matrices and see how to find order of a
___________________
matrix.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Matrix ___________________
 Algebra of Matrices ___________________
 Applying Matrix Algebra to Solve a System of Linear Equations
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
Matrix is an ordered set of numbers listed rectangular form.
Let A denote the matrix
pro
2 5 7 8 
Re
5 6 8 9 
 
3 9 0 1 
This matrix A has three rows and four columns. We say it is a 3 × 4

for
matrix.
We denote the element on the second row and fourth column with
a2,4 .
t
No
Matrix
A matrix is an array (or arrangement) of certain numbers along
rows and columns. Horizontal arrangements are called rows and
vertical arrangements are called columns. The numbers are called
S,
the elements.
 1 1   2 0 7 
E
E.g: A    , B 
2 5   1 4 10 
UP
 3 5   2 0 1 

C 0 6  , D   4 10 7 

 7 12   11 2 8 
(c)
le
Order (Type of a Matrix)
Notes
If a matrix has m rows and n columns then the matrix is said to be
/Sa
___________________ of order m × n.
___________________
In the above examples, A is of order 2 × 2, B is of order 2 × 3, C is
___________________ of order 3 × 2, D is of order 3 × 3.
on
___________________
Equality of Matrices
___________________
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they are of the same
cti
___________________ order and the corresponding elements of A and B are equal:
___________________
1 2 3  1 2 3 
E.g: (1) A    ,B  
___________________
du
 8 7 4  2  3  8 7 4  23
___________________
The orders are same and the corresponding elements are equal.
___________________
 A  B.
x 2
(2) If A   
pro  1 2 
and B    then
 0 y  22  0 4
Re
A  B  x  1 and y  4.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
for
1. A matrix is an arrangement of ......................... and

.........................
2. The numbers are called .........................
t
No
Types of Matrices
(1) Rectangular matrix: A matrix of order m × n is called a
rectangular matrix.
S,
1 2 1
E.g: A    is a rectangular matrix.
4 7 0  2  3
E
(2) Square matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows is

UP
equal to the number of columns (i.e., m × m matrix) is called

square matrix.
 2 6 11 
 1 4  5 0 8 
(c)
E.g: A    B 
 7 0  22  7 4 1 3  3
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
(3) Diagonal matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements
Notes
Activity
except the principal diagonal elements are zero, is called a
/Sa
diagonal matrix. How___________________
will you comment for a
matrix whether it is square or
not?___________________
4 0 0
2 0   
E.g: A    , B   0 1 0  are diagonal matrices. ___________________
on
 0 1   0 0 8  ___________________
(4) Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all the principal ___________________
cti
diagonal elements are equal, is called a scalar matrix. ___________________
5 0 0 ___________________
2 0
E.g: A   , B   0 5 0 
du
 ___________________
0 2  0 0 5 
___________________
(5) Unit matrix (or Identity matrix): A scalar matrix in which ___________________
pro
all the principal diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called a
unit matrix.
1 0 0 
1 0 
, B   0 1 0 
Re
E.g: A   
 0 1  22  0 0 1  33
A unit (or identity) matrix is denoted by I.

for
(6) Null matrix (or zero matrix): A matrix in which all the
elements are 0 is called a null matrix. A null (or zero) matrix is
denoted by 0.
0 0
t
0 0 0 0 0
E.g: A   , B   0 0  , C  
No
 
 0 0 0  23  0 0  32  0 0  22
0 0 0
D   0 0 0 
S,
 0 0 0  33
(7) Row matrix: A matrix having only one row and any number
E
of columns (i.e., 1 × n matrix) is called a row matrix.

UP
E.g:  1 3 0 13
(8) Column matrix: A matrix having only one column and any
number of rows (i.e., m × 1 matrix) is called a column matrix.
(c)
le
Notes
 2 
E.g:  7 
/Sa
___________________
 0  31
___________________
___________________ Check Your Progress
on
___________________ Fill in the blanks:
___________________ 1. A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the
number of columns (i.e., m × m matrix) is called
cti
___________________
..................... matrix.
___________________
2. A square matrix in which all the elements except the
___________________
du
principal diagonal elements are zero, is called a
___________________
..................... matrix.
___________________
Algebra of Matrices pro

(1) Addition of matrices: Addition of two matrices A and B is
defined if and only if they are of the same order.
Re
If A and B are matrices of the same order then their sum
A  B is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A
and B.
for
 2 1 0   0 1 7 
E.g: A    ,B 
 4 7 10  23  5 8 15  23
 2  0 1  ( 1) 0  7 
then A  B  
10  15  23
t
45 78
No
 2 2 7 
 
 9 15 25  23
 0  2 ( 1)  ( 1) 7  0 
BA
S,
54 87 15  10  23
 2 2 7 
E
 
 9 15 25  23
UP
 A  B  B  A.
(2) Subtraction of matrices: Subtraction of two matrices A and

B is defined if and only if they are of the same order.
(c)
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
If A and B are matrices of the same order then their difference
Notes
Activity
A – B is obtained by subtracting the elements of B by the
/Sa
corresponding elements of A. When is multiplication of
___________________
matrices is defined and when
it is ___________________
not?
2 0   1 8 
E.g: If A   5 1  , B   9 0 
  ___________________
on
 4 7  3 2  7 3  3  2 ___________________
___________________
 2  ( 1) 08 
cti

then A  B =  5  9 1  0  ___________________
 4  7 7  ( 3)  3  2 ___________________
du
___________________
 3 8 
  4 1  ___________________
 3 10  3  2 ___________________
 1  2 80 
B  A   9  5 0  ( 1) 

pro
 7  4 3  7  3  2
Re
 3 8 
  4 1 
 3 10  3  2
for
 A  B  B  A.
(3) Scalar multiplication: If A is a matrix of order m × n and k

is a scalar, then the matrix kA is obtained by multiplying all
t
the elements of A by k.
No
 2 5 4 
E.g: If A    then
 7 3 10  2  3
 4 10 8 
S,
2A  
 14 6 20  2  3
E
 5 
1  1 2
2
and A  
UP

2  7 3
5
 2 2  2  3
(4) Multiplication of matrices: Multiplication of matrices is

(c)
defined if and only if the number of columns of the first matrix

is equal to the number of rows of the second matrix. i.e., if A is
le
a matrix of order m × n and B is a matrix of order n × p then
Notes only AB is defined and AB will be a matrix of order m × p. The
Activity
/Sa
How___________________
does order of matrix vary mode of multiplication is always row × column.
as the transpose of it is taken?
___________________  x1 y1 
a b c1 
___________________ Let A   1 1  and B   x2 y2 

 a2 b2 c2  2  3
on
 x3 y3  3 2
___________________
___________________ 
x y1 
a b c1   1 
then AB   1 1
cti
x y2
c2   2
___________________ 
 a2 b2  x3 y3 
___________________
___________________  a x bx c x a1 y1  b1 y2  c1 y3 
du
 1 1 1 2 1 3
___________________  a2 x1  b2 x 2  c2 x3 a2 y1  b2 y2  c2 y3 2  2
___________________ 
 x1
Also BA   x 2
 x3
pro
y1
y2
y3

  a1 b1
 a b
  2 2
c1 
c2 

Re
 x1a1  y1a2 x1b1  y1b2 x1c1  y1c2 
  x 2 a1  y2 a2 x 2b1  y2b2 x 2c1  y2c2 
 x3 a1  y3 a2 x3b1  y3b2 x 3c1  y3c2  3  3
for
From these, we observe that AB BA. Hence in general

AB BA.
Check Your Progress

t
Fill in the blanks:

No
1. Addition of two matrices A and B is defined if and only if

they are of the ................... order.
2. In general AB ................... BA.
S,
Transpose of a Matrix
E
If A is a matrix of order m × n, then the matrix obtained by

interchanging the rows and columns is called the transpose of A
UP
and is denoted by A  or AT . A  will be a matrix of order n × m.
 1 4 
 1 3 5   
E.g: If A    then A    3 7 
(c)
 4 7 8  23  5 8 3  2
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
Worked examples on addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication,
Notes
multiplication of matrices and transpose of matrices.
/Sa
___________________
1 2   1 0 
(1) If A    ,B  , find ___________________
3 4   4 7
___________________
on
A  B , A  B , 2 A  3B , 2 A  3B , 5 A  B , A  7 B
___________________
Solution:
___________________
cti
1 2   1 0   1  1 2  0  0 2  ___________________
AB    
3 4   4 7  3  4 4  7  7 11
___________________
1 2   1 0  1  1 2  0   2 2 
du
___________________
AB    
3 4   4 7  3  4 4  7   1 3 ___________________
1 2   1 0   2  3 4  0   1 4  ___________________
2 A  3B  2  
3 4 
1 2 
3  
 4 7  6  12 8  21 18 29 
 1 0   2  3 4  0   5

4 
pro
2 A  3B  2   3      
3 4   4 7  6  12 8  21  6 13 
Re
1 2   1 0   5  1 10  0   4 10 
5A  B  5     
3 4   4 7  15  4 20  7  19 27 
1 2   1 0   1  7 20   8 2 
for
A  7B    7     
3 4   4 7  3  28 4  49   25 45 
 1 5  2 1 
(2) If A    , B  
 0 6  3 8 
t
No
Verify ( A  B)  A  B and ( A  B)  A  B
Solution:
 1 5  2 1 
A  ,B 
 0 6  3 8 
S,
 1 0  2 3 
 A    , B   
E
 5 6  1 8 
UP
 1 5   2 1   1  2 5  1   1 6 
AB     
 0 6   3 8   0  3 6  8   3 2 
1 3 
 ( A  B )    ...(1)
(c)
 6 2 
le
Notes
 1 0   2 3   1  2 0  3 
A  B     
 5 6   1 8   5  1 6  8 
/Sa
___________________
___________________ 1 3 
 A  B    ...(2)
___________________
 6 2 
on
___________________ From (1) and (2) ; ( A  B )  A   B 
___________________  1 5   2 1   1  2 5  1   3 4 
AB    
cti
___________________  0 6   3 8   0  3 6  8   3 14 
___________________  3 3 
 ( A  B )    ...(3)
___________________  4 14 
du
___________________
 1 0   2 3   1  2 0  3 
A  B     
___________________  5 6   1 8   5  1 6  8 
pro
 3 3 
 A  B  
 4 14 
 ...(4)
Re
From (3) and (4) ( A  B )  A   B .
(3) Find the matrices A and B given that
 2 3 1 4 6 1
2A  B    and 3 A  2 B   
for
 1 4 0 2 3 5
Solution:
2 3 1
2A  B    ...(1)
t
1 4 0 
No
4 6 1
3 A  2B    ...(2)
2 3 5
Multiply (1) by 2
S,
4 6 2
 (1)  2  4 A  2B   
2 8 0
E
4 6 1
(2)  3 A  2 B  
UP

2 3 5
0 0 1 
Subtracting, we get A   
 0 5 5 
(c)
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
Notes
/Sa
0 0 1  2 3 1
2  B  ___________________
 0 5 5  1 4 0 
___________________
2 3 1 0 0 2  ___________________
 B   
on
 1 4 0   0 10 10 
___________________
 2  0 3  0 1  2   2 3 1  ___________________
  
 1  0 4  10 0  10   1 6 10 
cti
___________________
0 0 1   2 3 1  ___________________
A  , B 
 0 5 5   1 6 10 
du
___________________
 2 2  1 1  ___________________
(4) If A    ,B  find AB and BA.
 2 2  1 1  ___________________
Solution: pro
 2 2   1 1 
AB     
 2 2   1 1 
Re
 2(1)  ( 2)(1) 2(1)  ( 2)1 
 
 2(1)  2(1) ( 2)1  2(1) 
for
 22 22  0 0
  
 2  2 2  2   0 0 
 1 1   2 2 
BA     
 1 1   2 2 
t
No
 1(2)  1( 2) 1( 2)  1(2) 

 
 1(2)  1( 2) 1( 2)  1(2) 
 2  2 2  2   0 0 
  
S,
 2  2 2  2   0 0 
 1 1   1 0 
(5) Simplify: 
E
  
 2 3   0 8 
UP
Solution:
 1 1   1 0 
 2 3   0 8 
   
(c)
 1( 1)  ( 1)0 1(0)  ( 1)(8) 

 
 ( 2)( 1)  ( 3)0 ( 2)(0)  ( 3)( 8) 
le
Notes
 1  0 0  8   1 8 
  
 2  0 0  24   2 24 
/Sa
___________________
___________________ x   2 3   4 
(6) Find x and y if       
___________________
 y   4 5   1
on
___________________ Solution:
___________________  x  2(4)  3( 1)   8  3   5 

 y   4(4)  5( 1)  16  5  11
cti
___________________        
___________________ Equating the corresponding elements, we get
___________________ x  5, y  11.
du
___________________
 0 2 
(7) If A    , prove that A 2  4 I  0 where I is the unit
___________________
 2 0 
pro
matrix of second order.
Solution:
 0 2   0 2 
Re
A2     
 2 0   2 0 
04 00
 A2   
00 40
for
4 0
 A2   
0 4
 1 0   4 0 
t
4 I   4   
No
 0 1   0 4 
4 0   4 0 
 A2  4 I    
0 4   0 4 
S,
4  4 0  0   0 0 
  0
0  0 4  4   0 0 
E
 A 2  4 I  0.
UP
3 1 2
(8) If A    , prove that A  8 A  13 I  0.
 2 5 
Solution:
(c)
3 1  3 1   9  2 3  5  11 8 
A2       
2 5 2 5 6  10 2  25  16 27 
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
3 1   24 8 
 8 A  8    Notes
2 5  16 40 
/Sa
___________________
1 0  13 0 
13 I  13    ___________________
0 1   0 13 
___________________
on
 11 8   24 8  13 0  ___________________
Adding, A 2  8 A  13 I     
 16 27   16 40   0 13 
___________________
cti
11  24  13 8  8  0  0 0  ___________________
  
 16  16  0 27  40  13  0 0  ___________________
2
du
 A  8 A  13 I  0. ___________________
___________________
 3 1 
5 2 1  
(9) If A   , B   4 7  ___________________
 0 7 1   1 1
Verify that ( AB )  B A .
pro
Re
Solution:
 5 0
 3 4 1 
A    2 7  , B    
 1 1   1 7 1 
for
 3 1 
 5 2 1   
AB     4 7 
 0 7 1   1 1 
 
t
No
 5( 3)  2(4)  ( 1)1 5(1)  2(7)  ( 1)( 1) 


 0( 3)  7(4)  1(1) 0(1)  7(7)  1( 1) 
 15  8  1 5  14  1 
 
 0  28  1 0  49  1
S,
 8 20 
AB   
E
 29 48 
 8 29 
UP
 ( AB )    ...(1)
 20 48 
 5 0
 3 4 1   
B A      2 7
(c)
 1 7 1   1 1 
 
le
Notes
 ( 3)5  4(2)  1( 1) ( 3)0  4(7)  1(1) 
 
 1(5)  7(2)  ( 1)(1) 1(0)  7(7)  ( 1)1 
/Sa
___________________
___________________  15  8  1 0  28  1 
 
___________________
 5  14  1 0  49  1 
on
___________________  8 29 
B A     ...(2)
___________________  20 48 
cti
___________________ From (1) and (2), ( AB )  B A 
___________________  2 4 
(10) If A    , find ( A )2  A   I .
___________________ 4 1 
du
___________________ Solution:
___________________
 2 4 
A
4 1 
 pro
 2 4
,  A   
 4 1 
 2 4  2 4
( A )2  A A      
 4 1   4 1 
Re
 4  16 8  4 
 
 8  4 16  1 
for
 12 12 
 ( A  )2   
 12 15 
 2 4 
 A   
 4 1 
t
No
1 0 
I  
0 1
 12  2  1 12  4  0   13 8 
 ( A  )2  A   I    
S,
 12  4  0 15  1  1   8 15 
3 4 
, find A 3 .
E
(11) If A   
 1 1 
UP
Solution:
3 4  3 4 
A2    
1 1 1 1
(c)
 9  4 12  4   13 8 
   
 3 1 4 1   2 5
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
 13 8   3 4 
 A3  A2 . A      Notes
 2 5   1 1 
/Sa
___________________
 39  8 52  8 
 ___________________

 65 85 
___________________
on
 47 44  ___________________
 A3   
 11 3 
___________________
cti
a h g x ___________________
(12) Find the product of A  [ x y z ], B   h b f  , C   y  .
 
___________________
 g f c   z 
du
___________________
Solution: ___________________
A is a matrix of order 1  3, B is of 3  3 and C is of 3  1. ___________________
 ABC will be a matrix of order 1  1. pro

a h g
AB  [ x y z ]1  3 h b f 
Re
 
 g f c  3  3
  ax  hy  gz hx  by  fz gx  fy  cz 1  3
for
x
( AB )C   ax  hy  gz hx  by  fz gx  fy  cz   y 
 z 
t
 ( ax  hy  gz ) x  ( hx  by  fz ) y  ( gx  fy  cz ) z 
No
 [ ax 2  hxy  gzx  hxy  by2  fyz  gzx  fyz  cz 2 ]
 [ ax 2  by 2  cz 2  2hxy  2 fyz  2 gzx ]1  1

S,
1 2 2
(13) If A   2 1 2  , prove that A 2  4 A  5 I  0.
 2 2 1 
E
Solution:
UP
1 2 2 1 2 2
A   2 1 2   2 1 2 
2
 2 2 1   2 2 1 
(c)
le
Notes
14 4 224 24 2 
  2  2  4 4  1  4 4  2  2 
/Sa
___________________
 2  4  2 4  2  2 4  4  1 
___________________
9 8 8
___________________
A   8 9 8 
2
on
___________________  8 8 9 
___________________
 4 8 8 
cti
___________________
4 A   8 4 8 
___________________  8 8 4 
___________________
du
 5 0 0 
5 I   0 5 0 
___________________
___________________  0 0 5 
pro  94 5 880 880 
Adding  A  4 A  5 I   8  8  0 9  4  5 8  8  0 
2
 8  8  0 8  8  0 9  4  5 
Re
0 0 0
  0 0 0   0
 0 0 0 
for
 A 2  4 A  5 I  0.
 1 2 3   2 4 8 
(14) If A   4 7 5  , B   0 6 3 
 
t
 0 18 10   5 7 11 
No
Verify that 2( A  B )  2 A  2B.
Solution:
S,
 1  2 2  4 3  8 
A  B   4  0 7  6 5  3 
 0  5 8  7 10  11 
E
 1 2 11 
UP
  4 13 2 
 5 15 21 
(c)
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
 1 2 11 
Notes
2( A  B )  2  4 13 2 
/Sa
 5 15 21  ___________________
___________________
 2 4 22 
2( A  B )   8 26 4 
___________________
...(1)
on
 10 30 42  ___________________
___________________
 1 2 3   2 4 6 
cti
2 A  2  4 7 5    8 14 10 
   ___________________
 0 8 10   0 16 20  ___________________
du
___________________
 2 4 8   4 8 16 
2 B  2  0 6 3    0 12 6  ___________________
 5 7 11   10 14 22  ___________________
 2 4 6   4 8 16 
 2 A  2B   8 14 10    0 12 6 

pro
 0 16 20   10 14 22 
Re
 2  4 4  8 6  16 
  8  0 14  12 10  6 
 0  10 16  14 20  22 
for
 2 4 22 
2 A  2B   8 26 4  ...(2)
 10 30 42 
t
From (1) and (2), 2( A  B )  2 A  2B.

No
0 1 1 0  2 2
(15) If A    ,B  , prove that A  B  2 I  0.
 1 0   0 1 
Solution:
S,
 0 1   0 1   0 1 0  0   1 0 
A2       
1 0  1 0  00 10  0 1 
E
1 0 1 0  10 00  1 0 

UP
B2      
 0 1   0 1   0  0 0  1   0 1 
 1 0   2 0 
2 I  2   
 0 1   0 2 
(c)
le
 1 0  1 0   2 0 
Notes Adding, A 2  B 2  2 I     
 0 1  0 1   0 2
/Sa
___________________
___________________  1  1  2 0  0  0  0 0 
  
___________________
0  0  0 1  1  2   0 0 
on
___________________  A 2  B 2  2 I  0.
___________________ x   2 3 4   4 
(16) Solve for x, y, z given that  y    4 5 6   5 
cti
___________________
___________________
 z   7 8 9   6 
___________________ Solution:
du
___________________ x   2 3 4   4 
 y   4 5 6   5 
___________________
    
pro
 z   7 8 9   6 
 8  15  24   47 
  16  25  36    77 
Re
 28  40  54   122 
 x  47, y  77, z  122.
 1 3 5 0 1 2 9 8 7
for
(17) Evaluate:   2   3 

 2 4 6 3 4 5 6 5 4
Solution:
 1 3 5 0 1 2 9 8 7
t
 2 4 6  2  3 4 5  3 6 5 4 
No
     
 1 3 5   0 2 4   27 24 21 
     
 2 4 6   6 8 10   18 15 12 
S,
 1  0  27 3  2  24 5  4  21   26 19 12 

 
 2  6  18 4  8  15 6  10  12   10 3 4 
E
(18) Find the matrix X such that A + 2X = B given that

 5 1   2 5 
UP
A  and B   
4 7  4 9 
Solution:
A  2X  B
(c)
 2X  B  A
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
1
X  (B  A) Notes
2
/Sa
___________________
1  2 5 5 1  1  3 4 
   
2  4 9  4 7   2  0 2 
___________________
___________________
on
 3 
 2 ___________________
i.e., X   2
 
 0 1  ___________________
cti
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
du
___________________
1. The matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and
___________________
columns is called the ......................
___________________
pro
2. The Transpose of a matrix A is shown as ......................
or ......................
Summary
Re
In this unit we have studied the concepts of matrices and its
importance in solving real world problems of business. While a
matrix is an array of numbers arranged into certain number of
for
rows and columns, a determinant is a scalar.
Lesson End Activity

t
The cost of 5 kg of rice, 2 kg of sugar and 5 kg of wheat is 23. The

No
cost of 4 kg of rice, 4 kg of sugar and 2 kg of wheat is 19. The cost

of 3 kg of rice, 2 kg of sugar and 4 kg of wheat is 18. Find the rate
per kg of each of these commodities.
S,
Keywords
Column Matrix: A matrix having only one column.
E
Matrix: An array of numbers arranged in certain numbers of rows

UP
and columns.
Rank: A non-negative integral value that represents the minimum
number of non-dependent rows or columns in a matrix.
(c)
Rectangular Matrix: A matrix consisting of m rows and n

columns, where m n.
le
Row Matrix: A matrix having only one row.
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Singular Matrix: A matrix whose determinant is zero.
___________________ Square Matrix: If the number of rows of a matrix is equal to its

number of columns, the matrix is said to be a square matrix.
___________________
on
Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A [aij] is said to be symmetric
___________________
if aij= aji for all values of i and j.
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
1. Discuss with examples, different types of matrices.
___________________
du
2. Given the following column vectors
___________________
___________________
1   2  2
A  2 , B   –1 , C   –2 
   
3 
pro
 3   1 
Find (i) A+B, (ii) A+B+C, (iii) 2A–B+C

Re
2 3 1 2 3 
3. If A    and B   
3 7  3 2 4 
Then find AB.

for
4. For square matrices A and B, expand (A+B) (A–B) and (A–B)

(A+B). When will these products be equal?
0 2 3  7 6 0 
5. If A    ,B 
2 1 4  0 4 1 
t
No
Find (i) 3 A  2B (ii) 3 A  2B , (iii) 3B  2 A , (iv) 3B  2 A
3 8 1  4 0 2 
6. If A  2 6 3  , B  6 2 3  , verify that
 
S,
7 4 5 1 3 2
3( A  B ),  3 A  3B.
E
 1 0 3 2 
7. Find the matrix A if 2 A  B    and B   .
UP
 3 2  1 4 
a 2  b2 b2  c 2   2ab 2bc 
8. Prove that  2 2 2 2
 
a  c a  b   2ac 2ab 
(c)
UNIT 6: Matrices
le
( a  b)2 (b  c )2 
 2 . Notes
( a  c ) ( a  b )2 
/Sa
___________________
 3 0  1 2 5 7  ___________________
9. If A   3 1  , B   2 1  , C  1 0  , find the matrix X such
   
___________________
 4 1   7 2 2 3 
on
___________________
that 2 A  3B  X  C.
___________________
3 1 2  2 1 4 
cti
10. If A    ,B , ___________________
4 3 5  1 3 2 
___________________
verify that ( A  B )  A   B  and ( A  B )  A   B .
du
___________________
 1 2  ___________________
0 3 5 
11. If A   4 3 , B   find AB and BA.
 4 2 6  ___________________
 5 6 
 1 2 3 3   1 
12. Find  
pro
    
 1 2 4 4   4 
Re
 a b a b 
13. Find AB and BA given that A    ,B .
 b a   b a 
1 2 3
for
14. If A   1 2 3  , show that A 2  0.


 1 2 3
3 2   a 1   4 5 
15. Find a and b if   .
t
 
4 1   5 b  3 5
No
 1 2  3 5 
16. If A    and B    , verify that ( AB )  B A .
 2 4 6 7 
 3 1
S,
17. If A    , prove that A 2  5 A  7 I  0 where I is the unit

 1 2
matrix of order 2  2.
E
3 1  2 1 2 3
18. If A    ,B  ,C  , verify that
UP
4 2  3 1  4 1 
(i) A( B  C )  AB  AC
(ii) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  C
(c)
(iii) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  C
le
Notes
1 3   x   1
19. Find x and y given that       .
4 7   y   3 
/Sa
___________________
___________________ 0 2 
20. If A    , prove that A 2  4 I  0.
___________________
2 0 
on
___________________ 21. Solve for A and B given that
___________________  2 3 4  4 6 2
2A  B    , 3 A  2B   .
 1 4 0   2 3 5 
cti
___________________
___________________ 1 3  2 1 
22. Simplify:    .
___________________  4 2  3 4 
du
___________________
1 2  2
___________________
23. If A  
3 4  , find ( A )  3 A  4 I .
 
1 3 5 
24. Evaluate  
2 4 6 
pro
0 1 2 
2  
3 4 5 
9 8 7 
3 .
6 5 4 
Re
 1 2 2 0 
25. If A    , B 
 1 3  1 5 
Find (i) A   B , (ii) A   B , (iii) AB, (iv) BA, (v) ( AB ) (vi)

( BA ).
for
 x  1 2 3   1
26. Solve for x, y, z given that  y   4 5 6   2  .
 z  7 8 9   5 
t
No
 2 0 0   x  4 
27. Solve for x, y, z given that 0 3 0   y   9  .
0 0 4   z  0 
1 2 2
S,
28. If A  2 1 2 , prove that A 2  4 A  5 I  0 where I is the

2 2 1 
E
unit matrix of order 3  3.

UP
29. Find a, b, c if
a 2 3  3 2 1   13 2 7 
4  4 5 6   5 2 b 4    6
  5 4  .
(c)
7 8 6  9 8 7   17 2c 1 

UNIT 6: Matrices
le
 x 2 1  2x 3  3 4 
30. Solve for x:     . Notes
 2 3  1 4  3 7 
/Sa
___________________
 1 1  4 1 ___________________
31. If A    ,B  find ( A   B ) ( A  B ).
2 3  3 2 
___________________
on
1  ___________________
2 3 4
32. If A  , B   1 , C  2 2 , find A(BC) and
 2 3 4  ___________________
 1 
cti
___________________
(AB)C. Are they equal?
___________________
 x  3 
du
3 ___________________
33. Find x, y, z if  y   2 4 2   .
 z  2  1 ___________________
___________________
34. If
1 1 0 
A
2 1 2

3 4 7 
,B
1 2 8 

0 4 3 
,C   ,
1 0 4 
pro Verify
( A  B )  C  A  ( B  C ).
Re
 1 2 2 0 
35. If A    and B    , find A   B .
 1 3  1 5 
Further Readings
for
Books
t
No

Web Readings
S,
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matrix
E
www.matrixonweb.com/ -
UP
www.springer.com/engineering/signals/book/978-3-642-30231-2
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 7: Determinants
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Determinants ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Determinants ___________________
 Worked Examples on Adjoint and Inverse ___________________
 Cramer’s Rule
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
Matrices and Determinants were first introduced to solve systems
of linear equations. In 1750, G. Cramer gave a rule called Cramer’s
rule to solve the simultaneous equations. Sir Arthur Cayley
introduced the theory of matrices.
Re
If all the equations of a system or model are linear, then matrix
algebra provides an efficient method of their solution than the
traditional method of elimination of variables.
for
Determinant
To every square matrix A, a real number is associated. This real
number is called its determinant and is denoted by ( A ).
t
No
 1 2 
E.g. If A  then its determinant is denoted by
 3 4 2  2
1 2
( A )  .
3 4
S,
The value of this determinant is determined as

E
( A )  ( 1)4  (3  2)  4  6  10.
a1 b1
UP
In general if   then its value is   a1b2  a2b1 .

a2 b2
(c)
le
a1 b1 c1
Notes
Activity Similarly if   a2 b2 c2 then its value is
/Sa
___________________
Analyze the significance of
minor and cofactors
a3 b3 c3
___________________
calculation.
b2 c2 a c2 a b
___________________
  a1  b1 2  c1 2 2
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
on
___________________
   a1 (b2c3  b3c2 )  b1 ( a2c3  a3c2 )  c1 ( a2b3  a3b2 ).
___________________
a1 b1
cti
___________________   a1b2  a2b1 is called a 2nd order determinant.
a2 b2
___________________
___________________ a1 b1 c1
du
  a2 b2 c2  a1 (b2c3  b3c2 )  b1 ( a2c3  a3c2 )  c1 ( a2b3  a3b2 )
___________________
a3 b3 c3
___________________
The rows are represented by

pro
is called a 3rd order determinant.
R1 , R2 , R3 , the columns are
represented by C1 , C2 , C3 .
Re
Minor and Cofactor of an Element of a Square Matrix

The minor of an element of a square matrix A is defined to be the
for
determinant obtained by deleting the row and column in which the

element is present.
a b 
E.g.: A   1 1  then
 a2 b2 
t
No
minor of a1  b2
minor of b1  a2
minor of a2  b1
S,
minor of b2  a1
E
 a1 b1 c1 
If A  a2 b2 c2 
UP
 a3 b3 c3 
b2 c2
Minor of a1   b2c3  b3c2
b3 c3
(c)
le
a2 c2
Minor of b1   a2c3  a3c2 Notes
a3 c3
/Sa
___________________
a2 b2
Minor of c1   a2b3  a3b2 ___________________
a3 b3
___________________
on
b1 c1 ___________________
Minor of a2   b1c3  b3c1
b3 c3
___________________
cti
a1 c1 ___________________
Minor of b2   a1c3  a3c1
a3 c3 ___________________
du
a1 b1 ___________________
Minor of c2   a1b3  a3b1
a3 b3 ___________________
___________________
Minor of a3 
b1
b2
c1
c2
 b1c2  b2c1 pro
a1 c1
Minor of b3   a1c2  a2c1
Re
a2 c2
a1 b1
Minor of c3   a1b2  a2b1
a2 b2
for
The cofactor of an element of a square matrix is defined to be

( 1)i  j  (minor of the element) where i and j are the number of
row and column in which the element is present.
Here ( 1)i  j will be equal to 1 if i  j is even and will be equal to

t
No
–1 if i  j is odd.
a b 
If A   1 1  ,
a2 b2 
S,
Cofactor of a1  ( 1)11 (b2 )  b2
Cofactor of b1  ( 1)1 2 ( a2 )  a2

E
Cofactor of a2  ( 1)21 (b1 )  b1

UP
Cofactor of b2  ( 1)2 2 ( a1 )  a1
  
The signs of the cofactors are  
(c)
 
le
Notes
 a1 b1 c1 
If A  a2 b2 c2  ,
/Sa
___________________
 a3 b3 c3 
___________________
b2 c2
___________________ Cofactor of a1  ( 1)11  (b2c3  b3c2 )
b3 c3
on
___________________
___________________ a2 c2
Cofactor of b1  ( 1)1 2  ( a2c3  a3c2 )
a3 c3
cti
___________________
___________________ a2 b2
Cofactor of c1  ( 1)13   ( a2b3  a3b2 )
___________________
a3 b3
du
___________________ b1 c1
Cofactor of a2  ( 1)21   (b1c3  b3c1 )
___________________ b3 c3
Cofactor of b2  ( 1)2 2
pro
a1
a3
c1
c3
  ( a1c3  a3c1 )
Re
a1 b1
Cofactor of c2  ( 1)23   ( a1b3  a3b1 )
a3 b3
b1 c1
Cofactor of a3  ( 1)31   (b1c2  b2c1 )
b2 c2
for
a1 c1
Cofactor of b3  ( 1)3 2    ( a1c2  a2c1 )
a2 c2
t
a1 b1
Cofactor of c3  ( 1)3  3   ( a1b2  a2b1 )
No
a2 b2
   
The signs of cofactors are      .
    
S,
The cofactors of a1 , b1 , c1 , a2 , b2 , c2 , a3 , b3 , c3 are denoted by

E
capitals A1 , B1 , C1 , A2 , B2 , C2 , A3 , B3 , C3 respectively.
UP
(c)
le
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
Can___________________
you find the adjoint of a
1. To every square matrix A, a real number is associated. non square matrix?
___________________
This real number is called its ................
___________________
on
2. The ................ of an element of a square matrix is
___________________
defined to be (–1)i+ j´ (minor of the element) where i and
j are the number of row and column in which the ___________________
cti
element is present. ___________________
___________________
Adjoint and Inverse of a Square Matrix
du
___________________
The adjoint of a square matrix A is the transpose of the matrix of ___________________
the cofactors of the elements of A and is denoted by Adj. A.
___________________
a b 
If A   1 1  , then
a2 b2 
pro
Cofactor of a1   b2 I column
Re
Cofactor of b1  a2
Cofactor of a2  b1 II column

for
Cofactor of b2   a1
 b b1 
 Adj. A   2
 a2 a1 
t
Note: To find the adjoint of a 2nd order square matrix, interchange

No
the elements of the principal diagonal and change the signs of the
elements of the other diagonal.
 2 3 7 3
E.g.: If A    , then Adj. A    ...(1)
 1 7  1 2 
S,
This can be calculated and verified–

E
Cofactor of 2  (7)  7 I column

UP
Cofactor of 3  ( 1)  1
Cofactor of 1  (3)  3 II column
Cofactor of 7  (2)  2
(c)
le
Notes
7 3
Adj. A    which is the same as (1)
1 2 
/Sa
___________________
___________________  a1 b1 c1 
If A  a2 b2 c2  , then
___________________
 a3 b3 c3 
on
___________________
Cofactor of a1  (b2c3  b3c2 )  A1
___________________
cti
___________________ Cofactor of b1   ( a2c3  a3c2 )  B1 I column
___________________
Cofactor of c1   ( a2b3  a3b2 )  C1
___________________
du
Cofactor of a2   (b1c3  b3c1 )  A2
___________________
___________________
Cofactor of b2  ( a1c3  a3c1 )  B2 II column
pro
Cofactor of c2  ( a1b3  a3b1 )  C2
Cofactor of a3  (b1c2  b2c1 )  A3

Re
Cofactor of b3  ( a1c2  a2c1 )  B3 III column
Cofactor of c3  ( a1b2  a2b1 )  C3
 A1 A2 A3 
for
 Adj. A   B1 B2 B3 
 C1 C2 C3 
Note: A( Adj. A )  ( Adj A ) A | A| I where I is the identity matrix

t
of the same order as that of A.

No
Singular and Non-singular Matrices

A square matrix A is said to be singular if | A | 0 and is said to be
non-singular if | A | 0
S,
2 1
E.g.    ( 2)7  (14)( 1)  14  14  0.
14 7
E
  is singular.
UP
1 4
  7  12  5  0.
3 7
(c)
  is non-singular.
le
Inverse of a Square Matrix
Notes
Inverse of a square matrix is defined if and only if it is non- Activity
/Sa
singular. The inverse of a non-singular square matrix A is denoted Is inverse means reciprocal?
___________________
1 Justify.
by A . ___________________
When does cramer’s rule does
not hold?
A 1 is determined by using the formula ___________________
on
Adj. A ___________________
A 1  where | A | 0.
| A| ___________________
cti
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
du
___________________
1. The adjoint of a square matrix A is the .................... of
the matrix of the cofactors of the elements of A. ___________________
___________________
pro
2. A square matrix A is said to be singular if |A| ................
and is said to be non-singular if |A| ...................
Solution of a System of Linear Simultaneous

Re
Equations: (Cramer’s Rule)
(a) To solve the simultaneous equations in two variables:
a1 x  b1 y  c1 ...(1)
for
a2 x  b2 y  c2 ...(2)
a1 b1
Find    a1b2  a2b1  0.
a2 b2
t
No
Replace a1 , a2 by c1 , c2 to get
c1 b1
1   c1b2  c2b1
c2 b2
S,
Replace b1 , b2 by c1 , c2 to get
E
a1 c1
2   a1c2  a2c1
a2 c2
UP
Then by Cramer’s rule

1 2
x and y  .
 
(c)
le
(b) To solve the simultaneous equations in three variables
Notes
/Sa
___________________
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1
___________________ a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d2
___________________ a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d3
on
___________________
a1 b1 c1
___________________
Find   a2 b2 c2  0.
cti
___________________ a3 b3 c3
___________________
Replace a1 , a2 , a3 by d1 , d2 , d3
___________________
du
d1 b1 c1
___________________
 1  d2 b2 c2
___________________
d3 b3 c3
pro
Replace b1 , b2 , b3 by d1 , d2 , d3
a1 d1 c1
Re
  2  a2 d2 c2
a3 d3 c3
Replace c1 , c2 , c3 by d1 , d2 , d3
for
a1 b1 d1
 3  a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 d3
t
Then by Cramer’s rule,

No
  
x , y 2,z .
  
Worked Examples on Determinants, Singular and Non-singular Matrices

S,
I. Evaluate the following determinants

E
1 2 1 4 2 8 5 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
3 6 7 8 1 4 2 1
UP
1 3 1 1 2 3 0 2 4
(5) 2 0 1 (6) 4 5 6 (7) 1 7 3
4 5 1 7 8 9 2 5 4
(c)
le
1 0 3 a h g 7 0 0
Notes
(8) 4 6 5 (9) h b f (10) 0 5 0
/Sa
0 7 2 g f c 0 0 1 ___________________
___________________
Solution:
___________________
on
1 2
(1)  1(6)  3(2)  6  6  0 ___________________
3 6
___________________
cti
1 4
(2)  ( 1)8  ( 7)4  8  28  20 ___________________
7 8
___________________
2 8
du
(3)  2(4)  1(8)  8  8  0 ___________________
1 4
___________________
5 3 ___________________
(4)
2 1
1 3 1
 ( 5)( 1)  2(3)  5  6  1
pro
(5) 2 0 1  1(0  5)  3( 2  4)  1(10  0)
Re
4 5 1
 5  18  10  23
1 2 3
for
(6) 4 5 6  1(45  48)  2(36  42)  3(32  35)

7 8 9
 3  12  9  12  12  0
t
0 2 4
No
(7) 1 7 3  0 ( 28  15)  2( 4  6)  4(5  14)

2 5 4
 43  20  36  99
S,
1 0 3
(8) 4 6 5  1( 12  35)  0( 8  0)  3(28  0)
E
0 7 2
UP
 23  8  84  115
a h g
(9) h b f  a(bc  f 2 )  h(ch  fg )  g ( hf  bg )
(c)
g f c
 abc  af 2  ch2  fgh  fgh  bg 2

le
Notes
 abc  2 fgh  af 2  bg 2  ch2 .
/Sa
___________________ 7 0 0
___________________ (10) 0 5 0  7(5  0)  0 (0  0)  0(0  0)  35
0 0 1
___________________
on
___________________ II.
___________________ 3 4 x
1. If 2 1 3  40, find x .
cti
___________________
5 1 2
___________________
___________________ Solution:
du
___________________ 3 4 x
___________________ 2 1 3   40
5 1 2
pro
 3(2  3)  4(4  15)  x ( 2  5)  40
 15  76  3x  40
Re
 3x  40  76  15
 3x  21
for
 x 7
1 4 5
2. Find the value of x: 2 x 0  0
3 5 8
t
No
Solution:
1 4 5
2 x 0 0
3 5 8
S,
 1(8x  0)  4(16  0)  5(10  3x )  0

E
 8x  64  50  15x  0
UP
 7x  14  0
 7x  14
 x  2
(c)
le
 2 1 x 
Notes
3. Find the value of x if  0 1 5  is singular.
/Sa
 1 3 1  ___________________
___________________
Solution:
___________________
on
 2 1 x  2 1 x
 0 1 5  is singular  0 1 5  0 ___________________
 
 1 3 1  1 3 1 ___________________
cti
___________________
 2( 1  15)  1(0  5)  x(0  1)  0
___________________
 32  5  x  0
du
___________________
 x  37
___________________
x 2 2 ___________________
4. Find x if 2 x 2  0.
2 2 x
pro
Solution:
Re
x 2 2
2 x 2 0
2 2 x
for
 x (0  4)  2(2x  4)  2(4  0)  0
 4 x  4 x  8  8  0
  8x  16  0  x  2
t
No
 x 2 x 2

5. If  3 5 8  is singular, find the value of x.
 x  1 7  x 12 
Solution:
S,
The given matrix is singular  its determinant = 0

E
x 2 x 2
i.e., 3 5 8 0
UP
x 1 7  x 12
 x (60  56  8 x )  2(36  8 x  8)  ( x  2)(21  3 x  5 x  5)  0
 4 x  8x 2  56  16 x  16 x  32  8 x 2  16 x  0
(c)
 20 x  24  0
le
24 6
Notes x  .
20 5
/Sa
___________________
III. Evaluate the following determinants
___________________
40 41 42 77 78 79
___________________ 20 21
(1) (2) 41 42 43 (3) 75 74 73
on
___________________ 22 23
42 43 44 76 75 74
___________________
12 0 0
cti
___________________ 4200 4201
(4) (5) 4 3 0
___________________ 4202 4203
2 2 3
___________________
du
Solution:
___________________
20 21
___________________ (1) Let  
R1  R2
pro
22 23
2 2

Re
22 23
C1  C2
0 2
for

1 23
Expand
 0(23)  ( 1)( 2)  2
t
No
40 41 42
(2) Let   41 42 43
42 43 44
R1  R2 and R2  R3
S,
1 1 1
E
 1 1 1
42 43 44
UP
R1  R2
0 0 0
 1 1 1
(c)
42 43 44
le
Expand
Notes
/Sa
0( 44  43)  0( 44  42)  0( 43  42)
___________________
000 0
___________________
77 78 79 ___________________
on
(3) Let   75 74 73
___________________
76 75 74
___________________
cti
R1  R2 and R2  R3
___________________
2 4 6 ___________________
 1 1 1
du
___________________
76 75 74
___________________
C1  C2 and C2  C3 ___________________
2 2 6
 0 0 1
pro
1 1 74
Re
Expand
 ( 2) (0  1)  2(0  1)  6(0  0)
for
 2  2  0  0
4200 4201
(4) Let  
4202 4203
t
R1  R2
No
2 2

4202 4203
C1  C2
S,
0 2

1 4203
E
Expand
UP
 0(4203)  ( 1)( 2)
 2
(c)
le
12 0 0
Notes
(5) Let   4 3 0
/Sa
___________________
2 2 3
___________________
Expand
___________________
on
 12( 9  0)  0( 12  0)  0(8  6)
___________________
___________________
 108  0  0  108
cti
___________________ Worked Examples on Adjoint and Inverse
___________________
I. Find the adjoint of the following matrices
___________________
du
 2 1   1 5  3 0
___________________ (1)   (2)   (3)  
4 7   2 8 5 9
___________________
2 1 5 
(4) 4 0 1 
9 3 6 
pro 1 5 6 
(5) 0 7 11 
5 2 4 
 9 1 2 
(6)  0 8 1 
 5 1 7 
Re
 2 7 3 
(7)  4 10 1 
 3 5 8 
Solution:
for
 2 1 
(1) A   
4 7 
Cofactor of 2 = + (7) = 7
t
No
Cofactor of –1 = – (4) = – 4 I column

Cofactor of 4 = – (– 1) = 1
Cofactor of 7 = + (2) = 2 II column
S,
 7 1
 Adj A   
 4 2 
E
 1 5 
(2) A   
UP
 2 8
Cofactor of –1 = + (8) = 8
Cofactor of 5 = – (2) = – 2 I column
(c)
Cofactor of 2 = – (5) = – 5
Cofactor of 8 = + (– 1) = – 1 II column
le
 8 5 
 Adj A    Notes
 2 1 
/Sa
___________________
3 0
(3) A    ___________________
5 9
___________________
on
___________________
Cofactor of 0 = – (5) = – 5 I column ___________________
cti
Cofactor of 5 = – (0) = 0 ___________________
Cofactor of 9 = + (3) = 3 II column ___________________
du
 9 0 ___________________
 Adj A   
 5 3  ___________________
2 1 5  ___________________
(4) A  4 0 1 
9 3 6 
pro
Cofactor of 2 = + (0 + 3) = 3
Re
Cofactor of – 1 = – (24 – 9) = – 15 I column
Cofactor of 5 = + (– 12 – 0) = – 12
Cofactor of 4 = – (– 6 + 15) = – 9
for
Cofactor of 0 = + (12 – 45) = – 33 II column

Cofactor of 1 = – (– 6 + 9) = – 3
t
Cofactor of 9 = + (– 1 – 0) = – 1
No
Cofactor of – 3 = – (2 – 20) = 18 III column

Cofactor of 6 = + (0 + 4) = 4
 3 9 1 
 Adj A   15 33 18 

S,
 12 3 4 
E
1 5 6 
(5) A  0 7 11 
UP
5 2 4 
Cofactor of 1 = + (28 + 22) = 50

(c)
Cofactor of – 5 = – (0 – 55) = 55 I column

Cofactor of 6 = + (0 – 35) = – 35
le
Cofactor of 0 = – (– 20 + 12) = 8
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________ Cofactor of 11 = – (– 2 + 25) = – 23
___________________ Cofactor of 5 = + (– 55 – 42) = – 97
on
___________________ Cofactor of – 2 = – (11 – 0) = – 11 III column
___________________ Cofactor of 4 = + (7 – 0) = 7
cti
___________________  50 8 97 
___________________  Adj A   55 26 11 

___________________
 35 23 7 
du
___________________  9 1 2 
___________________ (6) A   0 8 1 
pro
 5 1 7 
Cofactor of 9 = + (56 – 1) = 55
Cofactor of – 1 = – (0 + 5) = – 5 I column
Re
Cofactor of 2 = + (0 + 40) = 40
Cofactor of 0 = – (– 7 – 2) = 9
Cofactor of 8 = + (63 – 10) = 53 II column
for
Cofactor of 1 = – (9 – 5) = – 4
Cofactor of – 5 = + (– 1 – 16) = – 17
Cofactor of 1 = – (9 – 0) = – 9 III column
t
No
Cofactor of 7 = + (72 – 0) = 72
 55 9 17 
 Adj A   5 53 9 
 40 4 72 
S,
 2 7 3 
(7) A   4 10 1 
E
 3 5 8 
UP
Cofactor of 2 = + (80 – 5) = 75
Cofactor of 7 = – (32 + 3) = – 35 I column
(c)
Cofactor of – 3 = + (20 + 30) = 50

Cofactor of 4 = – (56 + 15) = – 71
le
Notes
/Sa
Cofactor of 1 = – (10 + 21) = – 31
___________________
Cofactor of – 3 = + (7 + 30) = 37
___________________
Cofactor of 5 = – (2 + 12) = – 14 III column ___________________
on
Cofactor of 8 = + (20 – 28) = – 8 ___________________
 75 71 37  ___________________
 Adj A   35 7 14 
cti
___________________
 50 31 8 
___________________
II. Find the inverses of the following matrices provided they exist:
du
___________________
 1 1   2 0   1 1  ___________________
(1)   (2)   (3)  
2 0   4 1 3 4  ___________________
 5 2 
(4)  
 1 2 1 
(5)  1 2 1 
pro
 1 2 0 
(6)  3 1 5 
3 7   1 1 1   4 7 1 
Re
 0 2 4   2 1 1 
(7)  1 7 3  (8)  1 2 0 
 2 5 4   3 4 5 
for
Solution:
 1 1 
(1) Let A   
2 0 
t
No
1 1
| A | 0220
2 0
Cofactor of – 1 = – (2) = – 2 I column
S,
Cofactor of 2 = – (– 1) = 1
E
 0 1
UP
 Adj A   
 2 1 
 0 1  1 
  0
Adj A  2 1   2 
(c)
A 1    
| A| 2  1 1 
 2 
le
Notes
 2 0 
(2) Let A   
 4 1
/Sa
___________________
___________________ 2 0
| A |  2  0  2  0
4 1
___________________
on
___________________ Cofactor of –2 = + (1) = 1
___________________ Cofactor of 0 = – (4) = – 4 I column
cti
___________________ Cofactor of 4 = – (0) = 0
___________________ Cofactor of 1 = + (– 2) = – 2 II column
___________________
du
 1 0 
 Adj A   
___________________  4 2 
___________________
 1 0 
A 1 
| A|
pro
Adj A 

 4 2    1 0 
2
 

2 

 2 1 
Re
 1 1 
(3) Let A   
3 4 
1 1
| A | 437 0
for
3 4
t
Cofactor of 3 = – (– 1) = 1
No
 4 1
 Adj A   
 3 1 
S,
 4 1  4 1 
 
Adj A  3 1   7 7 
A 1    
E
| A| 7  3 1 
 7 7 
UP
 5 2 
(4) Let A   
3 7 
(c)
5 2
| A |  35  6  41
3 7
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Cofactor of 3 = – (–2) = 2
___________________
Cofactor of 7 = + (5) = 5 II column ___________________
on
 7 2 ___________________
 Adj A   
 3 5  ___________________
cti
 7 2  7 2  ___________________
 
Adj A  3 5   41 41 
___________________
A 1    
| A| 41  3 5 
du
___________________
 41 41 
___________________
 1 2 1 
___________________
(5) Let A   1 2 1 
 1 1 1  pro
1 2 1
Re
| A | 1 2 1
1 1 1
 1( 2  1)  2(1  1)  1( 1  2)
for
 3  0  3  0
Since | A | 0, the inverse does not exist.
 1 2 0 
(6)  3 1 5 
t
No
 4 7 1 
1 2 0
| A | 3 1 5
4 7 1
S,
 1( 1  35)  2( 3  20)  0(21  4)

E
 36  46  10  0
UP
Cofactor of – 1 = + (– 1 – 35) = – 36
Cofactor of – 2 = – (– 3 – 20) = 23 I column
Cofactor of 0 = + (21 – 4) = 17
(c)
Cofactor of 3 = – (2 – 0) = – 2
le
Cofactor of 5 = – (– 7 + 8) = – 1
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Cofactor of 4 = + (– 10 – 0) = – 10
___________________ Cofactor of 7 = – (– 5 – 0) = 5 III column
___________________ Cofactor of – 1 = + (– 1 + 6) = 5
on
___________________  36 2 10 
___________________  Adj A   23 1 5 
 17 1 5 
cti
___________________
___________________  36 2 10 

Adj A 1 
___________________
A 1
   23 1 5 
du
| A| 10
 17 1 5 
___________________
___________________  18 1 
1 
 5


23
 10

pro
5
1
10
5 
10 

 
  17 1 1
 
Re
 10 10 2 
 0 2 4 
(7) Let A   1 7 3 
for
 2 5 4 
| A | 0( 28  15)  2( 4  6)  4(5  14)
 0  20  36  56  0
t
Cofactor of 0 + (– 28 – 15) = – 43
No
Cofactor of 4 = + (5 – 14) = – 9
Cofactor of 1 = – (8 – 20) = 12
S,
Cofactor of 3 = – (0 + 4) = – 4
E
Cofactor of 2 = + (– 6 – 28) = – 34
UP
Cofactor of 5 = – (0 – 4) = 4 III column

Cofactor of – 4 = + (0 + 2) = 2
(c)
le
 43 12 34 
Notes
 Adj A   10 8 4 
/Sa
 9 4 2  ___________________
___________________
 43 12 34 
Adj A 1
  10 8 4 
___________________
A 1  
on
| A| 56 ___________________
 9 4 2 
___________________
 43 3 17 
cti
 56 14 28  ___________________
 
5 1 1
i.e., A 1    ___________________
 28 7 14 
du
  ___________________
 9 1

1 
 56 14 28  ___________________
___________________
 2 1 1 
(8) Let A   1 2 0 
 3 4 5 
pro
Re
2 1 1
| A | 1 2 0
3 4 5
 2( 10  0)  1( 5  0)  1(4  6)
for
 20  5  2  27  0
Cofactor of 2 = + (– 10 – 0) = – 10
t
No
Cofactor of 1 = + (4 – 6) = – 2
Cofactor of 1 = – (5 – 4) = – 1
Cofactor of 2 = + (–10 – 3) = – 13 II column
S,
Cofactor of 0 = – (8 + 3) = – 11
Cofactor of 3 = + (0 – 2) = – 2
E

UP
Cofactor of – 5 = + (4 + 1) = 5
 10 1 2 
 Adj A   5 13 1 
(c)
 2 11 5 
le
Notes
 10 1 2 
Adj A 1
A 1
    5 13 1 
/Sa
___________________ | A| 27
 2 11 5 
___________________
III. For the following matrices find A–1 and verify that (i) A (Adj A)
___________________
= (Adj A) A = |A| I and (ii) AA 1  A 1 A  I
on
___________________
 1 1 1 
___________________  1 1 
(1)   (2)  2 1 0 
2 2 
cti
___________________  3 2 1 
___________________
Solution:
___________________
du
 1 1 
___________________ (1) Let A   
2 2 
___________________
| A |
1 1
2 2
pro
224 0
Re
Cofactor of – 1 = – (2) = –2 I column
Cofactor of 2 = – (– 1) = 1
for
 2 1
 Adj A   
 2 1 
 1 1 
t
Adj A 1  2 1   2 4 
A 1    
No

| A| 4  2 1   1 1 
 2 4 
 1 1   2 1   2  2 1  1   4 0 
A(Adj A )       
 2 2   2 1   4  4 2  2   0 4 
S,
1 0 
 A (Adj A)  4    4 I  A I (  A  4)
E
0 1 
UP
Similarly it can be verified that ( Adj A) A  A I .
 1 1  1  2 1  1  2  2 1  1 
Now, AA 1       
 2 2  4  2 1  4  4  4 2  2 
(c)
1 4 0  1 0 
   I.
4  0 4   0 1 
le
 AA 1  I .
Notes
/Sa
1
Similarly it can be verified that A A  I . ___________________
 1 1 1  ___________________
(2) Let A   2 1 0  ___________________
on
 3 2 1 
___________________
| A | 1(1  0)  1(2  0)  1(4  3)  4  0. ___________________
cti
Cofactor of 1 = + (1 – 0) = 1 ___________________
Cofactor of – 1 = – (2 – 0) = – 2 I column ___________________
du
Cofactor of 1 = + (4 – 3) = 1 ___________________
___________________
Cofactor of 2 = – (– 1 –2) = 3
___________________
Cofactor of 1 = + (1 – 3) = – 2
Cofactor of 0 = – (2 + 3) = – 5
pro
II column
Cofactor of 3 = + (0 – 1) = – 1
Re
Cofactor of 1 = + (1 + 2) = 3
 1 3 1 
for
Adj A   2 2 2 

 1 5 3 
 1 1 1   1 3 1 
 A ( Adj A )   2 1 0   2 2 2 
  
t
No
 3 2 1   1 5 3 
 1  2  1 3  2  5 1  2  3 
  2  2  0 6  2  0 2  2  0 
 3  4  1 9  4  5 3  4  3 
S,
4 0 0
  0 4 0 
E
 0 0 4 
UP
1 0 0 
 4  0 1 0 
 0 0 1 
(c)
 4I  A I ( A  4)
le
Notes
Similarly we can verify that ( A dj A) A  A I.
/Sa
___________________  A (Adj A)  (Adj A) A  A I
___________________
Adj A
Now, A 1 
___________________ | A|
on
___________________
 1 3 1 
1 
___________________   2 2 2 
4
cti
___________________  1 5 3 
___________________  1 1 1   1 3 1 
1 
___________________ AA 1
  2 1 0   2 2 2 
 
du
4
___________________
 3 2 1   1 5 3 
___________________ 4 0 0  1 0 0 
1 
pro
  0 4 0    0 1 0   I
4
 0 0 4   0 0 1 
 AA 1  I
Re
Similarly it can be verified that A 1 A  I .
 AA 1  A 1 A  I .
for
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Inverse of a square matrix is defined if and only if it is
t
non-singular. The inverse of a non-singular square

No
matrix A is denoted by .......................

2. To find the adjoint of a 2nd order square matrix,
....................... the elements of the principal diagonal and
change the ....................... of the elements of the other
S,
diagonal.
E
Cramer’s Rule
UP
Using Cramer’s rule, solve the following equations:

(1) 3x  4 y  7, 4 x  3 y  5
(2) 3x  3 y  12, 2x  4 y  12
(c)
(3) 6x  4 y  10, x  7 y  8
le
(4) x  6 y  16,  2x  3 y  13
Notes
/Sa
(5) 2x  y  4, 3x  4 y  11 ___________________
(6) x  y  z  11, 2x  6 y  z  0, 3x  4 y  2z  0 ___________________
(7) x  3 y  z  4, x  2z  5, 3x  y  5 ___________________
on
___________________
(8) z  2x  1  0,  y  z  2  0, x  2 y  5
___________________
Solution:
cti
___________________
(1) 3x  4 y  7
___________________
4x  3 y  5
du
___________________
3 4 ___________________
  9  16  25
4 3 ___________________
1 
7 4
5 3
 21  20  41
pro
Re
3 7
2   15  28  13
4 5
1 41 41
x  
 25 25
for
 2 13 13
y  
 25 25
41 13
 x , y
t
25 25
No
(2) 3x  3 y  12
2x  4 y  12
3 3
S,
  12  6  6
2 4
E
12 3
1   48  36  12
12 4
UP
3 12
2   36  24  12
2 12
1 12
(c)
x  2
 6
le
 2 12
Notes y  2
 6
/Sa
___________________
 x  2, y  2
___________________
(3) 6x  4 y  10
___________________
on
___________________ x  7y  8
___________________ 6 4
  42  4  38
cti
___________________ 1 7
___________________ 10 4
1   70  32  38
___________________ 8 7
du
___________________
6 10
2   48  10  38
___________________ 1 8
 x
1 38

 38
1
pro
 2 38
Re
y  1
 38
 x  1, y  1
(4) x  6 y  16
for
2x  3 y  13
1 6
  3  12  15
2 3
t
No
16 6
1   48  78  30
13 3
1 16
2   13  32  45
S,
2 13
1 30
x  2
E
 15
 2 45
UP
y   3
 15
(5) 2x  y  4
(c)
3x  4 y  11
le
2 1
 83 5 Notes
3 4
/Sa
___________________
4 1
1   16  11  5 ___________________
11 4
___________________
on
2 4 ___________________
2   22  12  10
3 11
___________________
cti
1 5 ___________________
 x  1
 5
___________________
 10
du
y 2  2 ___________________
 5
___________________
 x  1, y  2
___________________
(6) x  y  z  11
2x  6 y  z  0
pro
3x  4 y  2z  0
Re
1 1 1
  2 6 1
3 4 2
for
 1( 12  4)  1 (4  3)  1(8  18)
 8  7  26  11
11 1 1
t
No
1  0 6 1
0 4 2
 11( 12  4)  0  0
 88
S,
1 11 1
E
 2  2 0 1
3 0 2
UP
 1(0  0)  11(4  3)  1(0  0)
 77
(c)
le
1 1 11
Notes
3  2 6 0
/Sa
___________________
3 4 0
___________________
 1(0  0)  1(0  0)  11(8  18)
___________________
on
 286
___________________
___________________ 1 88
x   8
 11
cti
___________________
 2 77
___________________ y   7
 11
___________________
du
3 286
___________________ z   26
 11
___________________
(7) x  3 y  z  4
x  2z  5
pro
3x  y  5
Re
1 3 1
  1 0 2
3 1 0
for
 1(0  2)  3(0  6)  1(1  0)
 2  18  1  17
4 3 1
t
1  5 0 2
No
5 1 0
 4(0  2)  3(0  10)  1( 5  0)
 8  30  5  17
S,
1 4 1
 2  1 5 2
E
3 5 0
UP
 1(0  10)  4(0  6)  1(5  15)
 10  24  20  34
1 3 4
(c)
3  1 0 5
3 1 5
le
 1(0  5)  3(5  15)  4(1  0)
Notes
/Sa
 5  60  4  51
___________________
1 17
 x  1 ___________________
 17
___________________
on
 34
y 2  2 ___________________
 17
___________________
 51
cti
z 3  3 ___________________
 17
 x  1, y  2, z  3 ___________________
du
___________________
(8) z  2x  1  0  2x  0 y  z  1
___________________
 y  z  2  0  0x  y  z  2
___________________
x  2 y  5  x  2 y  0z  5
2 0 1
pro
  0 1 1
Re
1 2 0
 2(0  2)  0(0  1)  1(0  1)
 4  1  3
for
1 0 1
1  2 1 1
5 2 0
t
 ( 1)(0  2)  0(0  5)  1( 4  5)
No
 2  0 1  3
2 1 1
 2  0 2 1
S,
1 5 0
 2(0  5)  1(0  1)  1(0  2)

E
 10  1  2  9
UP
2 0 1
3  0 1 2
1 2 5
(c)
 2( 5  4)  0(0  2)  1(0  1)
le
 2  1  3
Notes
/Sa
___________________
 3
 x   1
 3
___________________
 2 9
___________________ y  3
 3
on
___________________
3 3
___________________ z  1
 3
cti
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
du
1. By Cramer’s rule we have..................
___________________
___________________
2. Cramer rule .................. method to solve equations.
Worked Examples
1.
pro
Two businessmen are trading in shares have three banking
company shares as shown in the following table:
Re
Merchant Vijaya Bank Canara Bank Corporation Bank
Mr. Jain 200 100 300
Mr. Gupta 250 150 100
for
The approximate prices (in ) of three banking company shares

in three stock exchange market are given below.
Vijaya Bank Canara Bank Corporation Bank
t
No
Bangalore 39 40 38
Bombay 40 50 35
New Delhi 35 45 42
In which market each of the above businessmen has to sell
S,
their shares to get maximum receipt. Solve by matrix

multiplication method.
E
Solution:
UP
 VB CB Cor.B 
Let A   200 100 300  Jain
 250 150 100  23 Gupta
(c)
le
 Bang. Bomb. N.Delhi 
 39 40 35  VB Notes
/Sa
B  
 40 50 45  CB ___________________
 
 38 35 42  33 Cor .B
___________________
 39 40 35  ___________________
on
200 100 300  
 AB     40 50 45  ___________________
250 150 100   38 35 42 
  ___________________
cti
200  39  100  40  300  38 200  40  100  50  300  35  ___________________
 
 250  39  150  40  100  38 250  40  150  50 100  35  ___________________
200  35  100  45  300  42 
du
 ___________________

250  35  150  45  100  42 
___________________
 7800  4000  11400 8000  5000 10500 7000  4500 12600  ___________________

pro 
 9750  6000  3800 10000  7500  3500 8950  6750  4200 
 Bang. Bomb. ND 
  23200 23500 24100  Jain
Re
 19550 21000 19900  Gupta 23
Jain has to sell his shares in New Delhi and Gupta has to sell
his shares in Bombay to get maximum receipt.
for
2. Keerthi buys 8 dozen of pens, 10 dozen of pencils and 4 dozen

of rubber. Pens cost 18 per dozen, pencils 9 per dozen and
rubber 6 per dozen. Represent the quantities bought by a row
matrix and prices by a column matrix and hence obtain the
t
total cost.
No
Solution:
Let A be the row matrix of quantities and B be the column
matrix of prices.
S,
 A   8 10 4 
 18 
E
B   9 
UP
 6 
 18 
 AB   8 10 4   9   [144  90  24]  [258]
(c)
 6 
Total cost is 258.

le
3. Two oil merchants have the following stock of oil (in kg):
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Merchant Groundnut Sunflower Coconut
___________________ A 250 300 150
___________________ B 400 350 100
on
___________________ The approximate prices (in per kg) of three types of oil in 3
___________________
markets are:
cti
___________________ Market Groundnut Sunflower Coconut
___________________ X 70 50 150
___________________ Y 60 55 140
du
___________________ Z 55 60 132
___________________ In which market each of the above businessmen has to sell his
pro
stocks to get maximum receipt? Solve by matrix multiplication
method.
Solution:
Re
 G.N. S.F. C.N 
Let P   250 300 150  A
 400 350 100  B
for
 X Y Z 
 70 60 55  GN
Q  SF
 50 55 60 
  CN
 150 140 132 
t
No
 70 60 55 
 250 300 150  
 PQ     50 55 60 
 400 350 100   150 140 132 
 
250  70  300  50  150 150 250  60  300  55 150 140 

S,
= 
400  70  350  50  100 150 400  60  350  55 100 140 
E
250  55  300  60  150 132 

400  55  350  60  100 132 
 
UP
17500  15000  22500 15000  16500  21000 

 
28000  17500  15000 24000  19250  14000 
(c)
13750  18000  19800 

22000  21000  13200 
 
le
 X Y Z 
Notes
  55000 52500 51550  A

/Sa
 60500 57250 56200  B ___________________
___________________
A has to sell his oil stock in market X and B also has to sell his
___________________
oil stock in market X to get maximum receipt.
on
___________________
4. At Bangalore merchant A has 300 bags of rice, 600 bags of
wheat and 800 bags of Ragi and another merchant B has 250 ___________________
cti
bags, 700 bags and 1000 bags of same food grains. The prices ___________________
(in ) at three cities are:
___________________
Place Rice Wheat Ragi
du
___________________
Mysore 100 90 80 ___________________
Mangalore 110 80 70 ___________________
Kolar 120 70 pro 80

To which city, each merchant will send his supply in order to
get maximum gross receipts? Solve by matrix multiplication
Re
method.
Solution:
 300 600 800  A

Let P  
for

 250 700 1000  B
 100 110 120 

Q   90 80 70 
 80 70 80 
t
No
 100 110 120 

 300 600 800  
 PQ     90 80 70 
 250 700 1000   80 70 80 
 
S,
30000  54000  64000 33000  48000  56000 

 
25000  63000  80000 27500  56000  70000 
E
36000  42000  64000 

30000  49000  80000 
UP
 
 Mysore Mangalore Kolar 

  148000 137000 142000  A
(c)
 168000 153500 179000  B

le
A has to send his supply in order to Mysore and B has to send
Notes
his supply in order to Kolar to get maximum gross receipts.
/Sa
___________________
5. If 15 kgs of commodity A and 17 kgs of commodity B together
___________________
costs 241 and 25 kgs of A and 13 kgs of B together costs
___________________ 279; find the prices of each per kg by using Cramer’s rule
on
___________________ method.
___________________ Solution:
cti
___________________ Let prices of commodities A and B be x and y per kg
___________________ respectively.
___________________  15x  17 y  241 and 25 x  13 y  279
du
___________________ 15 17
  195  425  230  0
___________________ 25 13
1 
241 17
279 13
pro
 3133  4743  1610
15 241
Re
2   4185  6025  1840
25 279
1 1610
 x  7
 230
for
 2 1840
y  8
 230
the price of commodity A is 7 per kg. and the price of

t
commodity B is 8 per kg.

No
6. The price of 2 kgs of rice and 5 kgs of wheat is 85 and price of

3 kgs of rice and 8 kgs of wheat is 132. Find the prices of rice
and wheat using Cramer’s rule.
S,
Solution:
Let the price of rice be x per kg and the price of wheat be y
E
per kg.
it is given that
UP
2x  5 y  85 and 3x  8 y  132
2 5
  16  15  1
(c)
3 8
le
85 5
1   680  660  20 Notes
132 7
/Sa
___________________
2 85
2   264  255  9 ___________________
3 132
___________________
on
1 20
 x   20 ___________________
 1
___________________
 9
cti
y 2  9 ___________________
 1
___________________
The price of rice is 20 per kg and the price of wheat is
du
___________________
9 per kg.
___________________
Summary ___________________
pro
Unlike scalars, the basic operations such as addition, subtraction
and multiplication can be performed only if certain conditions are
satisfied by the participating matrices. Like scalars division of one
Re
matrix by another is not defined.
Lesson End Activity

for
The cost of 2 kg of wheat and 1 kg of sugar is 7. The cost of 1 kg

of wheat and 1 kg of rice is 7. The cost of 3 kg of wheat, 2 kg of
sugar and 1 kg of rice is 17. Find the cost of each per kg.
t
Keywords
No
Cofactor: A cofactor of an element aij, denoted by Cij, is its minor

with appropriate sign.
Determinant: A numeric value that indicate singularity or non-
S,
singularity of a square matrix.

Minor: A minor of an element aij denoted by Mij, is a sub-
E
determinant of |A| obtained by deleting its ith row and jth column.
UP
(c)
le
Notes
1. Find the value of the following determinants:
/Sa
___________________
___________________
1 3 2
(i) 3 9 5
___________________
1 3 2
on
___________________
1 0 0
___________________
(ii) 4 5 -1
cti
___________________
5 6 3
___________________
2. Evaluate the following determinants
___________________
du
1 3 4 1 0 2 3 2 7
___________________
(i) 2 5 7 (ii) 2 0 4 (iii) 4 0 5
___________________
3 9 12 5 3 7 1 1 0
1 2
pro 5 0
8 0 0
(iv) (v) (vi) 0 1 5
3 4 4 7
4 0 2
Re
56 57 58
5243 5244
(vii) 57 58 59 (viii)
5246 5247
58 59 60
for
3 6 9 a  2b a  4b a  6b
(ix) 6 9 3 (x) a  3b a  5b a  7b
2 4 6 a  4b a  6b a  8b
t
No
3. Find the value of x if
2 1 3 2 x 3
(i) 8 4 x  0 (ii) 4 1 6  0
7 5 1 1 2 7
S,
x 2 2 x 3 3
(iii) 2 x 2  0 (iv) 3 0 3  0
E
2 2 0 3 3 x
UP
x 2 x 2 2 x 4
(v) 3 5 8 0 (vi) 6 3 12  0
0 1 3 1 2 3
(c)
4. Find the adjoint and inverse of the following matrices and

verify that A (Adj A)  (Adj A) A  A I.
le
 1 1  2 2   3 1
(i)   (ii)   (iii)   Notes
3 4   2 2   1 5 
/Sa
___________________
 1 2 1 
 1 0   1 1  ___________________
(iv)   (v)   (vi)  1 1 0 
 4 1 2 0   1 1 1  ___________________
on
___________________
 2 1 3  1 1 1   1 1 2 
___________________
(vii)  0 1 2  (viii)  2 1 4  (ix)  2 1 1 
   
cti
 2 3 1   0 1 3   3 1 2  ___________________
___________________
1 2 3  1 2 1   2 3 5 
du
___________________
(x)  3 4 0  (xi)  3 2 3  (xii)  5 2 7 
 0 1 2   1 1 2   4 3 1  ___________________
___________________
5. Using Cramer’s rule, solve the following equations:
(i)
x  y 1
(ii)
2x  y  1
(iii)
pro
3x  2 y  7
x  y3 x  2y  2 x  2y  0
Re
3x  2 y  7 4 x  2 y  1 x  2y  1
(iv) (v) (vi)
8x  y  10 2x  y  0 5x  7 y  3
x  y  2z  3
x  y 7 2x  3 y  4
(vii) (viii) (ix) 2x  z  1
for
2x  y  8 3x  2 y  5
3x  2 y  z  4
3x  y  2z  3 x  y  z 7  0
(x) 2x  3 y  z  3 (xi) x  2 y  3z  16  0
t
x  2y  z  4 x  3 y  4 z  22  0
No
x  2y  z  2 x  2y  0
(xii) 2x  z  0 (xiii) 2x  y  z  4
x  3 y  2z  3 3x  y  2z  3
S,
3x  y  2z  13 x  2 y  z  1
(xiv) 2x  y  z  3 (xv) x  y  2z  3
E
x  3 y  5z  8 3x  2 y  3z  5
x  3 y  2z  5 x  y  2z  9
UP
(xvi) 2x  y  z  3 (xvii) 3x  2 y  z  10
5x  2 y  3z  6 x  2 y  3z  14
2x  y  z  2 x  y  2z  3
(c)
(xviii) x  2 y  z  5 (xix) 2x  y  z  5
x  y  2z  3 4 x  y  2z  11
le
3x  2 y  z  17
Notes
(xx) x  z  7
/Sa
___________________
2x  y  7
___________________
6. 3 kg Ragi and 7 kg of Jowar cost 35.50. 7 kg of Ragi and 3 kg
___________________
of Jowar cost 29.50. Find the costs per kg of Ragi and Jowar.
on
___________________
cti
___________________
Books
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinant
Re
www.thefreedictionary.com/determinant
www.sosmath.com/matrix/determ0/determ0.html
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 8: Arithmetic Progression
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Differentiate between
Arithmetic Progression sequence and order with
___________________
suitable example.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Arithmetic Progression ___________________
 Problem based on Arithmetic Progression ___________________
 Business Applications
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
A large number of business computations involve a series of pro
numerical values each member of which possesses a relationship
with the previous member. Such series are called progression.
Re
In this unit, we will study the AP and its formulae in order to solve
some application oriented problems.
Set of numbers: {1,3,6,12} is a set of numbers.
for
Sequence of numbers: A sequence of numbers is a set of numbers

arranged in a definite order.
E.g. (i) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} is a sequence
t
(ii) {12 ,22 ,32 ,42 ,......,10 2 } is a sequence

No
 1 1 1 1 
(iii) 1, , , ,......,  is a sequence
 2 4 8 128 
A sequence is also called progression.

S,
Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

E
An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers in which each

term after the first term is obtained by adding a constant quantity
UP
to its previous term. This constant quantity is called common

difference.
In general, an Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) is given by
(c)
a, a  d, a  2d, a  3d........
le
Here a is the first term and ‘d’ is the common difference.
Notes
/Sa
___________________
To find the common difference of an A.P., subtract any term from
its next term.
___________________
i.e., ( a  d )  a or ( a  2d )  ( a  d ) or ( a  3d )  ( a  2d ) etc.
___________________
on
___________________ nth Term of an A.P.
___________________ The nth term of the A.P. a, a  d, a  2d, a  3d,...... is given by
cti
___________________
Tn  a  (n  1)d ...(1)
___________________
This is also called the last term and is denoted by l.
___________________
du
___________________ Sum to n Terms of an A.P.
___________________ The sum to n terms of A.P. a, a  d, a  2d, a  3d,......., a  ( n  1)d is
pro
a  ( a  d )  ( a  2d )  ........  [ a  ( n  1)d ] which is given by
n
Sn 
2
2a  (n  1)d  ...(2)
Re
Since l  a  (n  1)d, we can write the formula for Sn as
n
Sn 
2
a  a  (n  1)d 
for
n
 Sn 
2
a  l
n n
Sn 
2
 2a  (n  1)d    a  l  where l  Tn  a  (n  1)d .
2
t
No
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. (1,2, 3,4) is a ......................... of no.
S,
2. A sequence of nos. is a set of nos. arranged in

......................... order.
E
Worked Examples
UP
Problem 1: Find the 10th term of the A.P. 3,  1,1,3,5,......
Solution: The A.P. is 3,  1,1,3,5,......

(c)
a  3 and d  2, n  10
nth term  a  (n – 1)d

le
10th term  3  (10  1)2
Notes
/Sa
 3  18  15
___________________
Problem 2: If the 5th term of an A.P. is 10 and 8th term is 16, find ___________________
the first term and the common difference
___________________
on
Solution:
___________________
5th term is 10  a  4d  10 ...(1)
___________________
cti
8th term is 16  a  7d  16 ...(2) ___________________
Let us solve these equations. ___________________
du
(2)  (1)  3d  6 ___________________
d  2 ___________________
Substituting d  2 in (1), we get ___________________
a  4(2)  10
pro
a  10  8
a2
Re
Therefore, first term is 2 and the common difference is 2.
Problem 3: If the 4th term of an A.P. is 7 and the 7th term is 13,
find the 12th term.
for
Solution:
4th term  5  a  3d  7 ...(1)
...(2)
t
7th term  13  a  6d  13
No
Let us solve these equations.

(2)  (1)  3d  6
d  2
S,
Substituting d  2 in (1), we get

E
a  3(2)  7
a  7  6  1
UP
a  1, d  2
12th term  a  11d  1  11(2)  1  22  23

(c)
12th term is 23.

le
Problem 4: Find the common difference, nth term and 15th term
Notes
of the A.P. 3,  5,  13,......
/Sa
___________________
Solution: 3,  5,  13,...... is an A.P.
___________________
___________________ a  3, d  5  3  8
on
___________________ common difference   8
___________________
nth term  a  (n  1)d
cti
___________________  3  (n  1)( 8)
___________________
 3  8n  8
___________________
du
nth term  11  8n
___________________
15th term  11  8(15)  11  120  109
___________________
pro
Problem 5: Find the 17th term of the series 3, 6, 9, 12,......
Solution: a  3, d  3, n  17
17th term  3  (17  1)3  3  16(3)  51

Re
Problem 6: Which term of the A.P. 1,3,7,...... is 79 ?
Solution: 1,3,7,...... is the given A.P.

for
 a  1, d  4
nth term  a  (n  1)d  79
 1  (n  1)4  79
 1  4n  4  79
t
 4n  5  79
No
 4n  84
 n  21
21st term of the given A.P. is 79.

S,
Problem 7: Determine A.P. whose nth term is 5n  4 .
Solution: nth term  5n  4

E
 1st term  5(1)  4  9

2nd term  5(2)  4  14
UP
3rd term  5(3)  4  19
A.P. is 9,14,19,.....
(c)
Problem 8: How many numbers are there between 12 and 108

which are divisible by 5 ?
le
Solution: The first and the last numbers divisible by 5 between 12
Notes
Activity
and 108 are 15 and 105.
/Sa
Find___________________
the practical examples
 a  15, l  105 from your environment which
l  a  (n  1)d shows
___________________
the concept of constant
and variable?
 105  15  ( n  1)5 ___________________
on
 (n  1)5  105  15  90 ___________________
90
 n 1   18 ___________________
5
cti
 n  18  1  19 ___________________
Hence there are 19 terms between 12 and 108 which are divisible ___________________
du
by 5. ___________________
Problem 9: Determine the A.P. whose sum to n terms is n2. ___________________
Solution: Sn  n2 ___________________
 Sn 1  (n  1)2
pro
 Tn  Sn  Sn 1
 n2  (n  1)2
Re
 n2  n2  2n  1
 Tn  2n  1
 T1  2(1)  1  1
for
T2  2(2)  1  3
T3  2(3)  1  5 etc.,
A.P. is 1, 3, 5, ......
t
Problem 10: Determine the A.P. whose nth term is 3n  5 . Find

No
the 15th term and sum to 15 terms.

Solution: Tn  3n  5 (given)
 T1  3(1)  5  2
S,
T2  3(2)  5  1
T3  3(3)  5  4 etc.,
E
A.P. is 2,1,4,.....
UP
Here a  2, d  3 .
nth term  a  (n  1)d

15th term  2  (15  1)3
(c)
 2  42  40
le
n
Notes Sn 
2
2a  (n  1)d 
/Sa
___________________ 15
 S15  2( 2)  (15  1)3
___________________ 2
___________________ 15
  4  42
on
___________________
2
___________________ 15
  38  15  19  285
2
cti
___________________
Sum to 15 terms is 285.
___________________
___________________ Problem 11: Find the sum to n terms of the A.P. 1,2,5,..... and
du
___________________
hence find the sum to 10 terms.
___________________ Solution: The A.P. is 1,2,5,.....
pro
 a  1, d  5  2  2  ( 1)  3
Sum to n terms 
Re
n
Sn 
2
2a  (n  1)d 
n
 2( 1)  (n  1)3
2
n
for
  2  3n  3
2
n(3n  5)
2
t
put n  10
No
10(30  5)
 S10 
2
10  25
  5  25  125
2
S,
Problem 12: How many terms of the A.P. 42,36,30,..... amount to

150 ?
E
Solution: It is given that Sn  150 . We have to find n.

UP
(c)
le
Sn  150
Notes
n
/Sa
 2a  (n  1)d   150 ___________________
2
Here a  42, d  6 ___________________
n
 2(42)  ( n  1)( 6)  150 ___________________
on
2
n ___________________
 84  6n  6   150
2 ___________________
cti
n ___________________

2
90  6n  150
___________________
n
du
  2(45  3n)  150 ___________________
2
___________________
 n(45  3n)  150
 45n  3n2  150 ___________________
 15n  n2  50 (dividing by 3)
 n2  15n  50  0
pro
 n2  10n  5n  50  0
Re
 n(n  10)  5( n  10)  0
 (n  10)(n  5)  0
 n  10, n  5
for
either 10 terms or 5 terms of the A.P. amount to 150.
Verification: 42  36  30  24  18  12  6  0  ( 6)  ( 12)
Sum of 10 terms =150

t
Sum of 5 terms =150

No
Problem 13: If a  5, l  52 and Sn  470 , find n and d.
n
Solution: l  a  (n  1)d and Sn 
2
2a  (n  1)d 
S,
n
 52  5  ( n  1)d and 470 
2
2( 5)  ( n  1)d 
E
n
 57  ( n  1)d and 470 
2
 10  ( n  1)d 
UP
(c)
le
n
Notes  470 
2
 10  ( n  1)d 
/Sa
___________________ n
 470   10  57 
___________________ 2
n
___________________  470  (47)
2
on
___________________ 2  470
 n  2  10  20
___________________ 47
cti
___________________ Now,
___________________ 57  ( n  1)d
___________________
 57  (20  1)d
du
 57  19d
___________________
57
___________________  d 3
19
pro
Therefore n  20 and d  3.
Problem 14: The sum of 3 numbers in A.P. is –24 and then

Re
product is 288. Find the numbers.
Solution: Let a  d, a, a  d be the 3 numbers in A.P.
 Sum  a  d  a  a  d  24
for
 3a  24
 a  8
Product  ( a  d )a( a  d )  288

t
substituting a  8 , we get
No
( 8  d )( 8)( 8  d )  288
 (64  d 2 )  36
 d 2  64  36
 d 2  100
S,
 d  10
the numbers are 8  10,  8,  8  10 or  8  10,  8,  8  10

E
i.e., 18,  8,2 or 2,  8,  18

UP
Problem 15: Find the sum of the first 20 positive integers.

Solution: The first 20 positive integers are 1, 2, 3, 4,.........20.
(c)
Here a  1, d  1, l  20
le
n
Sn 
2
a  l Notes
/Sa
20 ___________________
 S20 
2
1  20
___________________
 10(21)
___________________
 210
on
___________________
the sum of first 20 positive integers is 210.
___________________
1
cti
Problem 16: The sum of the first eleven terms of an A.P. is 82 . ___________________
2
If the 15th term is 12, find the A.P. ___________________
du
n ___________________
Solution: Sn 
2
2a  (n  1)d  ,Tn  a  (n  1)d
___________________
1 ___________________
S11  82

11

2
2a  (11  1)d  
165
pro
2 2
 11(2a  10d )  165
Re
 2a  10d  15 ...(1)
T15  12
for
 a  (15  1)d  12
 a  14d  12 ...(2)
 2a  28d  24 (multiplying by (2))

t
2a  10d  15
No
2a  28d  24
Subtracting, we get
18d  9
S,
1
 d
2
E
1
Substituting d  in (1), we get
2
UP
1 
2a  10    15
2
i.e., 2a  15  5
(c)
 2a  10
 a 5
le
1 1
Notes the A.P. is 5,5 ,6,6 ,.......
2 2
/Sa
___________________
Problem 17: The ratio of 7th term to 3rd term of an A.P. is 12:5.
___________________
Find the ratio of the 13th term to the 4th term.
___________________
Solution: Let the A.P. be a, a  d, a  2d,.....
on
___________________
7th term a  6d 12
___________________  
3rd term a  2d 5
cti
___________________
 5a  30d  12a  24d
___________________
 7a  6d ...(1)
___________________
du
___________________ 13th term a  12d

4th term a  3d
___________________

=
7( a  12d )
7( a  3d )
7a  84d
pro
(multiply both numerator and denominator by 7)
7a  21d
Re
6d  84d
 [using (1)]
6d  21d
90d 10
 
27d 3
for
Therefore the 13th term : 4th term is 10:3

Problem 18: The sum of the first four terms of an A.P. is 16 and
the sum of their squares is 84. Find the numbers.
t
Solution: Let a  3d, a  d, a  d, a  3d be the four terms of an A.P.

No
 Sum  a  3d  a  d  a  d  a  3d  16
 4a  16  a  4
Sum of their squares  ( a  3d )2  ( a  d )2  ( a  d )2  ( a  3d )2

S,
 (4  3d )2  (4  d )2  (4  d )2  (4  3d )2
 16  24d  9d 2  16  8d  d 2  16  8d  d 2  16  24 d  9 d 2
E
 64  20d 2
 64  20d 2  84
UP
 20d 2  84  64  20
 d 2  1  d  1
(c)
le
Therefore, the numbers are
Notes
/Sa
4  3,4  1,4  1,4  3 or 4  3,4  1,4  1,4  3
___________________
i.e.,1,3,5,7 or 7,5,3,1
___________________
Problem 19: If the 5th term of an A.P. exceeds the 2nd term by 12
___________________
and 15th term is 28, find the A.P.
on
___________________
Solution: 5th term  a  4d ,2nd term  a  d
___________________
 ( a  4d )  ( a  d )  12
cti
___________________
 3d  12d  4
___________________
15th term  a  14d  28
du
___________________
 a  14  4  28
a  28  56 ___________________
a  28 ___________________
The A.P. is 28,  24,  16,  12,  8,  4,0,4,8,.....

pro
Problem 20: If the nth terms of the A.Ps 3, 10, 17, ..... and 63, 65,
67,.... are equal, find the value of n.
Re
Solution: 3, 10, 17,.......
a  3, d  7
for
 nth term  a  (n  1)d  3  (n  1)7  7n  4
63, 65, 67.........

a  63, d  2
t
 nth term  a  (n  1)d  63  (n  1)2  2n  61

No
 7n  4  2n  61  5n  65  n  13
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
S,
1. An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers in

which each term after the first term is obtained by
E
adding a constant quantity to its ................. term.

UP
2. The constant quantity is called .................
Worked Examples on Business Application of Progressions

1. The first year, a man saves 100. In each succeeding year, he
(c)
saves 25 more than the year before. How much money would
be accumulated at the end of 20 years?
le
Solution: It is given that a  100, d  25, n  20.
Notes
/Sa
___________________ n
 Sn  2a   n  1 d 
2
___________________
20
 2  100   20  1  25 
___________________ 2 
on
___________________  10  200  475 
___________________
 10  675 
 6750
cti
___________________
___________________
Therefore, he would have accumulated 6750 at the end of 20
years.
___________________
du
2. A man is employed in a firm on a pay of 350 per month with
___________________
an annual increment of 15. What will be his pay during 10th
___________________ year? What are his total earnings during the 10 years?
pro
Solution: It is given that a  350, d  15, n  10.
Tn  a   n  1 d
Re
 350  10  1 15
 350  135  485
n
Sn  2a   n  1 d 
2
for
10
 2  350  10  1 15 
2 
 5 700  135 
 5 835  4175
t
No
Therefore, his pay during the 10th year will be 485 per
month. His total earnings during 10 years is 4175x12=
50100.
3. A car purchased for 10,000 depreciates in value 10% every
S,
year. Find its value at the end of 5 years.

Solution: At the end of year 1 =10000–1000=9000
E
At the end of year 2 =9000–900=8100

UP
At the end of year 3 =8100–810=7290 etc.,

a  9000,common ratio  1  r  1  0.1  0.9 and n  5
the value of the car at the end of 5 years is given by

(c)
Tn  ar n 1
le
T5  9000(0.9)51
Notes
4
/Sa
 9000   0.9 
___________________
4
 9 
 9000    ___________________
 10 
___________________
9000  9 4 9  9 4
on
 
10000 10 ___________________
59049 ___________________
  5904.9
10
cti
___________________
Therefore, the value of the car at the end of 5 years is
___________________
5904.90.
du
___________________
2
4. A ball rebounds the distance it falls. It is dropped from a ___________________
3
height of 5 meters. How far does it travel before coming to ___________________
rest?
Solution: a  5, r 
2
pro
3
Re
a
 S 
1r
5 5  3 15
 S     15
2 32 1
1
for
Therefore, ball travels 15 meters before coming to rest.
Summary
t
No
An arithmetic progression (A.P.) is given by a, a+d, a+2d................

a is the first term and d is the common difference.
The nth term of the A.P.
S,
Tn = a+(n – 1)d
Sum to n terms of an A.P.

E
n n
Sn = [2a  (n  1)d ]  ( a  l )
UP
2 2
where l is the last term.
(c)
le
Lesson End Activity
Notes
Find the sum of all integers between 1 and 100 which are divisible
/Sa
___________________
by 3.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
on
___________________
Arithmetic Progression: A sequence of numbers in which each
___________________ term after the first term is obtained by adding a constant quantity
cti
___________________ to its previous term.
___________________ Common Difference: Difference between two successive terms in
___________________ a A.P.
du
___________________
___________________
1. pro
Find the sum of first 15 terms of the following series:
10, 15, 20, 25,..................
2. The fourth term of an A.P. is 14 and the eight term is 26. Find
Re
the sum of first 10 terms.
3. Find the nth term, sum to n terms of the following arithmetic
progressions. Also find them for the given values of n.
for
(i) 1, 4, 7, ...... and n = 5

(ii) 3,  5,  13 ,..... and n  10
(iii) 1, 6, 11,..... and n  12

t
(iv) 3,  1,1,.... and n  8

No
(v) 3,0,  3,..... and n  9
(vi) 1, 5, 9,..... and n  11
1 1
S,
(vii) 1, ,  ,.... and n  6

3 3
1
E
(viii) 1,  ,0,..... and n  15

2
UP
(ix) 2, 5, 8,.... and n  20
(x) 1  5, 2, 2  5...... and n  14
4. If Tn  4n  3 , find the first term, second term, third term and

(c)
hence find the arithmetic progression and the common

difference.
le
5. If the nth term is 2n  1 , find the A.P. and hence the common
Notes
difference.
/Sa
___________________
6. If the sum to n terms of an A.P. is given by 5n2  4n , find the
___________________
nth term and the A.P.
___________________
7. If the sum to n terms of an A.P. is given by 2n2  n , find the
on
___________________
nth term and the A.P.
___________________
8. If the sum to n terms is n2  2n , find the nth term and the
cti
A.P. ___________________
___________________
9. Find three numbers in A.P. whose sum is 9 and product is 15.
du
___________________
10. Find three numbers in A.P. whose sum is 15 and product is 80.
___________________
11. Find three numbers in A.P. whose sum is 12 and the product is
28. ___________________
pro
12. Find the three numbers in A.P. whose sum is 18 and product is
162.
13. Find three numbers in A.P. whose sum is 15 and product is
Re
105.
14. Find four numbers in A.P. whose sum is 16 and the product is
105.
for
15. Find four numbers in A.P. whose sum is 20 and the product is
384.
16. Find three numbers in A.P. whose sum is 15 and sum of their
squares is 93.
t
No
17. Find three numbers in A.P. whose sum is 3 and sum of their
squares is 35.
18. Which term of the A.P. (i) 3, 5, 7...... is 79? (ii) 0.5, 0.75,1,.... is
5.5?
S,
1 2
19. Which term of the A.P. (i) 4, 5 ,6 ,.... is 104? (ii) 9, 15, 21,....
3 3
E
is 183?
UP
20. If the 7th term of A.P. is 21 and the 10th term 35, find the
common difference, first term, nth term and the 4th term.
21. If the sum of 25 terms of an A.P. is 412 and the 1st term is 7,
find the common difference.
(c)
22. Find how many terms of the A.P. 2, 7, 12,.... amount to 632?
le
23. Find how many terms of the A.P. must be taken so that the
Notes
sum may be –480?
/Sa
___________________
24 Find the sum of the odd numbers between 0 and 50.
___________________
25 Find the sum of the even numbers between 0 and 50.
___________________
on
26 Find whether –300 a term of the A.P. 10, 7, 4, ......
___________________
___________________
27 If the 10th term of an A.P. is 23, and the 32nd term is 67, find
the 20th term.
cti
___________________
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
du
___________________ Books
___________________
pro
Re
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_progression
www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-apgp-2009-1.pdf
for
mathportal.org/algebra/progressions/arithmetic-progressions.php
www.math10.com/en/algebra/arithmetic-progression.html
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 9: Geometric Progression (G.P.)
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Specify the conditions where
Geometric Progression (G.P.) GP is used.
___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Geometric Progression ___________________
 nth Term of G.P. ___________________
 Sum to n Terms of a G.P.
du
___________________
 Sum to Infinity of a G.P.
___________________
___________________
Introduction
pro
In this unit, we will discuss concept of G.P. Further we will discuss
nth term of G.P. and sum to n terms of a G.P. We will also focus on
sum to infinity of a G.P. We will consider many worked out
Re
examples to make the concept more clearer.
Concept of Geometric Progression

for
A geometric progression is a sequence of numbers in which each

term after the first term is obtained by multiplying its previous
term by a constant quantity called common ratio.
t
In general, a Geometric Progression is given by

No
a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,......
Here a is the first term and ‘r’ is the common ratio.

To find the common ratio of a G.P. divide any term from its
S,
previous term,
ar ar 2 ar 3
i.e., or or 2 etc.
E
r ar ar
UP
nth Term of a G.P.

The nth term of the G.P. a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,....... is given by
(c)
Tn  ar n 1 ...(4)
le
Sum to ‘n’ Terms of a G.P.
Notes
The sum to ‘n’ terms of the G.P.
/Sa
___________________
___________________ a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,....ar n 1 is
___________________ a  ar  ar 2  ar 3  .....  ar n 1 which is given by
on
___________________
a(1  r n )
Sn  where |r | 1 .(5)
___________________ 1r
cti
___________________ If |r | 1 then
___________________
a(r n  1)
Sn  ...(6)
___________________ r 1
du
___________________
___________________ Sum to Infinity of a G.P.

pro
If |r | 1 then sum to infinity of the G.P. a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,...... is given
by
a
Re
S  ...(7)
1r
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
for
1. G.P Stands for ....................

2. A geometric progression is a sequence of numbers in
which ....................
t
No
Worked Examples on G.P.

Problem 1: Find the 10th term of the G.P. 1, 2, 4, 8, ......
Solution: The G.P. is 1, 2, 4, 8,....
S,
a  1, r  2
nth term  ar n 1
E
10th term  1(2)10 1  29  512
1 1
UP
Problem 2 : If the 5th term of a G.P. is and 8th term is ,

32 256
find the first term and the common ratio.
Solution: 5th term of a G.P.  ar 51  ar 4

(c)
1
 ar 4  ...(1)
32
le
8th term  ar 8 1  ar 7
Notes
/Sa
1
 ar 7  ...(2) ___________________
256
___________________
Dividing (2) by (1) we get
___________________
on
1
___________________
ar 7 256

ar 4 1 ___________________
cti
32 ___________________
32 1 ___________________
 r3  
256 8
du
___________________
1
 r ___________________
2
___________________
1
Substituting r  in (1), we get
2
pro
4
1  1
a  
Re
2 32
1
1
 a  32 
1 2
16
for
1 1
first term is and the common ratio is .
2 2
Problem 3: If the 3rd term of a G.P. is 8 and the 6th term is 64,
t
find the 10th term.

No
Solution:
3rd term  ar 2  8 ...(1)
6th term  ar 5  64 ...(2)

S,
Dividing (2) by (1), we get

E
ar 5 64

ar 2 8
UP
 r3  8
 r2
(c)
le
Substituting r  2 in (1), we get
Notes
/Sa
___________________ a(2)2  8
 4a  8
___________________
 a2
___________________
 10th term  ar 9
on
___________________  2(2)9
___________________  210  1024
cti
___________________ Problem 4: Find the common ratio, nth term and 10th term of the
___________________ G.P., 3,  9, 27,  81,......
___________________
du
Solution: 3,  9,27,  81,...... is the G.P.
___________________
9 27 81
 a  3, r     3
___________________ 3 9 27
common ratio  3
pro
nth term  ar n 1  3( 3)n 1  ( 1)n 1 3n 11  ( 1)n 1 3n
Re
 10th term  ( 1)10 1 310  ( 1)9 310  310  59049
 59049
Problem 5: Find the 6th term of the G.P. 5,15,45,......

for
Solution: The G.P. is 5,15,45,......
15 45
 a  5, r   3
5 15
t
No
 6th term  5(3)6 1  5  35

 5  243
 1215
S,
Problem 6: Which term of the G.P. 3,12,48,..... is 768?
Solution: 3,12,48,..... is the given G.P.

E
12 48
 a  3, r   4
UP
3 12
(c)
le
Notes
 3(4)n 1  768
/Sa
___________________
768
 4n 1 
3 ___________________
n 1
 4  256 ___________________
on
n 1 4
 4 4
___________________
 n 1  4
___________________
 n5
cti
___________________
5th term is 768
___________________
Problem 7: Determine the G.P. whose nth term is given by 3  5n1 .
du
___________________
Solution: Tn  3  5n 1 ___________________
 T1  3  511  3  50  3 ___________________
T2  3  521  3  5  15
T3  3  531  3  52  75 etc.,
pro
the G.P. is 3, 15, 75,........
Re
Problem 8: If a  5, l  160 and Sn  315, find n and r.
a(r n  1)
Solution: l  ar n 1 , Sn 
for
r 1
5(r n  1)
 160  5r n 1 ,  315 
r 1
rn  1
 r n 1  32,63 
t
r 1
No
n 1
r  r 1
 63 
r 1
r(32)  1
 63 
r 1
S,
 63( r  1)  32r  1
 63r  63  32r  1
 63r  32r  63  1
E
 31r  62
UP
 r2
Substituting r  2 in r n 1  32, we get

(c)
le
Notes
2n 1  25
 n 1  5
/Sa
___________________
 n6
___________________  n  6 and r  2
___________________
63
on
___________________
Problem 9: The sum of three numbers in a G.P. is and their
4
___________________ product is 27, find the numbers.
cti
___________________ a
Solution: Let , a, ar be the 3 numbers in G.P.
___________________ r
___________________ a 63
du
  a  ar  ...(1)
r 4
___________________
a
___________________  a  ar  27 ...(2)
r
(2)  a 3  27
pro
a 3
Re
Substituting a  3 in (1), we get
3 63
 3  3r 
r 4
for
Multiply by 4r
 12  12r  12r 2  63r

 12r 2  12r  63r  12  0
 12r 2  51r  12  0
t
 4r 2  17r  4  0
No
 4r 2  16r  r  4  0
 4r(r  4)  1(r  4)  0
 (r  4)(4r  1)  0
S,
1
 r  4 or r 
4
E
Therefore, the numbers are

3 3
UP
,3,3  4 or 3  4,3,
4 4
3 3
i.e., ,3,12 or12,3,
4 4
(c)
Problem 10: Find the sum of 1, 2, 4, 8,.... up to 10 terms.

Solution: 1, 2, 4, 8,..... is the G.P.
le
2 4 8
Here a  1, r    2 Notes
1 2 4
/Sa
___________________
a(r n  1)
Sn  ___________________
r 1
1(2n  1) ___________________
  2n  1
on
2 1
___________________
 S10  210  1  1024  1  1023
___________________
cti
42 ___________________
Problem 11: The sum of three numbers in G.P. is and their
5
___________________
product is –8. Find the numbers.
du
___________________
a
Solution: Let , a, ar be the three numbers in G.P.
r ___________________
___________________

a
r
a
 a  ar 
42
5 pro ...(1)
 a  ar  8 ...(2)
r
Re
(2)  a 3  8
 a  2
Substituting a  2 in (1), we get

for
2 42
 2  2r 
r 5
Multiply by 5r
t
 10  10r  10r 2  42r

No
 10r 2  10r  42r  10  0

 10r 2  52r  10  0
 5r 2  26r  5  0
S,
 5r 2  25r  r  5  0
 5r(r  5)  1( r  5)  0
 (r  5)(5r  1)  0
E
1
 r  5, r  
UP
the numbers are
2 2 2 2
,  2,( 2)( 5) or ( 2)( 5),  2, i.e., ,  2,10 or10,  2,
(c)
5 5 5 5
le
Problem 12: Find the three numbers in G.P. whose product is 64
Notes
and the sum of their squares is 84.
/Sa
___________________
a
___________________ Solution: Let , a, ar be the three numbers in G.P.
r
___________________
a
on
___________________
  a  ar  64 ...(1)
r
___________________
a2
 a 2  a 2r 2  84 ...(2)
cti
___________________ r2
___________________
(1)  a 3  64
___________________ a4
du
___________________ Substituting a  4 in (2), we get
___________________
16
r2 pro
 16  16r 2  84
Multiply by r 2 , we get
16  16r 2  16r 4  84 r 2
Re
i.e., 16r 4  16r 2  84 r 2  16  0
i.e.,16r 4  68r 2  16  0
i.e.,4r 4  17r 2  4  0
for
i.e.,4r 4  16r 2  r 2  4  0
 4r 2 (r 2  4)  1(r 2  4)  0
 r 2  4  0,4r 2  1  0
t
1
 r 2  4, r 2 
No
4
1
 r  2, r  
2
1
if r  2 or , the numbers are
S,
4 4
,4,4(2) or 4(2),4, i.e., 2,4,8 or 8,4,2
E
2 2
UP
1
and if r  2 or  , the numbers are
2
4 4
, 4,4( 2) or 4( 2), 4, , i.e.,  2, 4,  8 or  8, 4  2
2 2
(c)
Problem 13: How many terms of the series 3, 6, 12, 24,...... must
be taken to make the sum 381?
le
Solution: 3, 6, 12, 24,..... is the given A.P.
Notes
/Sa
Here a  3, r  2
___________________
n
a(r  1) ___________________
Sn 
r 1
___________________
3(2n  1)
on
381 
2 1 ___________________
381  3  2n  3 ___________________
cti
Dividing by 3, we get ___________________
127  2n  1 ___________________
du
2n  127  1  128 ___________________
n 7
 2 2 ___________________
 n 7
___________________
7 terms must be taken.
Problem 14: Find the common ratio, nth term, sum to n terms,
pro
1 1 1 1
12th term and sum to 12 terms of the G.P. , , , ,.....
Re
3 6 12 24
1 1 1 1
Solution: The given G.P. is , , , ,.....
3 6 12 24
for
1 1/ 6 1
Here a  ,r  
3 1/3 2
1
the common ratio is
2
t
No
n 1
1 1  1
i.e., Tn     ...(1)
32 3  2n 1
a(1  r n )
S,
Sum to n terms 
1r
E
1 1 
 1 n 
3 2 
 
UP
1
1
2
1  2n  1 
   2
3  2n
(c)

le
Notes 1  2n  1 
i.e., Sn    ...(2)
3  2n 1 
/Sa
___________________
___________________ Substituting n  12 in (1), we get
___________________ 1 1 1 1
T12    
on
12 1 11
32 32 3  2048 6144
___________________
___________________
Substituting n  12 in (2), we get
cti
___________________ 1  212  1  1  4096  1 
S12    
___________________
3  2121  3 211
1 4095 1365
___________________   
du
3 2048 2048
___________________
Problem 15: The first term of a G.P. is 10 and the fourth term is
___________________
640. Find the common ratio and the sum of the first four terms.
pro
Solution: It is given that a  10 and T4  640
T4  640
Re
 ar 3  640
 10r 3  640
 r 3  64
 r4
for
common ratio is 4.
a(r 4  1)
S4 
r 1
t
10(4 4  1) 10  (256  1) 10  255

 850
No
  
4 1 3 3
Problem 16: Find the sum to n terms of the series
3  33  333  .......
S,
Solution: Sn  3  33  333  ......
 3(1  11  111  .....)

E
Dividing and multiplying by 9, we get

UP
3
Sn   9  99  999  ..... 
9
1
 10  1   100  1   1000  1   .... 
3
(c)
1
 10  100  1000  ......   1  1  1  .....  
3
le
Now, 10  100  1000..... to n terms is a G.P. with first term = 10
Notes
and common ratio = 10.
/Sa
___________________
i.e., a  10, r  10
___________________
10 (10n - 1)
 their sum  ___________________
on
10.1
___________________
1 10(10n  1) 
 Sn    n ___________________
3  10  1 
cti
___________________
1 10(10n  1) 
   n
3 9 ___________________

du
___________________
Problem 17: Find the value of x if x  1, x  2, x  1 are in G.P.
___________________
Solution: x  1, x  2, x  1 are in G.P.
___________________

x  2 x 1

x 1 x  2
pro
By cross multiplication, we get
Re
( x  2)2  ( x  1)( x  1)
i.e., x 2  4 x  4  x 2  1
 4x  5
for

 x
4
1 1 1
Problem 18: Find the sum to infinity of the G.P. 1, , , ,......
2 4 8
t
No
1 1 1
Solution: 1, , , ,...... is the given G.P.
2 4 8
1
Here a  1, r 
2
S,
a
S 
1r
E
1 1
  2
1 1
1
UP
2 2
Problem 19: Three numbers are in G.P. The sum of the first two
terms is 15 and the sum of the second and the third is 30. Find the
(c)
numbers.
Solution: Let a, ar , ar 2 be the three numbers in G.P.

le
 a  ar  15 ...(1)
Notes
/Sa
___________________ a  ar 2  30 ...(2)
___________________ (2)  r( a  ar )  30
___________________
 r(15)  30 (using (1))
r2
on
___________________
Substituting r  2 in (1), we get
___________________
a  2a  15
cti
___________________
 3a  15
___________________
 a 5
___________________
du
the numbers are 5,5  2,5  22 i.e., 5,10,20
___________________
Problem 20: If a, b, c, d, e are in G.P. Prove that ae  bd .
___________________

b c d e
  
pro
Solution: a, b, c, d, e are in G.P.
a b c d
b e
Re
 
a d
Cross multiplying, we get
ae  bd
for
Problem 21: If three numbers are in G.P., prove that their

logarithms are in A.P.
Solution: Let a, b, c be three numbers in G.P.
t
No
b c
  (common ratio)
a b
 b2  ac (by cross multiplication)
Taking logarithms on both sides, we get

S,
log b2  log( ac )
 2 log b  log a  log c
E
 log b  log b  log a  log c

 log b  log a  log c  log b
UP
These are common differences which are equal.
log a,log b,log c are in A.P.

(c)
le
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
Analyze the difference
___________________
1. In G.P. each term after the first term is obtained by between AP and GP.
___________________
multiplying its previous term by a constant quantity
called .......................... ___________________
on
___________________
2. Common ratio is represented by ..........................
___________________
cti
Summary ___________________
A Geometric Progression is given by ___________________
du
___________________
a, ar, ar2, ar3,........
___________________
Where a is first term and r is common ratio.
___________________
nth term of a G.P.
Tn = arn-1
pro
Sum to n terms of a G.P.
Re
a(r n  1)
Sn =
r 1
Sum to infinity of a G.P. (if r <1)

for
a
S 
1r
Lesson End Activity

t
No
2
A ball rebounds the distance it falls. If it is dropped from a
3
height of 5 meters, how far does it travel before coming to rest?
S,
Keywords
Common Ratio: The constant multiplying factor (quantity).
E
Geometric Progression: A sequence of numbers in which each

UP
term after the first term is obtained by multiplying its previous

term by a constant quantity.
(c)
le
Notes
1. The first term of a G.P. is 8 and the common ratio is 3. Find
/Sa
___________________
the sum of first 10 terms.
___________________
2. How many numbers are there between 20 and 100 which are
___________________
divisible by 5?
on
___________________
3. Water in a water tank becomes half its previous volume in 1
___________________ 1 th
hour. In how many hours will it become of the original
cti
___________________ 512
volume?
___________________
___________________ 4. Find the nth term, sum to n terms of the following geometric
du
progressions. Also find them for the given values of n.
___________________
(i) 1, 4, 16,....... and n  5
___________________
1 1
pro
(ii) 2, 4, 8,..... and n  10
(iii) 1, , ,.... and n  12

2 4
Re
(iv) 1,3,  9,.... and n  8
(v) 5, 10, 20,..... and n  9
(vi) 3, 6, 12,...... and n  11

for
(vii) 3, 9, 27,..... and n  6
(viii) 2,  4,8,..... and n  15
1 1 1
t
(ix) , , ,..... and n  12

3 9 27
No
2 4 8
(x) , , ,..... and n  6
3 3 3
5. If the nth term is 2n1 , find the first term, second term, third
S,
term and hence find the geometric progression and the

common ratio.
E
1
6. If the nth term is , find the G.P. and hence find the
3n1
UP
common ratio.
1
7. If the fourth term and seventh term of a G.P. are 1 and
8
(c)
respectively, find the ninth term.

le
8. The sum of three numbers in G.P. is 26 and their product is
Notes
216. Find the numbers.
/Sa
___________________
9. Find the value of k if 3, k  1 , 12 are in G.P.
___________________
10. Find k if k  1, k  2, k  3 are in G.P.
___________________
on
11. Find three numbers in G.P. whose sum is 28 and product is
___________________
512.
___________________
12. Find three numbers in G.P. whose sum is 31 and product is
cti
___________________
125.
___________________
13. Find three numbers in G.P. whose product is 13 and sum of
du
their squares is 91. ___________________
___________________
14. The first term and the last term of a G.P. are respectively 3
and 768 and the sum is 1533. Find the common ratio and the ___________________
number of terms. pro
15. Find the sum to n terms and the sum to infinity of the
following G.Ps.
Re
1 1
(i) 1, , ,.....
2 4
1
(ii) 3,  1, ,.....
for
1 1
(iii) 1, , ,.....
5 25
16. Find the sum to n terms of the following:
t
No
(i) 2  22  222  .....
(ii) 7  77  777  .....
(iii) 0.2  0.22  0.222  ....

S,
(iv) 0.5  0.55  0.555  ...
17. How many terms of the series 2, 4, 8,.... must be taken to make
E
the sum 510?

UP
18. Which term of the G.P. –2, 8, –32, …… is 2048?

16. Three numbers are in G.P. The sum of the first two terms is 15
and the sum of the second and third terms is 30. Find the
numbers.
(c)
20. A person borrows 5115 to be repaid in 10 monthly

instalments. If each instalment is double the value of the
le
previous instalment, find the value of first and last
Notes instalments.
/Sa
___________________
21. A labourer is paid a salary of 100 per month. His salary is
___________________ raised by 10 per month every year. He deposits 25% of his
___________________ salary in a bank. How much has he saved in the bank after
on
working for 5 years?
___________________
22. A man is employed in a firm on a pay of 350 per month with
___________________
an annual increment of 15. What will be his salary during
cti
___________________ 10th year? What are his total earnings during 10 years?
___________________
23. The first year, a man saves 100. In each succeeding year, he
___________________ saves 25 more than that in the year before. How much has he
du
___________________ accumulated at the end of 20 years?
___________________ 24. A ball dropped from a height of 10 feet rebounds and reaches
pro
half the height every time. Find the total distance covered by
the ball before it comes to rest.
25. A car purchased for 10,000 depreciates in value 10% every
year. Find its value at the end of 5 years.
Re
Further Readings
for
Books
t
No
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_progression
S,
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_series
www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-apgp-2009-1.pdf
E
www.math10.com/en/algebra/geometric-progression.html
UP
cs.nyu.edu/courses/fall09/V55.0109-001/Chapter2.ppt
(c)
UNIT 10: Case Studies
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Studies ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
cti
___________________
Case Study 1: Calculation of Share
___________________
The following table gives the price per share of two companies
du
A and B during the months of March and April and it also gives ___________________
the amount in rupees invested by Rakesh during these two
___________________
months for the purchase of shares of the two companies.
___________________
Months Company and value
per share
A B
Total amount
invested pro
March 12 5 116
Re
April 10 9 116
Question:
Find the shares of A and B.
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Case Study 2: Calculation of Commission
Notes
A salesman has the following record of sales during three months.
/Sa
___________________ He is paid the commission at different rates per unit of three
items x, y, z as per the following table.
___________________
Months Sales of Units Total Commision
___________________
in drawn
on
___________________ X Y Z
___________________ March 90 100 20 800

April 130 50 40 900
cti
___________________
May 60 100 30 850
___________________
Question:
___________________
du
Find the rates of commission on the three items.
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
tfor
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Case Study 3: Calculation of Calories
Notes
There are two families A and B. There are 2 men, 3 women and 1
/Sa
child in family A and 1 man, 1 woman and 2 children in family B. ___________________
The recommended daily allowance for calories is
___________________
Calories Proteins
___________________
Men 2400 55 gms
on
Women 1900 45 gms ___________________
Children 1800 33 gms
___________________
cti
Question:
___________________
Represent the above information in the matrix form and calculate
the total requirement of calories and proteins for each of the two ___________________
families.
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 11: Permutations
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
BLOCK-III
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Detailed Contents
le
Notes
/Sa
UNIT 11: PERMUTATIONS
___________________ UNIT 13: RATIO AND PROPORTIONS
___________________
 Fundamental Principle  Ratio
___________________
on
 Permutation  Proportions
___________________
 Circular Permutations
___________________ UNIT 14: VARIATIONS
Introduction
cti
UNIT 12: COMBINATIONS 
___________________
 Introduction  Types of Variation
___________________
 Concept of Combination
___________________
du
UNIT 15: CASE STUDIES
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Prove 1=0 by using any
Permutations mathematical notation.
___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Counting Techniques ___________________
 Fundamental Theorem of Permutation ___________________
 Circular Permutation
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
Permutations play an important role in the theory of probability
which is being used in many areas. The problems on permutations
are sheer amusement. In this unit we shall study the
fundamentals.
Re
Consider the following example:
Suppose there are cities A, B, C and there are three different ways
of travelling from A to B and two different ways to travelling from
for
B to C. In how many different ways one can travel from A to C via

B?
There are 3 × 2 different ways of travelling from A to C via B.
t
No
Fundamental Principle
If one operation is done in m different ways, and after it has been
done if a second operation is done in n different ways and after this
has been done if the third operation is done in p different ways etc.,
S,
then all these operations can be done in succession in mnp.... ways.

E
Factorial Notation
This product of first ‘n’ natural numbers is denoted by n ! or n .
UP
This is read as ‘factorial n’.

(c)
le
 n !  1  2  3  ........  ( n  1)n
Notes
Activity 1!  1
/Sa
___________________
A coach must choose five
2!  1  2  2
starters from a team of 12
___________________
players. How many different 3!  1  2  3  6
ways can the coach choose
the ___________________
starters? 4 !  1  2  3  4  24
on
___________________ 0! is defined to be equal to 1.
___________________ n! can be written as n(n  1)!or n(n  1)(n  2)! etc.
cti
___________________
For example,
___________________
10!  10  9!
___________________
du
 10  9  8! etc.
___________________
10!  10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1  3628800
___________________
6!  6  5  4  3  2  1
 720
pro
Check Your Progress
Re
Fill in the blanks:
1. If one operation is done in m different ways, and after it
has been done if a second operation is done in n different
ways and after this has been done if the third operation
for
is done in p different ways etc., then all these operations

can be done in succession in .................... ways.
2. 0! is defined to be ....................
t
No
Permutation
A permutation is an arrangement of different things in a row.
Definition: The number of ways of arranging n different things
S,
taken r at a time is called the number of permutations of n things

taken r at a time and is written as npr .
E
Theorem: The number of permutations of n things taken r at a

time is given by
UP
n
pr  n(n  1)(n  2).....( n  r  1)
Proof: Let a1 , a2 , a3 ,......., an be n different things. The number of

(c)
permutations of n things taken r at a time is the same as the

number of ways of filling up r blanks in a row.
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
The first blank space can be filled in n ways. After filling up this
___________________
space in one of these ways, the second space can be filled in (n  1)
___________________
ways. After filling up the second space in one of these ways, the
du
third space can be filled in (n  2) ways etc., the r th space can be ___________________
filled in n  (r  1)  n  r  1 ways. By fundamental principle, the ___________________

number of ways of filling up the r boxes in succession is equal to ___________________
n(n  1)(n  2).....( n  r  1)
 n
pr  n(n  1)(n  2).....( n  r  1)
pro
n
In factorial notation, pr  n(n  1)(n  2).....( n  r  1) can be
Re
written as
n n(n  1)(n  2).....( n  r  1)(n  r )!

pr 
(n  r )!
for
n n!
 pr 
(n  r )!
Particular Cases
t
No
n! n!
If r  0,then n p0   1
(n  0)! n !
n! n!
If r  n,then n pn    n!
(n  n )! 0!
S,
n! n(n  1)!
If r  1,then n p1   n
(n  1)! (n  1)!
E
Example: The number of permutations of 4 things taken 3 at a

UP
4!
time is 4 p3   4 !  4  3  2  1  24 .
(4  3)!
(c)
le
The number of permutations of 4 things taken all at a time is
Notes
4!
/Sa
4
___________________ p4   4 !  4  3  2  1  24
0!
___________________
Permutation of things when some of them are alike
___________________
on
The number of permutations of n things when p things are alike of
___________________
one kind, q things are alike of second kind, r things are alike of
___________________ n!
third kind etc., is given by the formula .
cti
___________________ p ! q ! r !.....
___________________
Worked Examples
___________________
du
10
Problem 1: Find p4 , 7 p3 , 6 p2
___________________
___________________ Solution:
10
7
pro
p4  10  9  8  7  5040
p3  7  6  5  210
6
p2  6  5  30
Re
Problem 2: If n pn  720 , find n.
n
Solution: pn  720
for
i.e., n !  6  5  4  3  2  1
i.e., n !  6!
 n6
t
Problem 3: How many three digit numbers can be formed using

No
the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, repetitions being allowed?

Solution: The first digit can be chosen in 5 ways.
The second digit can be chosen in 5 ways.

S,
The third digit can be chosen in 5 ways.

Therefore, the three digits can be arranged in 5  5  5 ways.
E
Therefore, the number of three-digit numbers is 5  5  5  125 .

UP
Problem 4: Find the number of three digit numbers using 2, 3, 4,

5, 6, repetitions being not allowed.
Solution: The first digit can be selected in 5 ways. After fixing the
(c)
first digit in one of these ways, the second digit can be fixed in 4
le
ways. After fixing the second digit in one of these ways, the third
digit can be fixed in 3 ways. Notes
/Sa
Therefore, the number of three digit numbers  5  4  3  60 . ___________________
Problem 5: How many three digit numbers that can be formed ___________________
which are less than 400 using the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, repetitions ___________________
on
being not allowed. ___________________
Solution: The first digit can be either 2 or 3. ___________________
cti
Therefore, the first digit can be chosen in 2 ways. ___________________
After choosing the first digit in one of these 2 ways, the second ___________________
digit can be chosen in 4 ways and the third digit can be chosen in 3
du
___________________
ways.
___________________
Therefore, the number of three digit numbers less than 400
___________________
 2  4  3  24
pro
Problem 6: Find the number of three digit even numbers that can
be formed using 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, repetitions being allowed.
Re
Solution: The first digit can be chosen in 5 ways, the second digit
can be chosen in 5 ways and the last digit can be chosen in 3 ways.
The number of three digit even numbers is 5  5  3  75 .
for
Problem 7: If n p4  12 n p2 find n.
Solution:
n
p4  12 n p2
t
n(n  1)(n  2)(n  3)  12n( n  1)(n  2)(n  3)

No
n2  5n  6  12  0
n2  5n  6  0
(n  6)(n  1)  0
S,
n  6  0, n  1  0
n  6, n  1
E
But n cannot be –1
UP
n  6
Problem 8: Find the number of permutations of the letters of the

word ‘LOOK’.
(c)
Solution: The word ‘LOOK’ has four letters in which there are two
Os.
le
Therefore, the number of permutations
Notes
/Sa
___________________
4 ! 4  3  2 1
   12
2! 2 1
___________________
Problem 9: Prove that, (2n )!  2n [1  3  5  ......  (2n  1)](n !)
___________________
on
___________________ Solution: (2n )!  (2n )(2n  1)(2n  2)(2n  3)(2n  4)......4  3  2  1
___________________ (2n )!  (2n )(2n  2)(2n  4)......4  2  1  3....(2n  1)
cti
___________________  2n  2(n  1)  2(n  2).....2  2  2  1  3...(2n  1)
 (2  2  2....2)n( n  1)( n  2)...1 1  3...(2n  1)
___________________
 2n (n !)[1  3  5...(2n  1)]
___________________
du
Problem 10: In how many ways can 7 Mathematics books, 4
___________________
Physics books and 5 Chemistry books be arranged in a shelf so
___________________
that:
pro
(i) Physics books are together,
(ii) Chemistry books are together and Mathematics books are to
be together,
Re
(iii) no two Mathematics books are together, and
(iv) books of the same subjects are together.
Solution:
for
(i) 4 Physics books are to be together. Hence, they can be

considered as 1 unit.
Therefore, total number of books =13.
t
No
These can be arranged in 13! ways and 4 Physics can be

arranged among themselves in 4! ways.
Therefore, required number of ways  13! 4 !
(ii) 5 Chemistry books are to be together. Hence, they can be

S,
considered as 1 unit and they can be arranged among

themselves in 5! ways.
E
7 mathematics books are to be together. Hence, they can be

UP
considered as 1 unit and they can be arranged among

themselves in 7! ways. The total number of books now can be
taken as 6 and they can be arranged in 6! ways.
Therefore, the number of ways of arranging the books
(c)
 6! 5! 7!
(iii) No two Mathematics books are to be together.

le
Let us arrange the remaining books. 4 Physics and 5
Notes
Chemistry books i.e., totally 9 books can be arranged in 9!
/Sa
ways. Consider one of these arrangements. ___________________
 p1  p2  p3  p4  c1  c2  c3  c4  c5  ___________________
___________________
on
Therefore, for Mathematics books no two of which are to be
together, the number of places is 10 as marked by  . ___________________
10 ___________________
7 Mathematics books can be arranged in p7 ways.
cti
___________________
the required number of ways of arranging the books is
___________________
10
p7  9!.
du
___________________
(iv) 7 Mathematical books are considered as 1 unit and they can be ___________________
___________________
4 Physics books are considered as 1 unit and they can be
pro
5 Chemistry books are considered as 1 unit and they can be
Re
the required number of ways of arranging the books is
3! 7! 4 ! 5!.
Problem 11: How many four digit numbers that can be formed
for
using 0, 1, 3, 5 which are divisible by 5 (without repetition)?

Solution: Since the numbers are to be divisible by 5, the last digit
has to be 0 or 5.
t
If it is 0, the first digit can be chosen in 3 ways, the second digit

No
can be chosen in 2 ways and the third digit can be chosen in 1 way.
Therefore, with 0 as the last digit, the number of four digit
numbers is 3  2  1  6 .
S,
If the digit is 5, the first digit can be chosen in 2 ways, the second
digit can be chosen in 2 ways and third digit can be chosen in 1
E
way.
with 5 as the last digit, the number of four digit numbers is
UP
2  2  1  4 ways.
The total number of four digit numbers which are divisible by 5

is 6  4  10.
(c)
le
Notes
Check Your Progress
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
In ___________________
how many ways can 3
different vases be arranged on 1. A ...................... is an arrangement of different things in
a ___________________
tray? Show different
presentations. a row.
___________________
on
2. The number of ways of arranging n different things
___________________
taken r at a time is called ......................
___________________
cti
___________________ Circular Permutations
___________________
Instead of arranging the things along a line, we arrange the things
___________________
du
along a circle, which is called Circular Permutation.
___________________ To find the number of circular permutations of n things taken all
___________________ at a time.
Let us take n  4 pro
Let the four things be A, B, C, D. Let us arrange these along a
circle. Let the number of circular permutations of these four things
Re
be x. Let us consider one of these circular permutations.
t for
No
By shifting A to B, B to C, C to D, D to A.
E S,
UP
We get the above arrangements.

We observe that these four circular arrangements are not different
as the relative position of each with the others is the same. But the
(c)
corresponding linear permutations are

A B C D, D A B C, C D A B , B C D A which are all different.
le
Therefore, one circular permutation gives 4 linear permutations.
Notes
/Sa
x circular permutations gives 4x linear permutations which are
___________________
equal to 4!.
___________________
 4x  4 !
___________________
4!
on
x  3!  (4  1)!
4 ___________________
Now if we take n things, the number of circular permutations ___________________
cti
 (n  1)! ___________________
Note: If the n things are different say persons, then the number of ___________________
circular permutations  (n  1)! because anticlockwise and
du
___________________
clockwise arrangements are different. ___________________
But if the n things are alike say beads to form a necklace, then the ___________________
pro
anticlockwise and clockwise arrangements are same. Therefore,
the number of circular permutations will be half of
(n  1)!
(n  1)! i.e.,
Re
2
Worked Examples
Problem 1: Find the number of ways in which a group of 6 men
for
and 4 women be seated at a round table.

Solution: Total number of people to be seated is 10. Therefore, the
number of ways of these 10 people to be seated at a round table is
(10  1)!  9!
t
No
Problem 2: In how many ways can 12 beads of the same colour

and size be strung together to form a necklace.
Solution: Since the beads are of the same colour and size, the
anticlockwise and clockwise arrangements are same.
S,
1
Therefore, the number of permutations  (n  1)!
2
E
1
 (12  1)!
UP
2
11!

2
Problem 3: In how many ways 7 boys and 7 girls be seated at a

(c)
round table so that no two girls shall sit next to each other.
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
Solution: First arrange 7 boys at a round table. This can be done
___________________
in (7  1)!  6! ways. After arranging these 6 boys in any one of
___________________
du
these 6! ways, the 7 girls can be arranged in 7! ways. Therefore the
___________________ number of ways that 7 boys and 7 girls be seated at a round table
___________________ so that no two girls shall sit together is 6!×7!.
Fill in the blanks:

pro
Check Your Progress
1. Instead of arranging the things along a line, we arrange

Re
the things along a circle, which is called .......................
Permutation.
2. If the n things are alike say beads to form a necklace,
for
then the anticlockwise and clockwise arrangements are

.......................
Summary
t
No
If the first operation can be performed in any one of the m ways

and then a second operation can be performed together in any one
of the m × n ways.
A permutation is an arrangement of a given number of objects in a
S,
definite order.
The total number of permutations of n distinct objects is n!, i.e.,
E
n
Pr = n!
UP
Permutation of n objects taking r at a time:

n n!
Pr 
(n  r )!
(c)
If we take n things, the number of circular permutations = (n –1)!

le
If n things are alike, then the number of circular permutations will
Notes
(n  1)!
/Sa
be .
2 ___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity ___________________
on
Find the values of 5 p3 , 7 p3 , 10 p6 ,12 p4 , 6 p0 , 20 p4 , 6 p3 , 11 p5 ___________________
___________________
cti
Keywords ___________________
Circular Permutations: Instead of arranging the things along a ___________________
du
line, we arrange the things along a circle, which is called circular ___________________
permutation. ___________________
Permutation: A permutation is an arrangement of a given ___________________
number of objects in a definite order.
Permutation Notation: p(n, r ) npr  npr 

n!
(n  r )!
pro
Re
1. In how many ways three models (gold, silver and bronze) can
be distributed to 5 persons?
for
2. In how many ways can the letters of the word

MATHEMATICS be arranged?
3. In how many ways can 25 students of management be allotted
t
to 5 classrooms of 5,6,4,5 and 5 students respectively?

No
4. Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word

‘Book’.
5. Find the number of ways in which a group of 5 girls and 6 boys
S,
can be seated at a round table.

6. Find the value of n if
E
(i) 2 n p3 n p5
UP
(ii) n p4  12 n p2
(iii) 12n 1 p3  5n 1 p3
(iv) n p4  42 n p2
(c)
(v) 5np2  np3

le
n
Notes
(vi) pn  720
/Sa
n
___________________ (vii) pn  40320
___________________
7. Find in how many ways can:
___________________
(i) 5 persons sit in a row
on
___________________
(ii) 10 persons be seated in a row 5 at a time
___________________
(iii) 7 boys be seated in a row 4 at a time
cti
___________________
(iv) 5 boys and 4 girls be seated in a row if boys and girls are
___________________
to sit separately.
___________________
du
(v) 3 gents and 7 ladies be seated in a row if no two gents are
___________________
together.
___________________
8. In how many ways can the colours of the rainbow be arranged
9.
pro
so that the red and the blue colours are always together?
In how many ways can 3 boys and 5 girls be arranged in a row,
so that all the 3 boys are together?
Re
10. There are 5 red and 4 black balls of different sizes. Find in how
many ways they may be arranged in a row if balls of the same
colour are to be together.
for
11. How many number of ways of arranging 3 books on Hindi, 4

books on English, and 5 books on Sanskrit if books on Hindi
are never together.
12. How many numbers between 200 and 600 can be formed by
t
using 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 without repetition. How many of them are

No
even?
13. How many numbers lying between 100 and 1000 can be
formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 each digit not occurring
more than once in the number?
S,
14. How many numbers between 3000 and 7000 can be formed
using 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 without repeating the digits?
E
15. How many even numbers greater than 300 can be formed with
UP
the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 with repetition not allowed?

16. How many odd numbers of five digits can be formed with the
digits 0, 2, 3, 4, 7 when no digit is repeated?
(c)
17. How many three-digit numbers formed out of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

(without repetition) are greater than 357?
le
18. Find the number of arrangements that can be made out of the
Notes
letters of the following words:
/Sa
___________________
(a) SUBJECT
___________________
(b) COLLEGE
___________________
on
(c) PROBLEMS
___________________
(d) SOLUTIONS
___________________
cti
(e) MATHEMATICS
___________________
(f) ENGINEERING ___________________
(g) PRINCIPAL
du
___________________
19. In how many ways 5 boys can form a ring? ___________________
20. In how many ways can 4 commerce and 4 science students be ___________________
arranged alternatively in a round table? pro
21. In how many ways can 7 students and 6 teachers sit round a
table so that no two teachers sit together?
Re
22. In how many ways 5 different beads be strung on a necklace?
23. In how many ways can 4 men and 2 ladies be arranged at a
round table if the two ladies (1) sit together, (2) are separated?
for
24. Show that 2n  2n n[1  3  5  .....(2n  1)]
25. Show that r  2 if 6 pr  360 .
26. Show that n  5 if 2  n p2  50 2np2 .

t
No
Further Readings
Books
S,

E

UP
(c)
le
Web Readings
Notes
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation
/Sa
___________________
www.mathsisfun.com/combinatorics/combinations-permutations
___________________
www.khanacademy.org/math/.../prob.../v/permutations
___________________
on
betterexplained.com/articles/easy-permutations-and-
___________________
combinations
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
tfor
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 12 Combinations
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Determine whether the
Combinations following situations would
___________________
require calculating a
permutation or a combination:
___________________
on
1. Selecting three students
Objectives to attend a conference in
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following India.
topics: ___________________
2. Selecting a lead and an
cti
understudy for a school
 Combination ___________________
play.
 Concept and Formulae of Combinations 3. ___________________
Assigning students to
their seats on the first day
 Worked out Examples
du
of school.
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
In this unit, we will discuss concept of Combination. We will
consider many worked out examples to make the concept more
pro
clearer.
Re
Concept of Combination
A combination is a selection of things.
for
Definition: The number of ways of selecting ‘r’ things out of ‘n’

things is called the number of combinations of n things taken r at a
time and is denoted by n Cr .
n
Pr
t
Th 1 : n Cr 
r!
No
Th 2 : n Cr n Cn r
Th 3 : n Cr 1  n Cr n 1 Cr
S,
Particular Cases
n n! n!
C0   1
E
(n  0)! 0! n !
UP
n n! n! n(n  1)!
C1    n
(n  1)! 1! (n  1)! (n  1)!
n n! n! n! n!
Cn     1
(c)
(n  n )! n ! 0! n ! 0! n ! n !
le
Notes
Check Your Progress
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
___________________
___________________
1. A ......................... is a selection of things.
___________________ 2. The number of ways of selecting r things out of n things
on
is called the number of combinations of .........................
___________________
things taken ......................... at a time.
___________________
Worked Examples
cti
___________________
___________________ Problem 1: Find the values of 7 C3 and 10

C2 .
___________________
du
7! 7  6  5  4! 7  6  5
Solution: 7 C3     35
___________________ (7  3)! 3! 4! 3  2 6
___________________ 10! 10  9  8!
10
C2 
(8)! 2!

pro
8! 2  1
Problem 2: Find n if n C10 n C4

 45
Re
Solution: n C10 n C4
 n
C10 n Cn 4 ( nCr n Cn r )
 n  4  10  14
for
Problem 3: From a group of 20 people, how many selections of 12

people can be made so as to exclude 5 particular persons.
Solution: Since 5 particular persons are to be excluded in each
selection, only 15 people remain out of which 12 are to be selected.
t
No
Required number of selections
15  14  13
15 C12 
3  2 1
 5  7  13  455
S,
Problem 4: From 7 gentlemen and 4 ladies, a committee of 5 is to

be formed. In how many ways can this be done to include atleast
E
one lady?
UP
Solution: The committee may be formed in the following ways.

(i) 1 lady and4 gentlemen and this can be done in
4 765
C1 7 C4  4   140 ways.
3  2 1
(c)
le
(ii) 2 ladies and 3 gentlemen and this can be done in
Notes
43 765 Activity
/Sa
4
C2 7 C3    210 ways
2 1 3  2 1 ___________________
There are fourteen juniors and
twenty-three seniors in the
(iii) 3 ladies and 2 gentlemen and this can be done in ___________________
Service Club. The club is to
send four representatives to
4 76 the ___________________
State Conference. How
C3 7 C2  4   84 ways
on
2 1 many different ways are there
to ___________________
select a group of four
(iv) 4 ladies and 1 gentleman and this can be done in students to attend the
___________________
conference?
cti
4
C4 7 C1  1  7  7 ways ___________________
Therefore, total number of 5 member committee with atleast one ___________________
lady  140  210  84  7  441 .
du
___________________
Problem 5: In how many ways can a person choose one or more of ___________________
the goods: T.V., Refrigerator, Washing machine, Radiogram? ___________________
Solution:
1 good can be chosen in 4 C1  4 ways.

pro
43
Re
2 goods can be chosen in 4 C2   6 ways.
2 1
3 goods can be chosen in 4 C3 4 C1  4 ways.

for
4 goods can be chosen in 4 C4  1 way.
the total number of ways of choosing the goods is

4  6  4  1  15 .
t
Problem 6: In an examination paper, there are two parts each

No
containing 4 questions. A candidate is required to attempt 5

questions but not more than 3 questions from any part. In how
many ways can 5 questions be selected?
Solution: 5 questions can be selected in the following ways:
S,
(i) 2 and 3: This can be done in 4 C2 4 C3 ways

E
43
  4  24
2 1
UP
(ii) 3 and 2: This can be done in 4 C3 4 C2 ways
43
 4  24
2 1
(c)
5 questions can be selected in 24  24  48 ways.

le
Problem 7: There are 12 points in a plane of which 4 are collinear.
Notes
Find the number of (i) straight lines, (ii) triangles which can be
/Sa
___________________
formed from these points.
___________________
Solution:
___________________
(i) Two points are required for a line. If no three of the given 12
on
___________________ points are collinear then the number of straight lines that can
12
___________________ be formed is C2 . But 4 points are given to be collinear.
cti
___________________ From these 4 points, we get only one straight line. But if these
4
___________________ 4 points were non-collinear, we would get C2 number of
___________________ straight lines.
du
___________________ Number of straight lines 12C2  1 4C2
___________________
12  11 4 3

2 1
1 
pro
2 1
 66  1  6  61
(ii) Three non-collinear points are required to form a triangle. If

Re
none of the 12 points are not collinear, then the number of
12
triangles that can be formed is C3 .
4
Since 4 of these points are collinear, we would not get C3
for
triangles from these 4 points.
number of triangles 12C3 4C3
12  11  10
 4
t
3  2 1
No
 2  11  10  4  220  4
 216
Problem 8: Five balls of different colours are to be placed in three

S,
boxes of different sizes. Each box can hold all five balls. In how
many different ways we can place the balls so that no box remains
E
empty? (IIT-1981)
Solution: The five balls of different colours can be placed in three
UP
boxes in the following ways.

Case (i)
I Box II Box III Box
(c)
(a) 1 ball 1 ball 3 balls

(b) 1 ball 3 balls 1 ball
(c) 3 balls 1 ball 1 ball
le
3 balls for one box can be selected in 5 C3 ways. 1 ball for second
Notes
box can be selected in 2 C1 ways the last ball can be placed in the
/Sa
___________________
III box in 3 ways.
___________________
number of ways
___________________
on
5 2
 C3  C1  3  10  2  3  60 ___________________
Case (ii) ___________________
cti
I Box II Box III Box ___________________
(a) 1 ball 2 balls 2 balls
___________________
(b) 2 balls 1 ball 2 balls
du
(c) 3 balls 3 balls 1 ball ___________________
2 balls can be selected for one box in 5

C2 ways. 2 balls can be ___________________
selected for second box from the remaining 3 balls in 3 C2 ways. ___________________
The last ball can be placed in the third box in 3 ways.

pro
number of ways
Re
 5C2  3C2  3  10  3  3  90
total number of ways  60  90  150
Check Your Progress

for
Fill in the blanks:

1. If the order doesn't matter, it is a .......................
2. If the order does matter it is a .......................
t
No
Summary
When no attention is given to the order of arrangement of the
selected objects, we get a combination.
S,
np
nc  r  n!
r
E
r! r !(n  r )!
n c  nc
UP
r n-r
The total number of combinations of n distinct objects at a time =

2n – 1.
(c)
le
Lesson End Activity
Notes
Find the values of the following:
/Sa
___________________
5
___________________ C3 , 10C5 , 11C6 , 20C15 , 8C3
___________________
on
___________________
Keywords
___________________ Combination: The number of ways of selecting ‘r’ things out of ‘n’
things is called the number of combinations of ‘n’ things taken r at
cti
___________________
a time.
___________________
n n!
___________________ Combination Notation: c (n, r ) ncr  ncr   
du
 r  r !(n  r )!
___________________
___________________
1.
pro
In how many ways a committee of 5 persons can be formed out
8 management gurus, 5 artists and 10 mathematicians if any
person can be included in the committee.
Re
2. In how many ways one or more of five different goods can be
selected?
3. Find the values of n if:
for
n
(i) C15 n C11
n
(ii) C30 n C5
t
18
(iii) Cn 18 Cn  2
No
2n
(iv) C3 : n C2  44 : 3
(v) 3 n C6  2 n C4
S,
4. Out of 16 men, in how many ways a group of 7 men may be

selected?
E
5. Out of 10 questions in an examination paper, in how many

ways can a candidate select 5 questions?
UP
6. From 6 boys and 4 girls, 5 are to be selected for admission for

B.Sc. course. In how many ways can this be done if there must
be exactly 2 girls?
(c)
le
7. In how many ways can 4 books be selected out of 5 Maths and
Notes
8 Physics books if (i) there must be exactly one Maths book, (ii)
/Sa
atleast one Maths book? ___________________
8. In how many ways can a cricket team of 11 players with ___________________
atleast 2 bowlers and atleast 2 wicket-keepers be selected out ___________________
on
of 3 bowlers, 3 wicket-keepers and 10 other players.
___________________
9. Find the number of ways of forming a committee of 2 teachers ___________________
and 3 students out of 10 teachers and 20 students if (i) a
cti
___________________
particular teacher has to be included, (ii) a particular student
has to be excluded. ___________________
du
10. How many line segments are formed by joining: ___________________
___________________
(i) 10 points in a plane of which 5 are collinear.
___________________
pro
(ii) 12 points in a plane of which 4 are collinear.
(iii) 12 points in a plane of which 3 are collinear.
(iv) 20 points in a plane of which 6 are collinear.
Re
11. How many triangles are formed by joining:
(i) 6 points in a plane no three of which are collinear
(ii) 12 points in a plane of which 4 are collinear.
for
(iii) 8 points in a plane of which 5 are collinear.
Further Readings
t
Books
No

S,

E
Web Readings
www.mathsisfun.com/combinatorics/combinations-permutations
UP
betterexplained.com/articles/easy-permutations-and-
combinations
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/math/permut.html
(c)
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 13: Ratio and Proportions
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
Two___________________
numbers are respectively
Ratio and Proportions 20% and 50% more than a
third___________________
number. What is the ratio
of the two numbers?
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Ratio and Proportions: Meaning ___________________
 Methods of Finding Ratio and Proportion ___________________
 Distinguish between Ratio and Proportion
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
Ratio and Proportions are very extensively used in many branches
of knowledge like Physics, Chemistry Mathematics and also
business problems. In business problems related to cost-volume
profit analysis or break even analysis and others, the techniques of
Re
ratio and proportions are extensively used.
Ratio
for
Any two quantities of the same kind compared by dividing one by

the other are said to be in a ratio.
Example: If a man earns 5,000 and saves 500 then the ratio of
savings to earnings is
t
No
Savings 500 1
 
Earnings 5000 10
i.e., Savings : Earnings = 1:10.

S,
p
A simple definition of ratio is (here q 0)
q
E
Antecedent and Consequent

UP
p
If is a ratio then p is called the antecedent and q is called the
q
consequent.
(c)
2
E.g. If is a ratio, 2 is the antecedent and 3 is the consequent.
3
le
Notes Equality of Ratios
/Sa
___________________ a c
Two ratios and where b  0, d  0 are said to be equal if
___________________
b d
ad = bc.
___________________
on
a c
___________________ i.e.,   ad  bc
b d
___________________
or a : b  c : d  ad  bc
cti
___________________
2 8
___________________ E.g.: and are equal
3 12
___________________
du
2  12  24  3  8
___________________
___________________ Properties
pro
(a) Componendo: If a : b  c : d
property is called Componendo.
then ( a  b) : b  (c  d ) : d, this
a c
Re
Proof:  (given)
b d
Add 1 on both sides.
a c
 1  1
for
b d
a b c d
i.e., 
b d
a b c d
t
 a :b  c :d 
b d
No
 ( a  b) : b  ( c  d ) : d
(b) Dividendo: If a :b  c :d then ( a  b) : b  (c  d ) : d. This

property is called Dividendo.
S,
a c
Proof:  (given)
b d
E
Subtracting 1 from both sides, we get

UP
a c
1  1
b d
a b c d
i.e., 
b d
(c)
 ( a  b) : b  ( c  d ) : d
le
a c
(c) Componendo et Dividendo: If  then Notes
b d Activity
/Sa
___________________
A dentist sees a patient every
( a  b) : ( a  b)  (c  d ) : (c  d ). This property is called 20 minutes? He works an
___________________
average 60 hours per week. If
Componendo et Dividendo.
he takes 3 weeks of vacation.
Proof: How___________________
many patients does he
on
see in a year?
___________________
a c
 (given) ...(1) ___________________
b d
cti
___________________
Add 1 to both sides of (1)
___________________
a c
1  1
du
b d ___________________
a b c d ___________________
i.e.,  ...(2)
b d ___________________
Subtract 1 from both sides of (1)

a c
pro
 1  1
b d
Re
a b c d
i.e.,  ...(3)
b d
Dividing (2) from (3), we get
for
a b cd
b  d
a b cd
b d
t
a b c d
No
i.e., 
a b c d
i.e.,( a  b) : ( a  b)  ( c  d ) : ( c  d )
Worked Examples
S,
Problem 1: Find the ratio between two numbers such that their
sum is 60 and difference is 8.
E
Solution: Let the two numbers be x and y.

UP
 x  y  60 ...(1)
xy8 ...(2)
Let us solve these questions.

(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
2x  68
___________________
 x  34
___________________
Substituting x  34 in (1), we get
___________________
on
34  y  60
___________________
 y  60  34
___________________
i.e., y  26
cti
___________________
x 34 17
___________________ the ratio between x and y is  
y 26 13
___________________
du
 x : y  17 :13
___________________
4
___________________ Problem 2: A ratio in its lowest terms is . If the difference
pro 9
between the quantities is 25, find the quantities.
Solution: Let the two quantities be x and y.
x 4 4a
Re
   (where a is a constant and y > x)
y 9 9a
 x  4a and y  9a
y  x  9a  4 a
for
i.e., y  x  5a
25  5a
a 5
t
the quantities are 4 × 5 and 9 × 5 i.e., 20 and 45.

No
Problem 3: Two numbers are in the ratio 3:5. If 7 is added to each,

they are in the ratio 8:9. Find the numbers.
Solution: Let the numbers be x and y.
S,
x and y are in the ratio of 3 : 5
the numbers x and y can be taken as x  3a and y  5a where a

E
is a constant and y  x .
UP
If 7 is added to each, we get 3a  7 and 5a  7 .
These are in the ratio 8 : 9

3a  7 8
(c)
 
5a  7 9
le
Cross multiplying, we get
Notes
/Sa
9(3a  7)  8(5a  7)
___________________
27a  63  40a  56
___________________
i.e., 40a  27a  63  56
___________________
13a  7
on
7 ___________________
 a
13 ___________________
cti
7 21 7 35 ___________________
the numbers are x  3   and y  5  
13 13 13 13 ___________________
21 35
du
the numbers are and . ___________________
13 13
___________________
Problem 4: What number should be added to each term in the
___________________
ratio 5 : 6 so that it becomes 8 : 11?
pro
Solution: Let the number x be added to each term in the ratio
5
.
6
Re
5x 8
Then we get 
6  x 11
On cross multiplication, we get
for
11(5  x )  8(6  x )
i.e., 55  11x  48  8 x
i.e., 11x  8 x  48  55
3x  7
t
7
No
x
3
Problem 5: The incomes of A and B are in the ratio of 5 : 6 and
their expenditures are in the ratio of 4 : 5. If they both save 400
at the end of year, find the annual incomes of A and B.
S,
Solution: The ratio of the incomes of A and B is 5 : 6.

E
Therefore, their incomes may be taken as 5a and 6a. Since they

save 400 their expenditure is 5a  400 and 6a  400 each.
UP
5a  400 4
 
6a  400 5
(c)
le
i.e., 5(5a  400)  4(6a  400)
Notes
25a  2000  24 a  1600
/Sa
___________________
25a  24 a  2000  1600
___________________  a  400
___________________ A’s income is 5  400 = 2000
on
___________________
B’s income is 6  400 = 2400
___________________
Problem 6: If a : b  2 : 3, b : c  5 : 7 and c : d  9 : 3, find a : d .
cti
___________________
a 2 b 5 c 9
___________________ Solution:  ,  , 
b 3 c 7 d 3
___________________
du
a b c 2 5 9
___________________      
b c d 3 7 3
___________________ a 10
i.e., 
d 7
a : d  10 : 7
pro
Problem 7: An article is sold at a gain of 25% on cost price. Find
Re
the ratio of selling price to cost price.
Solution: Let the cost price of the article be x.
25x x
25% of x is 
for
100 4
Therefore, the selling price = cost price + 25% on cost price.
x 5x
x 
t
4 4
No
5x
selling price 5
 4 
cost price x 4
Therefore, selling price : cost price 5:4

S,
x 2 2x 2  3 y 2
Problem 8: If  , find
y 3 x 2  y2
E
x 2
Solution: 
UP
y 3
3x
 y
2
(c)
le
2
 3x 
2 2 2x 2  3   Notes
2x  3 y  2 
/Sa
2 2
 2 ___________________
x y  3x 
x2   
 2  ___________________
___________________
 9x 2 
on
2
2x  3   ___________________
  4 
9x 2 ___________________
x2 
4
cti
___________________
8x  27x 2
2
4 ___________________

4 x  9x 2
2
du
___________________
4
___________________
35x 2 35
  ___________________
13x 2 13
Problem 9: Divide 5880 in the ratio 3 : 6 : 5.
pro
Solution: The amount of 5880 has to be divided in the ratio of
Re
3 : 6 : 5.
Let these amounts be 3x ,6x ,5x .
 3x  6x  5x  5880
for
14 x  5880
5880
x  420
14
Therefore, the three parts are 3x ,6x ,5x .

t
No
i.e., 3  420, 6  420, 5  420.
i.e., 1260, 2520, 2100
Problem 10: If 2x 2  3 y2 : x 2  y2 is equal to 2 : 41, find x : y .

S,
2x 2  3 y 2 2
Solution: 2 2

x y 41
E

UP
41(2x 2  3 y2 )  2( x 2  y2 )
82x 2  123 y2  2x 2  2 y2
i.e., 82x 2  2x 2  123 y2  2 y2

(c)
80 x 2  125 y2
le
2
Notes x 2 125 25  5 
  
y2 80 16  4 
/Sa
___________________
x 5
___________________

y 4
___________________
i.e., x : y  5 : 4 .
on
___________________
___________________ Check Your Progress
cti
___________________ Fill in the blanks:
___________________ 1. Any two quantities of the same kind compared by

dividing one by the other are said to be in a ....................
___________________
du
___________________
2. Ratio and Proportions are very extensively used in many
branches of knowledge like ....................
___________________
Proportions
pro
a c a c
If two ratios and are such that = then a, b, c, d are said
b d b d
Re
to be in proportion. The numbers a and d are called extremes and
the numbers b and c are called the means. The product of the
extremes is equal to the product of the means.
for
i.e., a : b  c : d  ad  bc
E.g., 3 : 4  6 : 8  3  8  24  4  6
Note: Difference between Ratio and Proportion are distinguished

t
as follows:
No
1. There are two terms in a ratio. Whereas there are four terms
in a proportion.
2. Ratio is a comparison of two quantities of the same kind
whereas proportion is a comparison of two ratios.
S,
3. In the ratio, the two quantities must be of the same kind and
E
in proportion, the first two are of one kind and the last two
may be of another kind.
UP
Continued Proportional
If a : b  b : c  c : d  ......
(c)
a b c
i.e., If    .....
b c d
le
Then a, b, c, d,..... are said to be in continued proportion.
Notes
/Sa
3 6 12
E.g.:    ........ are said to be in continued proportion. ___________________
6 12 24
___________________
Mean Proportional ___________________
on
If a : b  b : c then b is called the mean proportional between a ___________________
and c.
___________________
a b
cti
 ___________________
b c
 b2  ac (on cross multiplication) ___________________
du
 b  ac ___________________
Therefore, the mean proportional between a and c is given by ___________________
b  ac . ___________________
e.g.: If
3 6

6 12
,
pro
Re
then the mean proportional between 3 and 12 is 3  12  36  6,
which is the consequent of the first ratio (or the antecedent of the
second ratio).
Third Proportional
for
If a : b  b : c then c is called the third proportional between a and

b.
a b
t
   b2  ac (on cross multiplication)

b c
No
b2
 c  is third proportional between a and b
a
3 6
e.g.: If  ,
6 12
S,
62 36
then the third proportional between 3 and 6 is   12 , which
E
3 3
is the consequent of the second ratio.
UP
Fourth Proportional
If a : b  c : d then d is called the fourth proportional of a, b, c.
(c)
a c
i.e., if 
b d
le
then ad  bc (on cross multiplication)
Notes
bc
/Sa
___________________ d
a
___________________
bc
the fourth proportional of a, b, c is given by d  .
___________________ a
on
___________________ E.g.: If 2 : 3  4 : 6, then 6 is the fourth proportional of 2, 3, 4.
___________________ The fourth proportional of 2, 3, 4
cti
___________________ 34
  6 which is the consequent of the second ratio.
2
___________________
___________________ The Rule of Proportions
du
___________________ If a quantity Q is divided into three parts in the ratio p : q : r , then
___________________
I part II part III part Q
p

q


r 
r pro
pqr
III part   Q
 pqr
Re
 p 
I part   Q
 pqr
 q 
II part   Q
for
 pqr
Worked Examples
1 1 1
t
Problem 1: Divide 2600 into three parts in the ratio : :

No
2 3 6
Solution: By applying the rule of proportions, we can find the
three parts of 2600.
 1   1 
S,
 2   3 
I part    2600 II part   2600
 1  1  1   1  1  1 
2 3 6 2 3 6
E
 1   1 
   
UP
2 3
   2600    2600
 18  12  6   18  12  6 
 236   236 
18 12
  2600   2600
(c)
36 36
1 1
  2600  1300   2600  866.666  866.67
2 3
le
 1 
  Notes
6
/Sa
III part   2600
 1  1  1  ___________________
2 3 6
___________________
 1 
 6  ___________________
on
   2600
 18  12  6  ___________________
 236 
___________________
6
  2600
cti
36 ___________________
1 ___________________
  2600  433.33
6
du
___________________
Therefore, the three parts are 1300, 866.67 and 433.33
___________________
Problem 2: Find the mean proportional between 2 and 8.
___________________
Solution: The
2  8  16  4 .
mean proportional between pro
2 and 8 is
Therefore, 4 is the mean proportional between 2 and 8.

Re
Problem 3: Find the third proportional of 0.5 and 1.5.
b2
Solution: The third proportional of a and b is .
a
for
The third proportional of 0.5 and 1.5 is

1.5 
0.5
1.5  1.5
  3  1.5  4.5
t
0.5
No
Problem 4: Find the fourth proportional of 8, 12, 16.
bc
Solution: The fourth proportional d of a, b, c is given by d  .
a
S,
Therefore, fourth proportional of 8, 12, 16 is

12  16
 24
E
8
Problem 5: The marks in mathematics of three students Rama,
UP
Anthony and Jabbar are proportional to 5 : 4 : 3. If Anthony

obtained 70 marks, what are the marks of Rama and Jabbar.
Solution: The proportion of marks is 5 : 4 : 3
(c)
Total  5  4  3  12
le
Since Anthony obtained 70 marks,
Notes
/Sa
___________________
4x
 70
12
___________________ 70  12
 x  210
___________________ 4
on
___________________ 5
Therefore, the marks obtained by Rama is  210  87.5 and
___________________ 12
marks obtained by Jabbar is
cti
___________________
3
___________________  210  52.5
12
___________________
du
Problem 6: If the monthly incomes of A and B are in the ratio of
___________________
3 : 2 and those of B and C are in the ratio of 9 : 7, what is the ratio
___________________ of the monthly incomes of A and C.
pro
Solution: Monthly incomes of A and B = 3 : 2. On multiplying both
antecedent and consequent by 9, we get A : B = 27 : 18.
Monthly incomes of B and C  9 : 7
Re
On multiplying both antecedent and consequent by 2, we get
B : C  18 :14 .
A B 27 18 27
for
    
B C 18 14 14
Therefore, the ratio of the monthly incomes of A and C is 27 :14 .
x 1  x 1 4x  1
Problem 7: Solve the equation  .
t
x 1  x 1 2
No
Solution: By componendo et dividendo
x 1  x 1  x 1  x 1 4x  1  2

x 1  x 1  x 1  x 1 4x  1  2
S,
2 x 1 4x  1
 
2 x 1 4x  1
E
x 1 4x  1
 
UP
x 1 4x  1
x  1 16 x 2  8 x  1
Squaring  
x  1 16 x 2  24 x  9
(c)
le
Using componendo et dividendo we get
Notes
/Sa
2x 32x 2  16 x  10
  ___________________
2 32x  8
2 ___________________
16 x  8 x  5
x
16 x  4 ___________________
on
 16 x  4 x  16 x 2  8 x  5
2
___________________
 4x  5
___________________
5
cti
x
4 ___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
du
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. In business problems related to cost-volume profit
___________________
analysis or break even analysis and others, the
techniques ..................... are extensively used.
pro
2. The mean proportional between 2 and 8 is .....................
Re
Summary
p
If is a ratio then p is called the antecedent.
q
for
a c
Two ratios, and , where b 0 and, d 0, are said to be equal if
b d
ad = bc.
t
Proportion is a comparison of two ratios.

No
If a : b = c : d, then (a + b) : b = (c + d) : d.
If a : b = c : d, then (a – b) : b = (c – d) : d.
a : b = c:d, then (a + b) : (a – b) = (c + d) : (c – d)
S,
Lesson End Activity

E
2x 3  3x 2  x  1 3x 3  x 2  5x  13
Solve the equation, 
UP
2x 3  3x 2  x  1 3x 3  x 2  5x  13
Keywords
(c)
Ratio: Any two quantities of the same kind compared by dividing

one by the other are said to be in a ratio.
le
p
Notes Antecedent: If is a ratio then p is called the antecedent.
q
/Sa
___________________
p
___________________ Consequent: If is a ratio then q is called the consequent.
q
___________________
on
Proportion: It is a comparison of two ratios.
___________________
Mean Proportion: If a : b = b : c, then b is called mean
___________________
proportional.
cti
___________________
___________________ Questions for Discussion

___________________
du
1. What are the differences between ratio and proportion.
___________________
2. What do you understand by the term equality of ratios. Give
___________________
example.
3.
pro
Write various properties of ratios.
4. Two numbers are in the ratio of 3 : 5. If 7 is added to each,
they are in the ratio of 8:9. Find the numbers.
Re
5. Find the mean proportional between 2 and 18.
6. Marks obtained by three students are in the proportion of
2:3:5. If first student obtained 20 marks, what are the marks
for
of second and third students.
x y z
7. If   , prove that
bc a c  a b a bc
t
x  y  z x ( y  z )  y( z  x )  z( x  y )
 .
No
a bc 2( ax  by  cz )
8. Find two numbers in the ratio of 7 : 12 so that the greater

exceeds the lesser by 275.
S,
9. What number must be added to each term of the ratio 5 : 37 to

make it equal to 1 : 3?
E
10. If x : y  3 : 4, find the ratio of 7x  4 y :3x  y .
11. Find the fourth proportional of 3, 5, 27.

UP
12. Find the mean proportional between (i) 6 and 24 (ii) 360a 4
and 250a 2b2 .
(c)
x y x
13. Find the third proportional between  and .
y x y
le
14. If x : y  3 : 4, find the value of x 2 y  xy2 : x 3  y3 .
Notes
/Sa
a b c a bc ___________________
15. If   , prove that  2.
3 4 7 c
___________________
16. If ( a  b  c  d ): ( a  b  c  d )  ( a  b  c  d ):( a  b  c  d ) .
___________________
on
Prove that a : d  c : b . ___________________
___________________
Further Readings
cti
___________________
Books ___________________
du
Books, New Delhi, 2005 ___________________
D C Sanchethi and V K Kapoor, Business Mathematics ___________________
Sivayya and Sathya Rao, An Introduction to Business Mathematics pro

Web Readings
Re
www.math.com/school/subject1/lessons/S1U2L2GL.html
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratio
www.lofoya.com/Aptitude...And.../Ratio-and-
for
Proportion/intro.htm
www.themathpage.com/arith/ratio-and-proportion_1.htm -
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 14: Variations
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Illustrate some of the
Variations examples of variation from
your___________________
day to-day life.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Variation ___________________
 Types of Variations ___________________
 Worked examples
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
In this unit, we will discuss variation. Further we will discuss
Types of variations. We will consider many worked examples to
make the concept more clearer.
Re
Types of Variation
Direct Variation
for
If two terms A and B are such that A  KB where K is a constant

 0 then A is said to vary as B or we say that A varies as B or A is
proportional to B. We write A  B . This is called direct variation.
t
Inverse Variation
No
K
If two terms A and B are such that A  where K is a constant
B
 0 then A is said to vary inversely as B or we say that A varies
1
inversely as B or A is inversely proportional to B. We write A  .
S,
B
This is called inverse variation.
E
Joint Variation
UP
If three terms A, B, C are such that A is directly proportional to the

product of B and C then it is called joint variation, i.e., A  BC
which implies A  KBC where K is a constant.
(c)
1 B KB
If A  B and A  then A  which implies A  .
C C C
le
B
Notes A is a joint variation.
C
/Sa
___________________
The application of variations is in solving problems in Time and
___________________
Work. Time and distance and problems on mixtures.
___________________
(a) Time to complete a work varies directly as the amount of work
on
___________________ and inversely as the number of workers employed.
___________________
(b) Time taken to travel a distance varies directly as the distance
cti
___________________ but varies inversely as the speed.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
du
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. If two terms A and B are such that A = KB where K is a
___________________
constant not equal to 0, then A is said to vary as B or
pro
we say that A varies as B or A is proportional to B. This
is called .................... variation.
2. If two terms A and B are such that A = K/B where K is a
Re
constant not equal to 0, then A is said to vary as B or
we say that A varies inversely as B or A is inversely
proportional to B. This is called .................... variation.
for
Worked Examples
Problem 1: If 10 men complete a work in 12 days, how many days
will it take for 15 men to complete the same work.
Solution: 10 men complete a work in 12 days, then 15 men
t
No
complete the same work in how many days? This is a problem on

inverse variation because the number of men and the number of
days are in inverse proportion.
 10 :15  x :12
S,
10 x
i.e., 
15 12
E
10  12
On cross multiplication, we get 15x  i.e., x  8
UP
15
Therefore, required number of days is 8.
Problem 2: A contractor was allowed 16 days to finish a piece of
(c)
work. He put 30 people to do this work. At the end of 12 days, only

UNIT 14: Variations
le
5
of the work was finished. How many extra people must be now
7 Notes
/Sa
employed to finish the work on time? ___________________
Solution: The number of people required is inversely proportional ___________________
to the number of days and directly proportional to the work. Since
___________________
on
5 2
of the work was completed, of the work is remaining. ___________________
7 7
___________________
the number of people required is
cti
___________________
2
12 7 2 ___________________
30    30  3   36
4 5 5
du
___________________
7
___________________
extra number of people required  36  30  6 .
___________________
pro
Problem 3: If it takes 8 hours for a bus to travel a certain distance
at the rate of 50 Kms per hour. How long will it take for a second
bus to travel the same distance at 55 Kms per hour?
Re
Solution: More speed and less time means that the speed and
time are inversely proportional.
Speed Time
50 8
for
55 x
Therefore, 55 : 50  8 : x

t
No
55x  8  50
8  50
 x
55
8  10 80
i.e., x   7.27
11 11
S,
=7 hours 16 minutes and 12 seconds.

E
Therefore, the second bus travels the same distance in 7 hours, 16

minutes and 12 seconds.
UP
Problem 4: 7 trucks make 12 trips in 6 hours to transport a

quantity of goods. How many trips will be made by 18 trucks in 7
hours to transport the same quantity of goods?
(c)
le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
___________________ Trucks Trips Time
7 12 6
___________________
18 x 7
___________________
7  12  6  18  x  9
on

___________________
7  12  6
x 
___________________ 18  7
cti
___________________ 7  12

37
___________________
74
 4
___________________ 7
du
___________________ the required number of trips is 4.
___________________
Problem 5: In a mixture of water and milk, the ratio of water to
pro
milk is 3 : 5. What are the quantities of each to be mixed to prepare
72 liters of the mixture?
Solution: Quantity of water to be taken
Re
3
  72
35
3
  72  3  9
8
for
= 27 liters.
Quantity of milk to be taken
5
t
  72
35
No
5
  72
8
 59
 45 liters
S,
Problem 6: Rice flour and Wheat flour are mixed in a vessel A in

the ratio 5 : 2 and in a vessel B in the ratio 8 : 5. Find in what ratio
E
should quantities be drawn from each vessel and mixed so that the
ratio of Rice flour to Wheat flour in the final mixture be 9 : 4.
UP
(c)
UNIT 14: Variations
le
Solution:
Notes
Activity
/Sa
Rice flour Wheat flour
How___________________
does time taken to travel
5 2 a distance varies with distance
Vessel A x x as well as with speed?
___________________
7 7
8 5 ___________________
Vessel B x y
on
13 13
___________________
9 4
final Mixture ( x  y) ( x  y)
13 13 ___________________
cti
5 8 9 ___________________
x y  ( x  y)
7 13 13 ___________________
du
Multiply by 7  13 ___________________
65x  56 y  63x  63 y ___________________
___________________
i.e.,

x 7

2x  7 y
pro
y 2
Re
the ratio of Rice flour to Wheat flour = 7.2.
Problem 7: If 9 men can do a piece of work in 20 days, find the

number of days it will take for 12 men to the same work assuming
2 men in the latter case do as much work as 3 in the former.
for
Solution: 2 men in the latter case = 3 men in the former.
12 men in the latter case = 18 men in the former.

t
9
the number of days  20 
No
18
1
 20 
2
 10
S,
Problem 8: A varies directly as the square root of B and inversely

as the cube of C. If A = 3, when B  256 and C  2 , find B when
E
1
A  24 and C  .
2
UP
1
Solution: A  B and A 
C3
B
(c)
 A
C3
le
Notes B
 Ak where k is a constant ...(1)
C3
/Sa
___________________
It is given that A  3 when B  256 and C  2 .
___________________
___________________ 256
 3k
on
___________________
23
 16 
___________________  3  k 
 8 
cti
___________________  3  2k
___________________ 3
 k
2
___________________
du
Substituting this values of k in (1), we get
___________________
___________________ 3 B
A
2 C3
pro
Now, we have to find B when A  24 and C 
1
.
2
Re
3 B
24 
2 1
8
 24  12 B
for
 B 2
 B4
Problem 9: If x varies as y prove that x 2  y2 varies as x 2  y2 .

t
No
Solution: x  y
 x  ky where k is constant.
x 2  y2 ky2  y2
consider  (substituting x = ky)
S,
x 2  y2 ky 2  y2
x 2  y2 ( k2  1) y2
  (taking the common factor y2)
E
x 2  y2 ( k2  1) y2
UP
x 2  y2 k2  1
  (cancelling y2)
x 2  y2 k2  1
x 2  y2 k2  1
  m where m  is a constant.
x 2  y2 k2  1
(c)
 x 2  y2  m( x 2  y2 )
UNIT 14: Variations
le
 x 2  y2 varies as x 2  y2 .
Notes
/Sa
2
Problem 10: A varies as B and C jointly while B varies as D and ___________________
C varies as A. Show that A varies as D.
___________________
Solution: A  BC  A  kBC where k is a constant.
___________________
on
2 2
B  D  B  lD where l is a constant. ___________________
1 m ___________________
C C  where m is a constant.
cti
A A ___________________
m ___________________
 A  kBC  A  k(lD 2 )  
A
du
___________________
 A  k lmD 2
2
___________________
 A  k lm D
___________________
AD
Check Your Progress

pro
Fill in the blanks:
Re
1. If three terms A, B, C are such that A is directly
proportional to the product of B and C then it is called
........................... variation.
for
2. Time to complete a work varies ........................... as the

amount of work and ........................... as the number of
workers employed.
t
Summary
No
Models of physical situations are often arrived at by recording the

values of variables in a table and by sketching graphs. Examining
the tabulated values and the graph, we try to define the
relationship between the variables by an equation. If the value of a
S,
dependent quantity changes as a result of changes in the value of

an independent quantity, then we say that one quantity varies
E
with respect to the other. However, the type of variation depends

on the relationship. In this unit we learnt about different types of
UP
variations like direct, indirect and joint variation.
Lesson End Activity

(c)
The price of a diamond varies as the square of its weight. Three

rings of equal weight each composed of a diamond set in gold have
le
values a, b, c; the diamonds in them weighing 3, 4, 5 carats
Notes respectively. Show that the value of a diamond of one carat is
/Sa
___________________  a  c  2b 
 2  , the cost of the workmanship being the same for each
___________________  
ring.
___________________
on
___________________
Keywords
___________________
Direct Variation: If two terms A and B are such that A = KB
cti
___________________
where K is a constant not equal to 0, then A is said to vary as B or
___________________ we say that A varies as B or A is proportional to B. This is called
___________________ direct variation.
du
___________________ Indirect Variation: If two terms A and B are such that A = K/B
___________________ where K is a constant not equal to 0, then A is said to vary as B or
pro
we say that A varies inversely as B or A is inversely proportional
to B. This is called indirect variation.
Joint Variation: If three terms A, B, C are such that A is directly
proportional to the product of B and C then it is called joint
Re
variation.

for
1. If the work done by ( x  1) men in ( x  1) days is to the work

done by ( x  2) men in ( x  1) days in the ratio of 9 : 10, find x.
2. Two casks A and B are filled with two kinds of liquids mixed in
t
a cask A in the ratio 2 : 7 and cask B in the ratio 1 : 5. What

No
quantity must be taken from each cask to form a mixture

which shall consist of 10 liters of one kind and 45 liters of the
other.
3. A, B, C are partners. Their total capital is 9500. Out of this,
S,
A’s capital is 4000 and B’s capital is 3000 After 3 months, A

withdraws 500 while B and C invest 500 and 750
E
respectively. Out of the total profit, A gets 10% as manager’s

salary. Then B gets a profit of 350. Find out the total profit
UP
and amount paid to A and C.

4. 5 goldsmiths can earn 480 in 6 days and working 8 hours per
day. How much will 8 goldsmiths earn in 12 days working 6
(c)
hours per day?

UNIT 14: Variations
le
1
5. The first bus reaches a destination in 8 hours at an average Notes
2
/Sa
speed of 56 kms per hour. How much time the second bus ___________________
takes to reach the same destination if it moves at an average ___________________
speed of 80 kms per hour?
___________________
on
6. The ratio of prices of 2 vehicles was 8 : 7. After 3 years when
___________________
the price of the first had increased by 880 and the record by
___________________
10 percent, the ratio of their prices become 13:11. What were
cti
the original prices? ___________________
7. A, B, C enter into partnership with 5,000, 3000, 2000 ___________________
respectively. A and B get 20% and 10% of the profits for special
du
___________________
efforts and the balance is shared in a capital ratio. In total, if A
___________________
receives 600 more than B, how much does each receive?
___________________
8.
pro
The tax on a property assessed at 12,333 is 800. What is
the assessed value of the property taxed at 1,100?
9. An aeroplane travels 500 kms in 1 hour and 50 minutes. At
the same speed, what distance would the plane cover in 2
Re
hours and 10 minutes?
10. A contractor was allowed 16 days to finish a piece of work. He
5
put 30 men on the work and at the end of 12 days, he found
for
7
of the work was finished. How many extra men must be now
associated to finish the work on time?
11. If the monthly incomes of A and B are in the ratio of 3 : 2 and
t
those of B and C in the ratio of 9 : 7, what is the ratio of the

No
monthly incomes of A and C?

12. The cube root of x varies inversely as the square of y. If x  8
1
when y  3 , find x when y  1 .
S,
2
13. The duration of a railway journey varies directly as the
E
distance and inversely as the speed; the speed varies directly

as the square root of the quantity of coal used per km and
UP
inversely as the number of carriages in the train. In a journey

of 50 kms in half an hour with 18 carriages, 100 kg of coal is
required. How much coal will be consumed in a journey of 42
kms with 16 carriages?
(c)
le
14. If P varies inversely as Q and P  7 when Q  3 , find P when
Notes
1
/Sa
___________________ Q 2 .
3
___________________
15. If the square of x varies as the cube of y and x  3 when y  4 ,
___________________
1
on
find the value of y when x  .
___________________ 3
___________________ 3 10
16. A varies as B and C jointly. If A  2 when B  , and C  ,
cti
___________________ 5 27
find C when A  54 and B  3 .
___________________
___________________
17. If y varies as the sum of two quantities, of which one varies
du
directly as x and the other inversely as x and if y  6 , when
___________________
1
___________________ x 3 and x  3 , find the relation between x and y.
3
pro
18. If y is equal to the sum of two quantities one of which varies as
x directly and the other as x 2 inversely and if y  19 when
x  2 or 3, find y in terms of x.
Re
19. Given that the volume of a sphere varies as the cube of its
radius and that when the radius is 3.5 cms, the volume is
179.7 cubic cm, find the volume when the radius is 1.75 cms.
for
20. 15 men work 8 hours a day to complete a job in 25 days. Find

how many days will be required by 12 men working 10 hours a
day to complete a piece of work three times bigger than the
previous job.
t
No
Further Readings
Books
S,

E

UP
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variation
www.purplemath.com/modules/variatn.htm
(c)
oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/variation
www.biotopics.co.uk/genes/varn.html
UNIT 5: Case Study
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Studies ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
cti
___________________
Case Study 1: Ratio and Proportion
___________________
Fred and George had some savings in the ratio 3 : 4 respectively.
du
They decided to buy a birthday present for their little sister ___________________
sharing the cost at ratio 2 : 3 respectively. After they have bought
___________________
the present, Fred already spent half of his money. And George
only has $21 left over. ___________________
Question: pro
Find the price of the present (that will lead to Fred’s saving and
George’s saving).
Re
Source: http://www.teachingideas.co.uk/maths/contents_ratioproportion.htm
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Case Study 2: Order of Numbers
Notes
There are twenty seven students in a class. A teacher is making a
/Sa
___________________ multiple choice quiz. She wants to give each student the same
questions, but have each student's questions appear in a different
___________________
order.
___________________ Question:
on
___________________ What is the least number of questions the quiz must contain?
___________________ Source: http://www.regentsprep.org/Regents/math/algtrig/ATS5/PCPrac.htm
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 16: Shares and Stock
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
BLOCK-IV
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Detailed Contents
le
Notes
/Sa
UNIT 16: SHARES AND STOCK
___________________ UNIT 18: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
___________________
 Shares  Recapitulation of Functions and Limit of a Function
___________________
on
 Stocks  Types of Function
___________________
 Some Important Terms  Differentiation
___________________
cti
UNIT 17: INTEREST AND ANNUITIES
___________________ UNIT 19: COMPOSITE AND IMPLICIT
FUNCTIONS
 Introduction
___________________  Introduction
 Simple Interest (S.I.)
___________________
du
 Function of a Function (or Composite Function)
 Compound Interest
___________________  Implicit Functions
 Annuities
___________________  Logarithmic Differentiation
pro
UNIT 20: CASE STUDIES
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Discuss in group for the
Shares and Stock statement: “Stock market is an
___________________
auction”.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Share and its Kinds ___________________
 Stock ___________________
 Dividend, Brokerage and Yield
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
In this unit, we will discuss share. Further we will discuss various
kinds of shares. We will also focus on stock, dividend, brokerage
and yield. We will consider many worked out examples to make the
concept more clearer.
Re
Shares
According to section 2(46) of the Indian Companies Act 1956, the
for
definition of shares is given as follows.

Definition
The required share capital necessary is divided into a number of
t
equal parts each having the same face value. Each part so divided
No
is called a share. These shares are issued by the company to the

people. One who purchases the shares is called a share holder of
the company.
Example: If the required share capital of a company is 10 crores,
S,
it will be divided into equal shares of face value of 10 each, so

that the company can issue 1 crore shares.
E
Kinds of Shares
UP
Any company registered under the Indian Company’s Act can issue
only the following two types of shares viz. (i) Preference Shares,
and (ii) Equity Shares.
(c)
le
Preference Shares
Notes
Activity These are the shares which provide the following two preferences
/Sa
___________________
Gather more information on to the shareholders:
the advancement made under
___________________
Indian Companies Act. (a) The profit earned by a company shall be distributed among the
___________________ shareholders according to a fixed rate. The portion of profit
on
___________________ that the shareholder gets is called the Dividend. This dividend
will be first paid to the shareholders of preference shares.
___________________
(b) When company is closed down, it has to repay the capital
cti
___________________
contributed by the shareholders after returning all debts. At
___________________ the time, the capital will be first returned to preference
___________________ shareholders before returning the capital to any other type of
du
___________________
shareholders.
___________________ It is due to these two preferences, the shares are called
pro
preference shares.
Equity Shares
These shares will not have any preference. They will get dividends
Re
only after dividends are paid to preference shareholders. Hence the
rate of dividend is not fixed. When the company is closed, the
capital will be repaid on these only after repayment on capital to
preference shares.
for
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The required share capital necessary is divided into a
t
No
number of equal parts each having the same face value.

Each part so divided is called a .....................
2. One who purchases the shares is called a ..................... of
the company.
S,
Stocks
E
To become a shareholder, one has to pay the face value of the

share. After completely collecting the face values of all the shares,
UP
a company can convert its fully paid up shares into stocks. Thus
stock is a bunch of fully paid up shares. Therefore, stock is the
aggregate of fully paid up shares of a company, consolidated for the
(c)
purpose of facilitating its division into fraction of any

denomination. A company with a share capital, if authorised by its
le
Articles of Association, may convert some of all its fully paid shares
into stocks. A stock holder may transfer any fraction of the stock Notes
/Sa
held by him. ___________________
The phrase 5% stock of 150 means: ___________________
(a) 100 stock can be bought or sold for 150. ___________________
on
(b) Each 100 stock gives a dividend of 5 p.a. ___________________
(c) An investment of 150 fetches an interest of 5 every year. ___________________
cti
___________________
Shares vs Stock
___________________
Share Stock
du
___________________
1. Share has a face value. 1. Stock has no face value.
2. Share may or may not be fully paid. 2. Stocks are always fully paid. ___________________
3. Shares are to be transferred or sold 3. Stocks can be transferred or
wholly. sold in fraction. ___________________
4. Shares can be directly issued to the
public.
5. The share denominations are
to the public.
pro
4. Stocks cannot be directly issued
5. The stock denominations may

always equal. vary.
6. On conversion of shares into
Re
stocks, the provisions of the
Companies Act governing the
shares shall not be applicable
to the share capital as it has
been converted.
for
Stock Value and Cash Value

(a) Stock value of the investment is the original face value of the
shares. For example, if a company is started with a total
t
capital of 10,00,000 and is divided into 1,00,000 shares of 10

No
each, the value of 10 is called the nominal value or the face

value or the stock value.
(b) Cash value of the investment is its market value which is the
price at which shares can be sold or purchased in a stock
S,
market.
(c) Par Value: If the market value of a share is equal to the face
E
value of a share, it is called the par value.

UP
Dividend, Brokerage and Yield

Dividend: The total annual profit of a company is distributed
among the shareholders in proportion of the shares that the
(c)
shareholders possess, is called the Dividend.

le
Brokerage: Brokerage is the commission that a broker charges for
Notes
Activity the purchases and sale of stocks and shares. Brokerage is
/Sa
___________________
Write a report on the position calculated at the given percent on the cash value.
of shares and stock at
___________________
present.
Yield: Yield is defined to be the ratio of actual interest or dividend
___________________ received to the actual amount invested in the stock or share i.e.,
on
___________________ Nominal Interest
Yield 
___________________ Amount Invested
cti
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
du
1. Any company registered under the Indian Companies
___________________ Act can issue ................ Shares and ................ Shares.
___________________
2. The portion of profit that the shareholder gets is called
pro
the ................
Some Important Terms

Re
1. Face Value: This is the price of each share as issued by the
company. This share value will be printed on the share
certificate.
for
2. Market Value: This is the price at which the shares are sold
or purchased in a stock market.
3. Par Value: If the market value of a share is equal to the face
value, then it is called Par Value.
t
No
4. At Discount: If the market of a share is less than the face

value, it is said to be sold at discount (or below par value).
5. At Premium: If the market value of a share is more than the
face value, it is said to be sold at premium (or above par
S,
value).
6. Dividend: The profit earned by the Company is distributed to
E
the shareholders. The portion of the profit for each share is

called the Dividend.
UP
Note: Stock Exchange is a voluntary organisation which functions

as a market place where all securities like shares and stocks can be
purchased or sold under specified rules and regulations of the Act.
(c)
There are stock exchanges at Bangalore, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,

Hyderabad.
le
Worked Examples
Notes
Problem 1: Find the cost of 500 shares at 15 per share.
/Sa
___________________
Solution: Total number of shares = 500
___________________
Cost of each share = 15
___________________
on
Therefore cost of 500 shares = 500 × 15 = 7500.
___________________
Problem 2: Find the cost of 100 shares at 100 each at 10
___________________
discount.
cti
___________________
Solution: Face value of each share = 100
___________________
Discount value = 10
du
___________________
Market value of each share = 90.
___________________
Cost of 100 shares = 100 × 90 = 9,000. ___________________
Solution: Cost of each share = 20.

pro
Problem 3: Find the dividend on 50 shares of 20 each at 5%.
cost of 50 shares = 50 × 20 = 1000

Re
Face value of 50 shares = 1000
Dividend = 5%
for
5
Dividend for 1,000  1000  = 50.
100
Problem 4: What is the Nominal Interest earned by investing

12,000 in 16% at 96?
t
16
No
Solution: MV  12,000 and interest  16% 

100
NV MV
100 12000
S,
? 96
12000  100 16
Nominal Interest    2000
E
96 100
UP
Nominal interest = 2,000
Problem 5: What is the Nominal Interest and the effective rate of

interest earned by investing 899 in 12% at 116?
(c)
le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
___________________ NV MV
100 899
___________________
? 110
___________________
on
899  100 12 899 12
___________________ NI     93
110 100 110
___________________
Nominal interest = 93
cti
___________________
___________________
Problem 6: What is the annual income derived by investing
1,000 in 12.5% at 80?
___________________
du
Solution:
___________________
NV MV
___________________
100 1000
? 80
pro
1000  100
NV   1250
Re
80
1250  12.5
Interest   156.25
100
Problem 7: What is the amount paid as brokerage at 1.25% on the
for
purchase of 15,000 cash in 15% stock at 81?

Solution: Brokerage  1.25% of MV
NV MV
t
100 81
No
15000 ?
15000  81
MV   12150
100
S,
1.25  12150
Brokerage   151.87
100
E
Problem 8: How much was invested in 13% stock at 108 to field an

annual income of 16,250? What amount of stock was held by the
UP
investor?
Solution:
NV MV
(c)
100 108
? x
le
100  x
NV  Notes
108
/Sa
___________________
Annual income = 162.5
___________________
100  x 13
 162.5   ___________________
108 100
on
 13x  162.50  108 ___________________
 13x  17,550 ___________________
17,550
cti
 x  1350 /  (cash) ___________________
13
___________________
Amount to be invested = 1350/-
du
___________________
NV MV
___________________
100 108
___________________
?
NV=
1,350
1350  100
pro
108
 1,250 /  ( Stock)
Re
Problem 9: What is the yield on 1,000/- invested in 14% at 85?
Solution: Amount invested = 1,000/-
for
NV
Yield 
Amount
NV MV
100 85
t
? 1000
No
1000  100 20000

NV = 
85 17
20000 14 2800
Interest     164.70
17 100 17
S,
 Nominal interest  164.70

Nominal interest 2800 1 14
E
yield    
Amount Invested 17 1000 85
UP
 0.1647
 Percentage Yield  16.47%
Problem 10: What amount of 16% stock at 93.5 can be purchased

(c)
for 1122?
le
Solution: Interest = 16%
Notes
/Sa
___________________ NV MV
100 93.5
___________________
? 1122
___________________
1122  100
on
NV=  1,200 / 
___________________ 93.5
___________________ Problem 11: What is the amount paid as brokerage at 1.25% on
cti
___________________ the purchase of 15,000 cash in 15% stock at 81?
___________________ Solution: Brokerage =1.25% of cash value (MV)
___________________
du
125
  15000
___________________ 100
 187.50
___________________
pro
amount paid as brokerage = 187.50/-
Problem 12: How much money should I invest in 11.5% stock at

73 (including brokerage) to obtain an income of 150/- after a tax
Re
deduction at source of 20%?
Solution:
NV MV
100 80
for
? 150
100  150 375
NV=   187.5
80 2
t
After 20% tax deduction, 80% remains.

No
Let investment = x
tax  20%x
 0.20 x
S,
Before deduction, tax  0.80x
For 0.80 x, the investment is x.

E
How much is the investment for 150?

UP
150 x 1500
   187.5
0.80 x 8
Investment = 187.5
(c)
le
73  115
Notes
? 187.5
/Sa
1875  73 ___________________

115 ___________________
27.375
  1,190.20 /  ___________________
25
on
___________________
Problem 13: A person sells out 4,000 of 6.25 Govt. of India stock
at 112.5 and reinvests the proceeds in 8% Railway debentures, ___________________
cti
thereby increasing his annual income by 50/-. At what price did ___________________
he buy the debentures? ___________________
Solution:
du
___________________
NV MV ___________________
100 112.5
___________________
4000 ?
4000  112.5
MV =  4500
pro
100
debentures  8%
Re
reinvestment : 100 x
? 4500
4500  100

for
x
4500  100 8
Annual income  
x 100
36000

x
t
No
Original annual income

NV MV
100 6.25
4000 ?
S,
4000  6.25
MV = = 250 /-
100
E
UP
(c)
le
36000
Notes   250  50
x
/Sa
___________________ 36000
 300
___________________ x
36000  300 x
___________________
300 x  36000
on
___________________
36000
x
___________________ 300
x  120 / 
cti
___________________
___________________ Problem 14: How much must be invested in 14.25% stock at 98 to

produce the same income as would be obtained by investing 9975
___________________
du
in 15% stock at 105?
___________________
Solution:
___________________
NV
100
?
MV
105
9975
pro
9975  100
Re
NV =
105
9975  100 15
Income  
105 100
 1425 / 
for
NV MV
100 98
? x
100  x
t
NV 
No
98
100  x 14.25
A 
98 100
1425x
  1425
S,
9800
 1425x  1425  9800
E
1425  9800
x  9800
1425
UP
x= 9800 /-
Problem 15: Ramesh has invested 4300 partly in 4.5% stock at

72 and partly in the 5% stock at 95. If the total invested income
(c)
from both is 250/-, find his investment in two types of stock.

le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
NV MV
___________________
100 72
? x ___________________
100  x ___________________
NV 
on
72 ___________________
100  x 45
Income   ___________________
72 100
cti
NV MV ___________________
100 95 ___________________
? (4300  x )
du
___________________
(4300  x )  100
NV  ___________________
95
(4300  x )  100 ___________________
Income 
Total income  250 / 

95
100  x  4.5 100(4300  x )5

pro
250  
72  100 100  95
Re
15x (4300  x )
250  
240 19
x (4300  x )
250  
16 19
for
x 4300 x
250   
16 19 19
1 1 4300
x     250 
16 19  19
t
No
19  16   250  19  4300 

x   
 16  19   19 
3x
 4750  4300
16
S,
3x
 450
16
E
7200
3x  450  16  x   2400 / 
3
UP
 Investment in the I type  2400

Investment in the II type  4300  2400  1900
(c)
le
Notes
Check Your Progress
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
___________________
___________________
1. To become a shareholder, one has to pay the ...................
value of the share.
___________________
on
2. ..................... is the aggregate of fully paid up shares of a
___________________
company, consolidated for the purpose of facilitating its
___________________ division into fraction of any denomination.
cti
___________________
___________________ Summary
___________________
du
The required share capital necessary is divided into a number of
___________________ equal parts each having the same face value. Each part so divided
is called a share. These shares are issued by the company to the
___________________
pro
people. One who purchases the shares is called a shareholder of
the company. Example: If the required share capital of a company
is 10 crores, it will be divided into equal shares of face value of
10 each, so that the company can issue 1 crore shares.
Re
Any company registered under the Indian Companies Act can issue
only the two types of shares viz. :(i) Preference Shares and (ii)
Equity Shares. To become a shareholder, one has to pay the face
value of the share. After completely collecting the face values of
for
all the shares, a company can convert its fully paid up shares into
stocks. The total annual profit of a company is distributed among
the shareholders in proportion of the shares that the shareholders
possess, is called the Dividend. Brokerage is the commission that a
t
broker charges for the purchases and sale of stocks and shares.
No
Brokerage is calculated at the given percent on the cash value.

Yield is defined to be the ratio of actual interest or dividend
received to the actual amount invested in the stock or share.
S,
Lesson End Activity

E
Find how much was invested in 14% stock at 110 yield an annual
income of 14,270. Find also what amount of stock was held by the
UP
investor.
Keywords
(c)
At Discount: If the market of a share is less than the face value, it

is said to be sold at discount (or below par value).
le
At Premium: If the market value of a share is more than the face
Notes
value, it is said to be sold at premium (or above par value).
/Sa
___________________
Cash Value: Cash value of the investment is the market price at
which can be sold or purchased in a stock market. ___________________
___________________
Dividend: The profit earned by the Company is distributed to the
on
shareholders. The portion of the profit for each share is called the ___________________
Dividend. ___________________
cti
Face Value: This is the price of each share as issued by the ___________________
company. This share value will be printed on the share certificate.
___________________
Market Value: This is the price at which the shares are sold or
du
___________________
purchased in a stock market.
___________________
Par Value: If the market value of a share is equal to the face
___________________
value, then it is called Par Value.
pro
Shares: The required share capital is divided into a number of
equal parts having the same face value. Each part so divided is
called a share.
Re
Stock: It is the aggregate of fully paid up shares of a company,
consolidated for the purpose of facilitating its division into fraction
of any denomination.
for
Stock Exchange: Stock Exchange is a voluntary organisation

which functions as a market place where all securities like shares
and stocks can be purchased or sold under specified rules and
regulations of the Act.
t
No
Stock value: Stock value of the investment is the original face

value of the shares.
Yield: The ratio of actual interest or dividend received to the
actual amount invested in the stock or share.
S,

E
1. The market price of 15 share of satyam is 100. Poonam

wants to buy 200 shares of the company. Find the amount she
UP
will have to pay if the brokerage is 20 paise per share. If the

company declares a dividend of 15% later on, find the dividend
payable to Poonam.
(c)
2. Find the annual yield on 10% bonds of the face value of 85

available of 75 each.
le
3. Find the cost of 800 shares at 24.5 per share.
Notes
/Sa
___________________
4. Find the cost of 250 shares at 80 each at 6 discount.
___________________ 5. Find the dividend on 75 shares at 10 each at 6%.
___________________ 6. Find the nominal interest earned by investing 15,000 in 10%
on
at 90.
___________________
___________________
7. Find the annual income derived by investing 5000 in 10% at
70.
cti
___________________
8. Find the amount paid as brokerage at 1.5% on the purchase of
___________________
10,000 cash in 12% stock at 75.
___________________
du
___________________
Books
pro
Re
Web Readings
for
www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/140.asp
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock
www.indiabix.com/aptitude/stocks-and-shares/
t
www.indiabix.com/aptitude/stocks-and-shares/
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 17 Interest and Annuities
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Interest and Annuities ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Simple Interest ___________________
 Compound Interest ___________________
 Annuities and its Types
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
When we borrow some amount of money as loan from somebody for
a fixed period of time, an extra amount charged is called the
pro
interest. This interest depends on three factors.
Re
(a) Amount borrowed
(b) The period of time, and
(c) The rate of interest.
for
The amount borrowed is called the principal and is denoted by P.

The sum of the principal and the interest is called the amount and
is denoted by A.
Thus, we have
t
No
Principal : P
Amount : A
Period of time : T or N
S,
Rate of Interest : R
(per annum)
E
A = Principal + Interest = P + N
UP
The two kinds of interest that we study in this chapter are: (1)
Simple interest (S.I.) and (2) Compound Interest (C.I.).
(c)
le
Notes
Check Your Progress
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
/Sa
___________________
Analyze various factors
affecting interest rates. 1. When we borrow some amount of money as loan from
___________________
somebody for a fixed period of time, an extra amount
___________________
charged is called the .........................
on
___________________
2. The interest depends on three factors, namely ................,
___________________ .................. and ..................
cti
___________________
___________________ Simple Interest (S.I.)

___________________
du
The simple interest on the principal P for the number of years N at
___________________ the rate of interest R is calculated by using the formula:
___________________ PNR
I
100 pro
For solving problems on the simple interest, we have the following
formulae:
Re
1. To find I when P, N, R are given
PNR
I
100
for
2. To find P when I, N, R are given

100I
P
NR
3. To find N when I, P, R are given
t
No
100 I
N
PR
4. To find R when I, P, N are given
100 I
S,
R
PN
5. To find A when P and I are given
E
API
UP
6. To find P when A, R, N are given
100 A
P
100  RN
(c)
le
Worked Examples
Notes
Problem 1: Find the simple interest on 2,000 for 10 years at the Activity
/Sa
rate of 10% per annum. Can___________________
you tell, what does
difference of amount and
___________________
principle called?
Solution: Here P  2000, N  10, R  10
___________________
on
PNR
 I  ___________________
100
2000  10  10 ___________________

cti
100
___________________
 2000
___________________
Simple interest is 2000
du
___________________
Problem 2: Calculate the simple interest on 4,000 for 5 years at
___________________
the rate of 6% per annum.
___________________
 SI 
PNR
pro
100
4000  5  6
Re

100
 1200
Simple interest is 1200

for
Problem 3: Find the amount on 15000 at 5% for 10 years.

PNR
t
S .I . 
1000
No
15000  10  5
  7500
100
Problem 4: If a principal amount is charged the simple interest for

750 for 5 years at the rate of 6% per annum, what is the
S,
principal?
Solution:
E
PNR
SI 
UP
100
P 56 750  100
750  P 
100 56
i.e., P  25  100
(c)
 2500
le
Problem 5: If a person who takes a loan of 3600 is asked to repay
Notes
6000 at the end of 3 years, what is the rate of interest charged as
/Sa
___________________
per simple interest?
___________________
Solution: Here A  6000, P  3600, N  3
___________________
SI  A  P
on
___________________
 6000  3600
___________________  2400
cti
___________________ Now,
___________________
PNR
SI 
___________________ 100
du
3600  3  R
___________________ 2400 
100
___________________
R pro
2400  100
3600  3
2400

36  3
Re
2
 22 %
9
Problem 6: An amount of loan borrowed from a bank totals to
1
for
5000 at the end of 4 years as per the rate of 6 % simple

4
interest. What is the loan amount borrowed?
Solution: Let the loan amount be
t
100 A
P
No
100  RN
(100  5000)

100  (25 / 4)  4
500000

S,
125
 4000
E
Loan amount = 4000
Problem 7: A man deposits 100 on the first of every month in a

UP
savings bank account in which simple interest is 2% per annum on

the minimum monthly balances, what is the amount accumulated
1
at the end of 2 years?
(c)
2
le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
Total Interest  interest on 100 for 30 months
___________________
+ interest on 100 for 29 months
+....................................... ............. ___________________
+ interest on 100 for1month ___________________
on
___________________
 2 3   2 29   2 1 
 100     100     ....  100   
 100 12   100 12   100 12  ___________________
cti
___________________
1
 30  29  ....  1 
6 ___________________
1  30 
du
  1  30   (Using the formula for the sum to n ___________________
6 2 
___________________
n
terms of an A.P. Sn  [ a  l ])
2 ___________________
 77.50
The amount deposited = 100 × 30 = 3000

pro
1
Re
the amount accumulated at the end of 2 years is
2
3000  77.50  3077.50
Problem 8: A money lender lent 250 and demanded 340

for
towards the amount due at the end of 4 years. Find the rate of
interest (simple).
Solution: I  340  250  110
t
100 I
R
No
PN
100  110

250  4
 11
S,
the rate of interest is 11%
Check Your Progress

E
Fill in the blanks:

UP
3. The amount borrowed is called the ........................ and is

denoted by ........................
4. The sum of the principal and the interest is called the
(c)
........................ and is denoted by ........................

le
Compound Interest
Notes
Activity
If r% per annum is the rate of simple interest for a sum of at the
/Sa
___________________
Which is more profitable,
simple or compound interest? end of 1 year, the amount A1 will be
___________________
 r 
___________________ A1  P 1 
100 
on

___________________
Now, if A1 is taken as the principal amount and interest calculated
___________________
on this amount at r% interest, at the end of 2 years, the amount
cti
___________________
will become:
___________________
 r   r  r
___________________ A2  P 1    P 1  
du
 100   100  100
___________________
 r  r   r 
 P1  1   (by taking P  1   as common factor)
___________________  100  100   100 

 P1

r 

100 
2
pro
Similarly, the amount at the end of 3 years will be
Re
3
 r 
A3  P 1  etc.,
 100 
Continuing this way, we get the amount at the end of n years is

for
n
 r 
An  P 1 
 100 
total interest gained on is

t
n
No
 r 
An  P  P 1  p
 100 
For solving problems concerning compound interest we use the

formula:
S,
n
 r 
A  P 1 
 100 
E
UP
Worked Examples
Problem 1: Find the compound interest on 4000 at the end of 5
years at the rate of 8% per annum.
(c)
n
 r 
Solution: A  P 1 
 100 
le
5
 8 
 4000 1  Notes
100 
/Sa

___________________
 4000  (1.08)5
___________________
Taking log on both sides,
___________________
on
log A  log 4000  5 log1.08
___________________
 3.6021  5  0.0334
___________________
 3.6021  0.1670
cti
___________________
 3.7691
 A  Antilog 3.7691 ___________________
 5876.00
du
___________________
at the end of 5 years, the amount A  5876.00 ___________________
The principal P  4000.00 ___________________
Compound interest  5876  4000  1876.00

pro
Problem 2: What sum amounts to 6000 after 4 years at 5%
compound interest?
Re
Solution:
n
 r 
A  P 1  
for
 100 
4
 5 
 6000  P 1  
 100 
4
6000  P 1.05 
t
6000
No
 P 4
1.05 
Taking logs on both sides
log P  log 6000  4 log1.05
S,
 3.7782  4  0.0212
 3.7782  0.0348
E
 3.6934
 P  anti log 3.6934
UP
 4937
Principal  4937
Problem 3: In how many years, 1000 will be doubled at 6%

(c)
compound interest?
le
Solution: Here A  2000, P  1000, r  6
Notes
/Sa
n
___________________  r 
A  P 1 
___________________  100 
n
___________________  6 
2000  1000 1 
on

___________________  100 
n
___________________ 2  1.06 
cti
___________________ Taking logs,
___________________ log 2  n log1.06
___________________ 0.3010  n(0.0212)
du
___________________  n  0.3010 / 0.0212
i.e., n  3010 / 212
___________________
Taking logs on both sides,
log n  log 3010  log 212
pro
 3.4786  2.3263
Re
 1.1523
antilog1.1523  14.20
Hence in 14.2 years, 1000 will be doubled.

Problem 4: A man borrowed 6250 from a bank and after 2 years
for
paid 6760 in full settlement of his debt. Find the rate of

compound interest charged by the bank?
Solution: A  6760, P  6250, n  2
t
n
No
 r 
A  P 1  
 100 
2
 r 
6760  6250 1  
 100 
S,
2
 r  6760
 1  100   6250
 
E
r 676
 1 
100 625
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
 r  1
log 1   [log 676  log 625] ___________________
 100  2
___________________
1
 2.8299  2.7959  ___________________
2
on
1 ___________________
 0.0340 
2 ___________________
 0.0170
cti
___________________
r
 1  antilog 0.0170 ___________________
100
du
 1.040 ___________________
___________________
r
  1.040  1
100 ___________________
 r
 0.040
 0.040  100
pro
4
Re
Rate of compound interest  4% p.a.
Problem 5: Find the difference between compound interest and

simple interest on 6000 for 5 years at 10%?
for
Solution: P  6000, n  5, R  10
PNR
I 
100
6000  5  10
t

No
100
 3000
S.I.  3000 ...(1)
Here P  6000, n  5, R  10
S,
5
 10 
A  6000 1 
100 
E

i.e., A  6000(1.01)5
UP

log A  log 6000  5 log1.1
 3.7782  5(0.0414)
(c)
 3.7782  0.2070
 3.9852
le
 A  antilog 3.9852
Notes
 9665.00
/Sa
___________________
i. e., C.I .  9665  6000
___________________
___________________ C.I .  3665
on
___________________ The difference between C.I. and S.I. is
___________________ 3665  3000  665
cti
___________________
Problem 6: What principal will amount to 1352 in two years at
___________________ 4% compound interest?
___________________
du
Solution: Let P be the principal amount
___________________ n
 r 
A  P 1 
___________________  100 

1352  P 1 
4 
 100 

2pro
2
1352  P 1.04 
Re
2
 P  1352 / 1.04 
Taking logs on both sides,

for
log P  log1352  2 log(1.04)

 3.1310  2  0.0170
 3.1310  0.0340
 3.0970
t
 P  antilog 3.0970
No
 1250.00
the principal  1250.00
1
Problem 7: Find the compound interest on 2400 for 2 years at
S,
2
5% per annum interest being compounded annual.
E
n
 r 
Solution: A  P 1 
 100 
UP
5/2
 5 
 2400 1 
 100 
5/2
 2400 1.05 
(c)
5
 log A  log 2400  log1.05
2
le
5
 3.3802   0.0212 Notes
2 Activity
/Sa
 3.3802  5  9.0106 Search on net to find the
___________________
differences between interest
 3.3802  0.0530 and___________________
annuity.
 3.4332
___________________
on
 A  antilog 3.4332
___________________
 2711.00
___________________
cti
C.I .  2711  2400 ___________________
 311
___________________
Check Your Progress
du
___________________
1. Compound interest is broadly defined as ....................... ___________________
pro
2. Compound interest means ....................... on interest.
Annuities
Re
“An annuity is a fixed sum paid at a regular interval under certain
stated conditions”, the period may be one year or half year or one
month.
for
Example: Interest, House rent, salaries, pension etc.
Types of Annuity
1. Annuity Certain: An annuity payable for a fixed number of
t
years is called Annuity Certain.

No
2. Annuity Inmidiate: An Annuity payments are made at the

end of each period. Then the annuity is called Annuity
Inmidiate.
3. Annuity Contigent: An annuity payment or duration of
S,
annuity payments or happening of any event is known as

Annuity Contigent.
E
4. Perpetuity: Annuity which is for ever (i.e., for an infinite

UP
period) is called perpetuity.

5. Deferred Annuity: When the Annuity payment starts after
lapse of a certain specific period, the annuity is called
Deferred Annuity.
(c)
le
6. Annuity Due: If the annuity payments are made in advance
Notes
at the beginning of each stipulated time then it is called
/Sa
___________________
Annuity due.
___________________
Formulae
___________________
on
n
___________________ A 1  r   1
1. Future value of Annuity F   
___________________ r
cti
___________________ A=Annuity, r = Interest rate, n = number of years
___________________ F = Future value of Annuity.
___________________
du
n
A 1  r   1
2. Present Value of Annuity (PVA)   
___________________ n
r 1  r 
___________________
3.
pro
Future Value of Annuity due F 
r
n
A 1  r   1
  1r
 
n
A 1  r   1
Re
  1r
4. Present value of Annuity due P  n  
r 1  r 
A
5. Perpetuity P  .
r
for
Worked Examples
1. A father wants to send his child for higher studies after 15
years. He expects the cost of higher studies then to be
t
No
1,00,000. How much should he save annually to have

1,00,000 after 15 years if the interest rate is 12% p.a.?
Solution: F  1,00,000, r  12% p.a.  0.12, n  15 years, A  ?
Fr
S,
A
1  r n  1
 
E
1,00,000  0.12

1  0.12 15  1
UP
 
1,00,000  0.12

(1.12)15  1
(c)
Let x  (1.12)15
le
log x  15 log1.12
Notes
/Sa
 15  0.0492
___________________
 0.7380 ___________________
x  Antilog 0.7380 ___________________
on
 5.470 ___________________
1,00,000  0.12 ___________________

 A
cti
5.470  1 ___________________
1,00,000  0.12 ___________________


4.470
du
___________________
12,000 ___________________

4.470
___________________
2.
A  2,684.5 / 
Find the future value of

pro
1,000 deposited annually for 12
years gathering compound interest 16% p.a.
Re
Solution: A  1,000, n  12 years, r  16%  0.16, F  ?
n
A 1  r   1
F  
r
for
12
1,000 1  0.16   1 
  
0.16
t
Let x  (1.16)12
No
log x  log(1.16)12
 12 log1.16
 12  0.0645
S,
 0.7740
E
x  Antilog (0.7740)
 5.9343
UP
1,000 5.943  1 
F
0.16
(c)
1,000 4.943 
F
0.16
le
4943
Notes   30,893.75
0.16
/Sa
___________________  F  30,893.75
___________________
3. You will deposit 1,000 into your recurring deposit account
___________________ with a bank. At the end of each month for the next 24 months.
on
___________________ The bank allows interest of 12% p.a. How much will you
receive at the end of 24 months?
___________________
0.12
cti
___________________ Solution: A  1,000, n  24 months, r   0.01, F  ?
12
___________________
n
___________________ A 1  r   1
du
F  
___________________ r
24
___________________ 1,000 1  0.01   1 
 
0.01
24
pro
1,000 1.01   1 

  
0.01
Re
Let x  (1.01)24
log x  24 log(1.01)
for
 24  0.0043
 0.269
t
 1.269
No
1,000 1.269  1
 F
0.01
1, 000  0.269 
F
S,
0.01
269
  26,900 / 
E
0.01
UP
 F  26,900 / 
4. Four equal quarterly payments of 2,000 are made into a

deposit account that pays 10% interest p.a. What is the future
value of this annuity after 4 deposits?
(c)
Solution: Given the nominal rate R  10%  0.10

le
q
 R Notes
r  1    1
q
/Sa

___________________
4
 0.10  ___________________
 1  1
 r 
___________________
on
4
 1  0.024   1 ___________________
4 ___________________
 1.025   1
cti
___________________
 r  0.1038  100
___________________
r  10.38%  0.1038
du
___________________
n
A 1  r   1 ___________________
F  
r ___________________
 
4
2000 1  0.1038   1 

pro
0.1038
Re
Let x  (1.1038) 4
log x  4 log1.1038
 4  0.425
for
 0.170
 1.4844
t
No
2000 1.4844  1 
 F
0.1038
 2000 1.4844  1 
S,
 F  9,334 / 
5. A company wants to create a Sinking Fund to replace a

E
Machine after 8 years which then is expected to cost

50,00,000. That present machine will not have any scrap
UP
value. How much depreciation should be provided annually to

be invested at 15% p.a. so as to raise enough funds for
replacement?
(c)
Solution: F  50,00,000, r  15%  0.15, n  8 years, A  ?

le
Fr 5000000  0.15
Notes A n

1  r   1 1  0.15 8  1
/Sa
___________________    
___________________ 750000
  307935
___________________ 2.059
on
___________________ A  3,07,935 / 
___________________ 6. Calculate the present value of an annuity of 3,000 in 6 years

at 14%p.a.
cti
___________________
___________________ Solution: A  3,000 / , n  6 years, r  14%  0.14, P  ?
___________________
du
n
A 1  r   1
___________________ P  n

r 1  r 
___________________

pro
3000 1  0.14   1 

 0.14 1  0.14 
6

6
6
3000 1.14   1 
Re
  
6
 0.14 1.14 
Let x  (1.14)6
for
log x  6 log1.14
 6  0.0569
 0.3414
t
No
x  2.195
3000 2.195  1 
P 
 0.14 2.195 
S,
3000 1.195  3585

 
E
 0.14 1.195  0.3073

UP
 P  11,666 / 
7. A person wants to provide for his daughter’s college studies

which will require 10,000 p.a. for 5 years the money will be
needed one year from now. How much should he deposit in his
(c)
bank account now in such a way that the account will be closed
le
at the end of 5 years? Bank allows compound interest at the
rate of 12% p.a.? Notes
/Sa
Solution: A  10,000, n  5 years, r  12%  0.12, P  ? ___________________
n ___________________
A 1  r   1
P   ___________________
n
on
r 1  r 
___________________
5
10000 1  0.12   1  ___________________
  
cti
5
 0.12 1  0.12  ___________________
5
___________________
10,000 1.12   1 
 
du
 ___________________
5
 0.12 1.12  ___________________
5
Let x  (1.12) ___________________
log x  5 log(1.12)
pro
 5  0.0492
Re
 0.2460
 1.762
for
10000 1.762  1 
 P
 0.12 1.762 
7.620

t
0.2144
No
 P  36,038.6 / 
8. In what time will a sum of money double itself at 10% p.a.

Compounded interest payable half yearly. Given
S,
log 2  0.3010, log1.05  0.0212 ?
Solution: Let the sum be . Let the sum will be doubled in n

E
years.
2n
UP
 r 
A  P 1 
 100 
2n
 5  n
 P 1   2 p  1  0.05   2
100 
(c)

le
Taking logs,
Notes
/Sa
___________________ 2n log 1.05   log 2
___________________ log 2 0.3010

2n    14.198
___________________ log 1.05  0.0212
on
___________________ 14.198
n  7.09
___________________ 2
cti
___________________ the sum will double itself in approximate 7 years.
___________________ 9. A man borrows 40,000 at 4% compound interest and agrees
___________________ to pay both the principal and interest in 10 equal instalments
du
at the end of each year. Find the amount of these instalments.
___________________
Solution: Let y be amount of each instalment.
___________________
y

y
1.04 1.04  2
pro
 ......... 
y
1.04 
10
 40,000
y  1 1 
Re
1   ................  9
  40,000
1.04  1.04 1.04  

  1 10 
1 
y   1.04  
for
 40,000
1.04  1  1 
 1.04 

10
y   1  
t
 1    40,000
0.04   1.04 
No

 y  4932
Check Your Progress

S,
Fill in the blanks:

1. An .................... is fixed sum paid at a regular interval
E
under certain stated conditions, the period may be one

year or half year or one month.
UP
2. Annuity which is for ever (i.e., for an infinite period) is

called ....................
(c)
le
Summary
Notes
The simple interest on the principal p for the number of years N at
/Sa
___________________
the rate of interest R is calculated as
___________________
PNR
I
100 ___________________
on
___________________
Formula for compound interest is
n ___________________
 r 
cti
A  P 1 
 100  ___________________
___________________
Future Value of Annuity
du
___________________
A [(1  r)n  1]
F ___________________
r
___________________
Present Value of Annuity
PV 
A [(1  r)n  1]
pro
r(1  r)n
Re
A
Perpetuity ( P ) 
r
Lesson End Activity

for
Two sums of money which differ by 2000 are lent out, the larger
at 4% and smaller at 6% p.a. simple interest. If the difference
between the amounts is 1840 at the end of 2 years, find the sum
t
lent at each rate.

No
Keywords
Amount: The sum of the principal and the interest is called the
amount.
S,
Annuity: A fix sum paid at a regular interval under certain stated

conditions.
E
Perpetuity: Annuity which is forever, i.e., for an infinite period.

UP
Principal: The amount borrowed is called the principal.

(c)
le
Notes
1. Calculate the present value and future value of annuity of
/Sa
___________________
5,000 per annum for 12 years, the interest being 4%
___________________
compounded annually.
___________________
2. If Mr. X borrows 20,000 at 4% compound interest and agrees
on
___________________ to pay both principal and the interest in 10 equal instalments
___________________ at the end of year. Find the amount of each instalment.
cti
___________________ 3. Find the simple interest on 7000 for 8 years at the rate of 7%
per annum.
___________________
___________________ 4. Find the principal if the simple interest is 750 for 10 years at
du
the rate of 5% per annum.
___________________
5. Find the rate of interest if 4000 earns a simple interest of
___________________
6.
pro
600 for 4 years.
Find the amount after 8 years if the rate of interest 6% is
charged on 10000.
Re
7. A person who took a loan of 6000 was asked to repay a sum
of 8200 after 6 years. What is the rate of interest charged on
simple interest.
8. At what rate of compound interest will 400 amount to 441
for
in 2 years?
9. A manufacturer buys a machine for 44000 and writes off
1
12 % depreciation per annum. At the end of 3 years, he sells
2
t
the machine for 33,013.75. What is the percentage gain he

No
has made on the book-value of the machine?

10. In how many years a principal will become three times if the
rate of interest charged is 5% compound interest.
S,
11. Rajesh deposits 1000 in savings bank account which earns a

compound interest at the rate of 8% per annum. What is the
E
amount at the end of 10 years.

UP
Further Readings
Books
(c)

le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Web Readings ___________________
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest ___________________
on
www.1728.org/annuity.htm ___________________
www.annuityadvantage.com/ ___________________
cti
www.basic-mathematics.com/simple-vs-compound-interest.html ___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 18: Differential Calculus
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
Give___________________
some of the commonest
Differential Calculus examples from
___________________
environment to
your
specify
constant and variables.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Concept of Constant, Variable and Function ___________________
 Concepts of Limit and Continuity of a Function ___________________
 Derivative of a Function
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
Given a function, we are often interested to know how the change
in one variable corresponds to changes in the other. The questions
relating to rates of changes require the introduction to the concept
of derivatives.
Re
In this unit, we study various methods of differentiation and its
application. It deals with the study of change.
for
Recapitulation of Functions and Limit of a Function

Constant: A quantity whose value remains the same is called a
constant.
t
1
No
E.g., 5, 0, 1, etc.

2
Variable: A quantity whose value changes is called a variable.
The variables are denoted by x, y, z etc.
S,
Function of a real variable: If x is a real variable, any

expression in x is called a function of x.
E
Definition: To each value of a real variable x if a unique real

number y is associated by means of a rule f then y is called a
UP
function of a real variable x. The set of all values of x is called the

domain and the set of all values of y is called the range.
A function is denote by y  f ( x ) . x is called the independent
(c)
variable. y is called dependent variable.

le
Hence if y  f ( x ) is a function then corresponding to a value of x
Notes
Activity
the value of y is unique.
/Sa
Know___________________
the difference between
value of the function and limit e.g., y  x 2 is a function
___________________
of the function.
___________________ y  2x  3 is a function.
on
___________________
Note : y  x is not a function of a real variable because, for
___________________ negative real number x, y is not a real number and also for positive
cti
___________________ real value of x there will be two values of y. For example, x  4 ,
___________________ y  4   2. .
___________________
du
If y  x and both domain and range are the set of positive real
___________________ numbers, then y  x is a function.
___________________
Fill in the blanks:

proCheck Your Progress
1. A quantity whose value remains the same is called a

Re
.......................
2. A quantity whose value change is called a ......................
Types of Function
for
(1) Constant function: f ( x )  k where k is a constant is called a

constant function.
(2) Identity function: f ( x )  x is called identity function.
t
No
(3) Polynomial or algebraic function: f ( x )  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2 

.......  an x n where an  0 is called a polynomial or algebraic
function.
S,
e.g., (1) ax 2  bx  c where a  0
(2) 3x 2  5x  7
E
(4) Modulus function: f ( x ) |x | is called a modulus function and

UP
is defined by |x |
x if x  0(i.e., x is  ve)

and |x | 0 if x  0
(c)
x if x  0(i.e., x is  ve)


le
f (x )
(5) Rational function: A function of the form is called a Notes
g( x )
/Sa
rational function. ___________________
___________________
2x  5
e.g., f ( x ) 
3x 2  x  1 ___________________
on
(6) Exponential function: f ( x )  e x is called an exponential ___________________
function. e ax where a is a constant is also an exponential ___________________
cti
function. ___________________
(7) Logarithmic function: f ( x )  log e x is called a logarithmic ___________________
du
function. ___________________
___________________
Functional Value
___________________
pro
The value of a function at a given value of x is called the functional
value. The functional value of f ( x ) at x = a is given by f ( a ) .
2x  5 2(1)  5 3
e.g. if f ( x )  then f (1)  
x 7 17 8
Re
Limit of a Function
The limit of a function f ( x ) as x tends to a is said to be equal to l if
for
the difference between f ( x ) and l becomes smaller and smaller

whenever the difference between x and a becomes smaller and
smaller.
We write lim f ( x )  l
t
x a
No
Properties of Limits
(1) lim k  k
x a
S,
(2) lim kf ( x )  k lim f ( x )

x a x a
(3) lim  f ( x )  g ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim g ( x )

E
x a x a x a
(4) lim  f ( x )  g ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim g ( x )

UP
(5) lim  f ( x )  g ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim g ( x )

 f ( x )  lim f (x )
(c)
(6) lim    x a provided lim g ( x )  0

x a g ( x )
  lim
x a
g(x ) x a
le
n
n
Notes (7) lim  f ( x )   lim f ( x )
Activity x a  x a 
/Sa
___________________
Observe some of the
application areas where (8) lim a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ......  an x n 
___________________ x a
concept of differentiation is
used.
___________________  a0  a1 lim x  a2 lim x 2  .......  an lim x n
on
___________________ 2
 a0  a1a  a2 a  ......  an a n
___________________
 x n  an  n 1
(9) lim    na
cti
___________________ x a
 x  a 
___________________
n
 1
___________________ (10) lim 1    e
du
n 
 n
___________________
1
___________________ (11) lim 1  x  x  e
x 0
(12) lim 
x 0
 log e 1  x )  
x
pro
 1
 
Re
 ex  1 
(13) lim   1
x 0
 x 
 ax  1 
(14) lim    log e a where a  0
for
x 0
 x 
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
t
No
1. The value of a function at a given value of x is called the

..................... value.
2. The limit of a function as x tends to a is said to be
equal to l if the difference between F(x) and l becomes
S,
smaller and smaller whenever the difference between x

and a become ..................... and .....................
E
Differentiation
UP
Definition
A function f (x ) is said to be differentiable at x a if
f ( x )  f (a)
(c)
lim exists. This limit is denoted by f ( a ) and

x a x a
le
f ( x )  f (a)
 f ( a )  lim Notes
x a x a
/Sa
___________________
f ( x )  f (a)
Note: f ( a ) exists if the lim exists as x  a through
x a x a ___________________
f ( x )  f (a) ___________________
values  a (left hand limit) and lim through values  a
on
x a x a
___________________
(right hand limit) exist and further they are equal.
___________________
cti
Derivative of a Function – Method of First Principles ___________________
If y  f ( x ) is a function then as x changes y also changes. ___________________
du
A change in x is called the increment in x and is denoted by x . ___________________
Corresponding change in y is called increment in y and is denoted ___________________

by y .
___________________
as x changes to x  x , y changes to y  y . pro
First Principles
Re
Let y  f (x ) ...(1)
y  y  f ( x  x ) ...(2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), we get

for
y  f ( x  x )  f ( x )
Divide both sides by x
y f ( x  x )  f ( x )
t
 
x x
No
Taking limits as x  0 , we get
y f ( x  x )  f ( x )
lim  lim
x 0 x x  0 x
S,
If this limit exists then it is called the derivative of y w.r.t., x and is

dy
denoted by .
E
dx
UP
y dy f ( x  x )  f ( x )
 lim   lim
x 0 x dx x 0 x
dy
is also called the differential coefficient of y w.r.t., x.
dx
(c)
le
dy
Notes Note: should not be read as the product of d and y divided by
dx
/Sa
___________________
the product of d and x.
___________________
d
In fact, is the symbol for the derivative w.r.t. x or differential
___________________ dx
on
___________________ coefficient w.r.t. x.
___________________
General Theorems on Derivatives : (Without Proof)
cti
___________________
d( k )
Theorem 1:  0 where k is a constant.
___________________ dx
___________________
du
d d
Theorem 2:
dx
 kf ( x )  k
dx
 f ( x ) where k is a constant and
___________________
f ( x ) is a function of x.
___________________
or
d
 ku   k
du
pro
dx dx
Re
d d d
Theorem 3:
dx
 f ( x )  g ( x ) 
dx
 f ( x ) 
dx
 g ( x )
or
for
d du dv
(u  v )  
dx dx dx
d d d
Theorem 4:
dx
 f ( x )  g ( x )  dx  f ( x )  dx  g ( x )
t
No
or
d du dv
dx
 u  v  
dx dx
d d d
S,
Theorem 5:
dx
 f ( x )  g ( x )  f ( x )
dx
 g ( x )  g ( x )
dx
 f ( x )
This is called the product rule.
E
d dv du
or  (uv)  u v
UP
dx dx dx
This can be remembered as
d
 I function  II function
(c)
dx
le
d d
  I function   II function   II function  I function Notes
dx dx
/Sa
___________________
d dw dv du
Note: (uvw)  uv  uw  vw
dx dx dx dx ___________________
___________________
d d
on
d  f (x ) 
g( x )
dx
 f ( x )  f ( x ) 
dx
 g ( x ) ___________________
Theorem 6: 
dx  g ( x )   g ( x )
2
___________________
cti
This is called the Quotient Rule. ___________________
du dv ___________________
v u
d u  dx dx
du
or v  
___________________
dx   v2
___________________
This can be remembered as
___________________
d  Nr 
dx  Dr 

Dr
d
dx
2
d
 Nr   Nr  Dr 
dx
pro
 Dr 
Re
where Nr  Numerator, Dr  Denominator
Note:
(1) While doing problems on differentiation, the above theorems
for
should be strictly followed.

(2) The above theorems can be proved using the method of first
principles. Since there is no mention of proofs of the theorems
in the syllabus, the proofs are not given here. Only Statements
t
are given because they have to be used in the problems.

No
Derivatives of Standard Functions

d n
(1)
dx
 
x  nx n 1
S,
d
(2) x   1
dx
E
d 1  1
(3)    2
UP
dx  x  x
d
(4)
dx
 x   2 1x
(c)
d x
(5)
dx
 
e  ex
le
d
Notes (6)
dx
 
a x  a x log e a, where a  0 and a  1
/Sa
___________________
d 1
___________________ (7)  log e x   where x  0 .
dx x
___________________
d 1
on
___________________
(8)  log a x  
dx x log e a
___________________
d n n 1
(9)  ax  b   na  ax  b 
cti
___________________ dx
___________________
d  1  1 1
(10)    
___________________ dx  ax  b  a  ax  b 2
du
___________________
d ax b
___________________
(11)
dx
e  
 ae ax b
(12)
d
dx
log e  ax  b   a 
pro
1
ax  b
Re
Worked Examples
I. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
2 4

(1) x 100 (2) x 3 (3) x 5
for
2 2 3
(4)  2x  3  (5)  ax  b  (6)  x  1
x 2  5x  1
(7) (8) e3x (9) log e (2x  3)
x
t
No
(10) log10 x (11) xe x (12) x 2 log x
x 1 2x  3
(13) (14) (15) 3x
x 1 x 7
S,
(16) 3x 2  e x  log x (17) 2x e  e x  e e 

(18) 1  x 2 e x 
x2  x  1 ex  1
E
 
(19) x 2  x  1 log x (20)
x2  x  1
(21)
ex  1
UP
1
ex 1
(22) (23) a 5 (24)
1  x2 x3
(25) e 2 x 5 (26) log(4 x  5) 

(27) x 2  1 x 2  1 
(c)
le
e x log x
(28) ( x  1)( x  2)( x  3) (29) e x ( x  5) log x (30) Notes
1  x 
2
/Sa
___________________
Solution:
___________________
d 100
(1) x 
 100 x100 1  100 x 99 ___________________
on
dx
___________________
2 2 2 3 1
d   2 1 2 2 
___________________
(2) 3
x   x 3
 x 3
 x 3
dx   3 3 3
cti
___________________
d   45  4  45  1 4  45 5 4 59 ___________________

(3)  x    x   x   x
dx  5 5 5
du
 ___________________
d 2 d d 2 d d ___________________
(4)
dx
 2x  3  
dx

4 x 2  12x  9  4
dx
x  12
dx
(x) dx
(9)  
___________________
d 2 d
 4(2x )  12(1)  0  8x  12 pro
(5)  ax  b   (a 2 x 2  2abx  b2 )
dx dx
Re
d 2 d d 2
 a2
dx
 
x  2ab
dx
x
dx
b  
 a 2 (2x )  2ab(1)  0
for
 2a 2 x  2ab
d 3 d 3
(6)
dx
 x  1 
dx

x  3x 2  3x  1 
t
d 3 d 2 d d
No

dx
 
x 3
dx
(x )  3
dx
(x ) 
dx
(1)
 3x 31  3(2x )  3(1)  0

 3x 2  6 x  3
d  x 2  5x  1  d  x 2 5x
S,
1 
(7)      
dx  x  dx  x x x
E
d  2  12 1
1 1
 
  x  5 x 2
 x 2

dx 
UP
d  32 1 1
 
  x  5x  x 2 
2
dx  
(c)
le
Notes
d 32 d 1
d 
1
 (x )  5 (x 2 )  (x 2 )
dx dx dx
/Sa
___________________ 3
3 1 1 1  1   1 1
1
 x2  5 x2   x 2
___________________ 2 2  2
___________________
3 12 5  12 1  32
on
___________________
 x  x  x
2 2 2
___________________
d 3x
(8)  
e  3e3 x
cti
___________________ dx
___________________ d 1 2
(9) log e  2x  3   2  
___________________ dx 2x  3 2x  3
du
___________________ d d  log x 
(10)  log10 x    e  (using change of base in logarithms)
___________________ dx dx  log e 10 
 pro1

d
log e 10 dx
 log e x 
1 1  1
 
Re
 
log e 10  x  x log e 10
d d x d
(11)
dx
 
xe x  x
dx
e  ex
dx
x  (product rule)
for
 xe x  e x (1)
 ( x  1)e x
d 2 d d
(12) 
x log x  x 2   log x    log x  x 2   (product rule)
t
dx dx dx
No
1
 x2   log x  2x
x
 x  2x log x
S,
d d
d  x 1   x  1 ( x  1)   x  1 ( x  1)
(13)  dx dx (Quotient rule)
dx  x  1   x  1
2
E
 x  11  0    x  11  0 
UP

( x  1)2

 x  1  x  1
2
 x  1
(c)
2
 2
 x  1
le
d d
d  2x  3   x  7  2x  3    2x  3   x  7  Notes
(14) dx dx
/Sa

dx  x  7   x  7
2
___________________
___________________
(quotient rule)
___________________
 x  7  2  0    2x  3 1  0 
on
 2 ___________________
 x  7
___________________
2x  14  2x  3
cti
 2
___________________
 x  7
___________________
17

du
2 ___________________
 x  7
___________________
d x
(15)  
3  3x log e 3 ___________________
(16)
dx
d
dx

3x 2  e x  log x  3
d 2
dx
x 
d x
dx
e 
d
dx

 log x     
pro
1
Re
 3(2x )  e x 
x
1
 6x  e x 
x
for
d d e d x d e
(17)
dx

2x e  e x  e e  2
dx
x 
dx
e  
dx
e    
 2  ex e 1  e x  0  2ex e 1  e x
t
d  d x d
(18)  
1  x 2 e x   1  x 2 e  ex 
1  x2   
No
dx  dx dx
 
 1  x 2 e x  e x  2x 

 e 1  2x  x 2
x

S,
d  2
(19)
dx 

x  x  1 log x  
E
d d

 x2  x 1  dx log x  log x 
dx
x 2
 x 1 
UP

 x2  x 1  1x   log x  2x  1
1
 x 1    2x  1 log x
(c)
x
le
Notes d  x2  x  1
(20)  2 
dx  x  x 1
/Sa
___________________
d d
___________________
x 2
 x 1  dx x 2
 x  1  x2  x  1    dx x 2
 x 1 
___________________  2
x 2
 x 1 
on
___________________
___________________

x 2

 x  1  2x  1  x 2  x  1 (2x  1)  
2
x 
cti
2
___________________  x 1
___________________
2x 3  2x 2  2x  x 2  x  1  2x 3  2x 2  2x  x 2  x  1
 2
___________________
du
x 2
 x 1 
___________________
___________________ 
2x 2  2


2 x 2  1 
x 2
 x 1
d x

2
d x
pro
 x  x  1
2
2
d  ex  1 
ex  1
dx

e  1  ex  1
dx
e 1       
(21)   
Re
dx  e x  1  ex  1
2
 

e x
  
 1 ex  ex  1 ex  
2
 e  1 x
for
e2x  e x  e2x  e x
 2
e x
1 
t
2e x
No
 2
e x
1 
d x d
d  ex 
1  x2
dx
e  ex
dx

1  x2   
22.  
S,
dx  1  x 2  1x 2
2
 
1  x  e  e  2x 2 x x
E
 2
1  x  2
UP


e x 1  x 2  2x 
2
1  x  2
(c)
le
d  15  1
23. a
   0  a 5 Notes
dx  
/Sa
___________________
1
 a is a constant.
5 ___________________
___________________
d  1  d
on
24.  3 

dx  x  dx
x 3   ___________________
___________________
  3  x 31  3x 4
cti
1 ___________________
  3  
x4 ___________________
3
du
 4 ___________________
x
___________________
d 2 x 5
25. e  
 2e 2 x 5 ___________________
26.
dx
d
dx
log  4 x  5  
4
4x  5
pro
Re
d  2 d 4
27.
dx   
x  1 x 2  1  
dx
 
x  1 (on multiplication) 
d 4 d

dx
 
x 
dx
1
for
 4x 3  0  4x 3
Aliter:
d  2
 
x  1 x 2  1  
t
dx 
No
d 2 d 2

 x2  1
dx
 
x 1  x2 1
dx
x 1     
  
 x 2  1  2x   x 2  1  2x  
S,
 2x 3  2x  2x 3  2x  4 x 3
d
28.  x  1 x  2  x  3  
E
dx 
d
UP
  x 3  6x 2  11x  6 
dx 
 3x 2  6  2x   11 1   0
 3x 2  12x  11
(c)
le
Aliter:
Notes
/Sa
d dw dv du
___________________ uvw   uv  uw  vw
dx dx dx dx
___________________
d
___________________   x  1 x  2  x  3  
dx 
on
___________________
d  x  3 d  x  2 d  x  1
___________________   x  1 x  2    x  1 x  3    x  2  ( x  3)
dx dx dx
cti
___________________
  x  1 x  2 1   x  1 x  3 1   x  2  ( x  3) 1 
___________________
 x 2  3x  2  x 2  4 x  3  x 2  5x  6
___________________
du
___________________  3x 2  12x  11
___________________ d x
29. e  x  5  log x 
dx 
 ex  x  5
d
pro d
 log x   e x log x  x  5   x  5 log x
d x
e  
dx dx dx
Re
1
 ex  x  5
x
 e x log x 1   x  5  log x e x  
 5 
 e x 1   log x  x log x  5 log x 
 x 
for
 5 
 e x 1   log x  x log x  5 log x 
 x 
 5 
 e x 1   4 log x  x log x 
 x 
t
No
d  e x log x 
30.  
dx  1  x 2 
d d
1  x  dx
2
e x

log x   e x log x  dx 1  x  2

S,
2
1  x 
2
E
d d x 
1  x  e
2 x
dx
 log x    log x
 dx
  
e    e x log x  0  2x 


 
UP
2
1  x 
2
1
1  x   e
2 x

x

 log x  e x   e x  log x  2x 

(c)
 2
1  x 
2
le
1 

e x   x  1  x 2 log x  2x log x 
x
 Notes
  
/Sa
2 ___________________
1x 2
 
___________________
dy
II. Find if ___________________
dx
on
___________________
1. y 
2x  1
2. y 
x 3  2x
3. y
 x  1 x  2 
___________________
1  x2 x 2  x  3
cti
___________________
x 1  x  1 x  2 
4. y 
x 1
5. y  x 2  1 e x    6. y 
 x  3  x  4 
___________________
du
___________________
x 2
e x
 
7. y  x 2  1 e x log x 8. y 
1  log x
___________________
___________________
9. y
x 5  4x 2  1
x3 1
10. y 
x 2
2 x
x e

 1 log x pro
Solution:
Re
2x  1
1. y
1  x2
d d
1  x  dx  2x  1   2x  1 1  x 
2 2
for
dy dx
  2
dx 1  x  2

1  x   2   2x  1 2x 
2
t
2
1  x  2
No
2  2x 2  4 x 2  2x
 2
1  x  2
S,
2  2x  2x 2
 2
1  x  2
E
x 3  2x
2. y
UP
x 2
d 3 d
dy  x  2
dx

x  2x  x 3  2x
dx
 
 x  2 
  2
dx  x  2
(c)
le
Notes  x  2  3x 2  2    x 3  2x  1  0 
 2
/Sa
___________________  x  2
___________________ 3x 3  6 x 2  2x  4  x 3  2x
 2
___________________  x  2
on
___________________
2x 3  6 x 2  4
 2
___________________  x  2
cti
___________________
3. y
 x  1 x  2 
___________________
 x  3
___________________
du
d d
___________________
dy  x  3  x  1 x  2     x  1 x  2   x  3
  dx dx
2
___________________ dx  x  3
 x  3   x  1

pro
d
dx
d
 x  2    x  2   x  1   x  1 x  2 1
dx 
 2
 x  3
Re
 x  3   x  11   x  2 1   x  1 x  2 
 2
 x  3
for
 x  3   2x  3    x  1 x  2 

 2
 x  3
2x 2  9 x  9  x 2  3x  2

t
2
 x  3
No
x 2  6x  7
 2
 x  3
x 1
S,
4. y
x 1
d d
E
dy  x  1  x  1   x  1  x  1
  dx dx
2
dx  x  1
UP

 x  11  0    x  11  0 
2
 x  1
(c)
le
x 1  x 1
 2 Notes
 x  1
/Sa
___________________
2
 2
___________________
 x  1
___________________
on
5. 
y  x 2  1 ex   ___________________
___________________
dy d x d 2
  x2  1 
e  ex x 1     
cti
dx dx dx ___________________
___________________
 
 x 2  1 e x  e x  2x 
du
___________________

 e x x 2  1  2x  ___________________
2 ___________________
 e x  x  1
6. y
 x  1 x  2 
pro
 x  3  x  4 
Re
x 2  3x  2

x 2  7x  12
d d
dy x 2
 7x  12  dx x 2
 
 3x  2  x 2  3x  2  dx x 2
 7 x  12 
for
 = 2
dx x 2
 7x  12 

x 2

 7x  12  2x  3   x 2  3x  2  2x  7   
2
x 
t
2
 7x  12
No
2x 3  14 x 2  24 x  3x 2  21x  36  2 x 3  6 x 2  4 x  7 x 2  21x  14
 2
x 2
 7x  12 
2x 3  6x 2  4 x  7x 2  21x  14
S,
 2
x 2
 7x  12 
E
4 x 2  20x  22
 2
x 2

UP
 7x  12
7. 
y  x 2  1 e x log x 
dy d d d 2
(c)

dx

= x 2  1 ex
dx

 log x   x 2  1 log x e x  e x log x
dx dx
x 1    
le
1
Notes 
 x 2  1 ex  x
 
 x 2  1 log x  e x  e x log x  2x
/Sa
___________________
 1 
___________________
 x
 
 e x  x   x 2  1 log x  2x  log x 

___________________
ex  x 2
on
___________________ 8. y
1  log x
___________________
d x d
1  log x    
e  x 2  ex  x 2 
1  log x 
cti
___________________ dy
  dx dx
2
___________________ dx 1  log x 
___________________
du
 1
(1  log x )( e x  2x )  ( e x  x 2 )  0  
___________________  x
___________________ (1  log x )2

pro
e x 1  log x   2x 1  log x  
2
ex
x
x
1  log x 
Re
 1
e x 1  log x    x  2x log x
x
  2
1  log x 
for
x 5  4x 2  1
9. y
x3 1
d 5 d 3
( x 3  1) ( x  4 x 2  1)  ( x 5  4x 2  1) ( x  1)
dy dx dx
t
 
dx ( x 3  1)2
No
( x 3  1)(5x 4  8x )  ( x 5  4x 2  1)(3x 2 )

( x 3  1)2
5x 7  5x 4  8x 4  8x  3x 7  12x 4  3x 2
S,

( x 3  1)2
2x 7  x 4  3x 2  8 x
E

( x 3  1)2
UP
( x 2  1) log x
10. y 
x 2ex
d  d 2 x
 x e  dx
2 x
 x
2
  
 1 log x   x 2  1 log x  x e 
(c)
dy dx
  2
dx 
x 2ex 
le
 x e   x
2 x 2
1  1x  log x  2x    x 2
 
 1 log x x 2 e x  e x 2x  Notes
/Sa
 2 ___________________
x e 
2 x
___________________
 1
 
x 2 e x  x    2x 3 e x log x  x 2 x 2  1 e x log x  e x 2x 3  2x   ___________________
on
 x
 ___________________
x 4 e2x
___________________

 x 2 e x  e x  2x 2 e x log x  x x 2  1 e x log x 
cti
 ___________________
x 3 e2x
___________________
Check Your Progress
du
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. dy/dx should ...................... be read as the product of d
___________________
and y divided by the product of d and x.
2. ...................... is the symbol for the derivative w.r.t. x or
pro
differential coefficient w.r.t. x.
Re
Summary
If x is a real variable, any expression in x is called a function of x. A
function is denoted by y = f (x), Where x is independent variable
for
and y is dependent variable.

The functional value of f (x) at x = a is given by f (a).
If f (x) gets arbitrarily close to b (a finite number) for x sufficiently
t
close to a, we say that f (x) approaches the limit b as x approaches

No
a, and write lim f ( x )  b .

x a
lim  f ( x )  g ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim g ( x )

lim  f ( x ). g ( x )  lim f ( x ) .lim g ( x )

S,
A function y = f (x) is said to be differentiable at a point x = a, in its

E
domain,
UP
f (a  h) – f (a )
lim exists.
h 0 h
Derivative of a constant is zero.
(c)
le
Lesson End Activity
Notes
Differentiate: (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)ex log(1+ex)2.
/Sa
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
on
Constant: A quantity whose value remains the same.
___________________
Function: A function ‘f’ from a set x to set y is a subset of x.y,
___________________
denoted as {(x, y)}, such that corresponding to each value of x, we
cti
___________________
can associate one and only one value of y. In such a situation, y is
___________________ said to be a function of x and is denoted as y = f (x).
___________________
du
Irrational function: A function which is expressed as a root of a
___________________ polynomial.
___________________ Polynomial Function: A function of the form

2
pro
y  a0  a1 x  a2 x  ..............  an x n
Rational Function: The ratio of two polynomial functions.

Variable: A quantity whose value changes.
Re

1. Find domain and range of the following functions:
for
x 3  a3
(i) y 
x a
1
(ii) y  x 
t
x2
No
2. Find the limit of the following functions:
x 2  6x  9
(i) lim
x 3 x 2  2x  3
S,
x3 1
(ii) lim
x 1 x  1
E
3. Find derivative of the following functions:

UP
(i) y = x 2  5x  10
(ii) y  ( x  1).e x
(iii) y  10 ( x  1)(4  x )
(c)
(iv) y = log x3
le
4. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
Notes
/Sa
3
(i)  ax  b  (ii)  ax  b  ___________________
2
(iii) ax 2  bx  c (iv)  x  1 ___________________
___________________
2 3
on
(v)  x  1 (vi)  x  2
___________________
3 x4  1 ___________________
(vii)  x  1 (viii)
x
cti
___________________
2
3x  5x  1
(ix) (x) x 4 log x ___________________
x
du
___________________
3 x 4x
(xi) x e (xii) xe ___________________
5 6 4x
(xiii) x log x (xiv) x e ___________________
(xv) x 2

 1 x3  1  (xvi)
pro
 x  1 x  2  x  3  x  4 
x2  1
(xvii)  x  1 x  4  x  7  (xviii)
Re
x2 1
2x  1  x  1  x 2  5 
(xix) (xx)
2x  1  x  1  x 2  4 
for
(xxi)
3e x log x
(xxii)

e 2 x 1  x 2 
1  x2 1x x 2
x3  1 x 3  4x
(xxiii) (xxiv)
t
x 1 x 1
No
x 2  5x  1 x2  x  1
(xxv) (xxvi)
x 2  6x  7 x2  x  1
ex  1
(xxvii) (xxviii) e5 x 7
S,
ex  1
5x  x  2 
(xxix) log  3x  1 (xxx)
E
 x  1 x  3 
UP
2
 1  x2  x  1
(xxxi)  x   (xxxii)
 x x
dy
5 Find if y 
(c)
dx
(i) (3x  1)2 (ii) e3 x ( x  2)3

le
9e 4 x
Notes (iii) (iv) 4 x log10 x
log(7x  1)
/Sa
___________________
( x  2)3 x3  1
___________________ (v) (vi)
(2x  1)2 x3 1
___________________
on
ax 2  bx  c 3x 2  5x
___________________ (vii) (viii)
dx 2  ex  f 7x  1
___________________
5x  3 ex  ex
cti
___________________ (ix) (x)
2x 2  x  1 ex  ex
___________________
( x  1)( x  1) x2  x  1
___________________ (xi) (xii)
du
x  2) ( x  2) x2  x  1
___________________
___________________
Further Readings
Books
pro
Re
for
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_calculus
sydney.edu.au/stuserv/documents/maths_learning.../differential
t
calculus.pdf
No
www-math.mit.edu/~djk/calculus_beginners/
www.elainetron.com/apcalc/topic3.htm
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 19: Composite and Implicit Functions
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Composite and Implicit Functions Have a debate on the topic: In
our changing world, calculus
___________________
is the mathematical tool that
formalizes change and
___________________
expresses.
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Composite Functions ___________________
 Implicit Functions ___________________
 Logarithmic Differentiation
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
In this unit, we will discuss Composite Functions. Further we will
discuss Implicit functions. We will also focus on Logarithmic
Differentiation. We will consider many worked out examples to
make the concept clearer.
Re
Function of a Function (or Composite Function)

If a function is made up of more than one function then it is called
for
a composite function. A composite function is denoted by the

symbol, f ( g ( x )) , f ( g (h( x ))) etc.
To find the Derivative of a Composite Function

t
No
Chain Rule
To find the derivative of f ( g ( x )), we use a rule called chain rule.
Let y f ( g ( x )) , u g( x )
S,
y f (u ) and u g( x )
dy
E
By differentiating y w.r.t. u, we get and by differentiating u

du
UP
du
w.r.t. x, we get .
dx
dy dy du
dx du dx
(c)
This is called the chain rule.

le
Similarly, let y f ( g (h( x ))) , u g (h( x )),v h( x )
Notes
y f (u ), u g (v ),v h( x )
/Sa
___________________
___________________ dy
By differentiating y w.r.t. u, we get , by differentiating u w.r.t.
du
___________________
du dv
on
v, we get and by differentiating v w.r.t. x, we get .
___________________ dv dx
___________________ dy dy du dv
. . which is chain rule.
cti
___________________ dx du dv dx
___________________
General Rules
___________________
du
d n n 1 d
___________________ 1. f (x ) n f x f (x )
dx dx
___________________
2.
d f (x )
dx
d
e ef (x )
pro
d
dx
1
f (x )
d
3. log e f ( x ) f ( x ) etc.
dx f ( x ) dx
Re
Worked Examples
Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x:
for
1. x2 1
Solution: Let y x2 1
dy 1 d 2
t
x 1
dx 2
1 dx
No
2 x
1
2x
2 x2 1
x
S,
x2 1
E
5
2. ax 2 bx c
UP
5
Solution: Let y ax 2 bx c
dy 5 1 d
5 ax 2 bx c ax 2 bx c
dx dx
(c)
4
5 ax 2 bx c 2ax b
le
3. e2x 3
Notes
Solution: Let y e2x 3
/Sa
___________________
dy d
e2x 3
2x 3 ___________________
dx dx
___________________
on
e2x 3
(2)
___________________
2e 2 x 3
___________________
2
4. log 2x 5x 7
cti
___________________
Solution: Let y log 2x 2 5x 7 ___________________
du
___________________
dy 1 d
2x 2 5x 7
dx 2x 2 5x 7 dx ___________________
___________________
1
2x 2
1
5x 7
.(4 x 5) pro
5. x log x 5
Re
1
Solution: Let y x log x 5
1
dy 1 1 d
x log x 5 x log x
dx 5 dx
for
4
1 1
x log x 5 x log x 1
5 x
4
1
x log x 5 1 log x
t
5
No
2
6. x 2ex
2
Solution: Let y x 2ex
S,
dy d 2 x
( 2)( xe x ) 2 1
. (x e )
dx dx
3
2 x 2ex x 2ex e x 2x
E
3
UP
2 x 2ex ex x 2 2x
2 x 6e 3x
ex x 2 2x
(c)
2x 4 5
2e x 2x
le
x2 1
Notes 7.
x2 1
/Sa
___________________
x2 1
___________________ Solution: Let y
x2 1
___________________
on
dy 1 d x2 1
___________________ 2
dx x2 1 dx x 1
___________________ 2
x2 1
cti
___________________
1 x 2 1 2x x 2 1 2x
___________________ 2
x2 1 x2 1
___________________ 2
du
x2 1
___________________
x2 1 4x
___________________
pro
2 x2 1 x2 1 x2 1 x2 1
2x
2 2
x 1 x 1 x2 1
Re
2x
2 2
x 1 x 1 x2 1
2x
for
x2 1 x4 1
2 3x
8. log
2 3x
t
No
2 3x
Solution: Let y log
2 3x
dy 1 2 3x 3 2 3x 3
2
dx 2 3x 2 3x
S,
2 3x
2 3x
E
12
2
2 3x 2 3x
UP
12
2 3x 2 3x
12
(c)
4 9x 2
le
9. log(log x )
Notes
Solution: Let y log(log x )
/Sa
___________________
dy 1 d
log x ___________________
dx log x dx
___________________
on
1 1 1
___________________
log x x x log x
___________________
3
10. 2 3x
cti
___________________
3
Solution: Let y 2 3x ___________________
du
1 ___________________
y 2x 3 3
___________________
1
dy 1 1 d
2 3x 3 2 3x ___________________
dx 3
1
2 3x 3
2
3
dx
pro
3
Re
1
3 2
2 3x
11. log x 1 x2
for
Solution: Let y log x 1 x2
dy 1 d
1 x2
t
. x
dx x 1 x 2 dx
No
1 1 d
. 1 . 1 x2
x 1 x 2
2 1 x 2 dx
S,
1 1
. 1 . 2x
x 1 x2 2 1 x2
E
1 x
. 1
x 1 x2 1 x2
UP
1 1 x2 x
.
2 2
x 1 x 1 x
(c)
le
x 1 x2
Notes
Activity
1 x2 1 x2
/Sa
___________________
x
Comment on the statement:
Calculus is nothing more than
___________________
a nice idea. 1
___________________ 1 x2
on
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
cti
___________________
1. If a function is made up of more than one function then
___________________
it is called a ……………. function.
___________________
du
2. Composite function is denoted by the symbol ……………
___________________
___________________ Implicit Functions

If a function is in the form y
pro f ( x ) , then the function is said to be
in the explicit form. Instead of this, if the variables x and y are
related by means of an equation, then the function is said to be in
Re
the implicit form. In general an implicit function is given by
f ( x , y ) c where c is a constant.
x2 y2
e.g., y2 4ax , x 2 y2 a2 , 1
for
a2 b2
To find the Derivative of the Implicit Function f(x, y) = c

Differentiate f ( x , y ) c using the rules of differentiation. Collect
t
dy
No
all the terms containing on the left hand side and the
dx
remaining terms on the right hand side. Take the common factor
dy dy
on the left hand side. Divide both sides by the coefficient of
dx dx
S,
dy
to get .
dx
E
Worked Examples
UP
dy
Find , if
dx
1. y2 4ax
(c)
Solution: Differentiate both sides w.r.t. x

le
dy
2y 4a 1
dx Notes
/Sa
dy 4a dy 2a
i.e., ___________________
dx 2 y dx y
___________________
2 2
2. x y 2xy
___________________
on
Solution: Differentiate w.r.t. x ___________________
dy dy ___________________
2x 2y 2 x y
cti
dx dx ___________________
Cancelling 2 on both sides, we get ___________________
du
dy dy ___________________
x y x y
dx dx ___________________
dy dy ___________________
y
y x
dx dx
dy
dx
y x
y x
x
pro
dy y x
Re
dx y x
dy
1
dx
x2 y2 a2
for
3.
Solution: Differentiate w.r.t. x

dy
2x 2y 0
dx
t
No
dy
2y 2x
dx
dy 2x
dx 2y
S,
dy x
dx y
E
4. x2 y2 2x 4y 6 0
UP

dy dy
2x 2y 2 4 0
dx dx
(c)
Cancelling 2, we get
le
dy dy
Notes
x y 1 2 0
dx dx
/Sa
___________________
dy
y 2 x 1
___________________ dx
___________________ dy x 1
dx y 2
on
___________________
___________________ 5. ex y
ex
cti
___________________ Solution: Differentiate w.r.t. x
___________________ d
ex y
x y ex
___________________
dx
du
___________________ dy
i.e., e x y
1 ex
dx
___________________
1
dy
dx
ex
ex y
pro 1
ey
dy 1 ey
i.e.,
Re
dx ey
6. x 2/3 y2 / 3 a2 / 3

for
2 32 1 2 32 1 dy
x y 0
3 3 dx
2
Dividing throughout by , we get
t
3
No
1 1
3 3
dy
x y 0
dx
1 1
3
dy 3
y x
S,
dx
1
3
dy x
E
1
dx 3
y
UP
1/ 3
dy y
i.e.,
dx x
(c)
7. y log x log x log x ......... to

le
Solution: y log x log x log x ......... to
Notes
/Sa
y log x y ___________________
___________________
Squaring, we get
___________________
y2 log x y
on
___________________
Differentiate w.r.t. x
___________________
dy 1 dy
cti
2y ___________________
dx x dx
___________________
dy dy 1
2y
du
___________________
dx dx x
___________________
dy 1
2y 1
dx x ___________________
dy
dx
1
x 2y 1
pro
Re
dy 1
8. If x 1 y y 1 x 0 where x y, prove that 2
.
dx 1 x
Solution: x 1 y y 1 x 0
for
x 1 y y 1 x
Squaring,
x2 1 y y2 1 x
t
No
x2 x2 y y2 y2 x
x2 y2 x2 y y2 x
x y x y xy x y
S,
x y xy (cancelling (x – y)) ...(1)
Differentiating w.r.t. x
E
dy dy
1 x y
dx dx
UP
dy dy
i.e., x 1 y
dx dx
(c)
dy
1 x 1 y
dx
le
dy 1 y
Notes ...(2)
Activity dx 1 x
/Sa
___________________
Trace out the areas where From (1), x y xy
exponent functions of
___________________
differentiation are used.
x y1 x
___________________
on
___________________ x
y
1 x
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________ x
1
dy 1 x
___________________
du
dx 1 x
___________________
1 x x
___________________
1 x 1 x
1
2
pro
1 x
Re
Check Your Progress
Fill in the blanks:
1. If a function is in the form y = f(x), then the function is
for
said to be in the ……………. form.

2. If the variables x and y are related by means of an
equation, then the function is said to be in the
……………. form.
t
No
Logarithmic Differentiation
g x
To differentiate a function of the form f x or a f x , we use a
S,
method called Logarithmic differentiation.

g x
To find the derivative of the functions f x and a f x .
E
g x
(i) Let y f x
UP
Taking logarithms, we get
log y g ( x ) log f x
(c)
le
1 dy 1
g x f x log f x . g x
y dx f x Notes
/Sa
___________________
dy g x
y f x g x log f x ___________________
dx f x
___________________
on
dy g x g( x )
i.e., f x f x g x log f x ___________________
dx f x
___________________
dy
cti
This method of finding is called Logarithmic differentiation. ___________________
dx
___________________
af
x
(ii) Let y
du
___________________
Taking logarithms, we get ___________________
log y f x log a ___________________
pro
1 dy
log a f x
y dx
Re
dy
y log a f x af x
log a f x
dx
for
Worked Examples
I. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
x
(i) xx (ii) x x
t
x
(iii) x x (iv) 3x
No
. to
..
xx
(v) x x
Solution:
S,
1. Let y xx
E
Taking logs, we get

log y x log x
UP
1 dy 1
x log x 1
(c)
y dx x
le
dy
Notes
y 1 log x
dx
/Sa
___________________
dy
i.e., x x 1 log z
___________________ dx
___________________ x
2. Let y xx
on
___________________
Taking logs, we get
___________________
log y x x log x
cti
___________________
___________________
Taking logs again, we get
___________________ log log y x log x log log x
du
___________________ Differentiate w.r.t. x
___________________
1 1 dy 1 1 1
log y y dx
dy
x
pro
x
log x 1
log x x
1
y log y 1 log x
dx x log x
Re
dy x 1
i.e., xx x x log x 1 log x
dx x log x
x
for
3. Let y xx
2
y xx
Taking logs, we get

t
No
log y x 2 log x
1 dy 1
x2 log x 2x
y dx x
S,
dy
y x 2x log x
dx
E
dy x
xx
UP
i.e., x 2x log x
dx
4. Let y 3x
Taking logs, we get

(c)
log y x log 3
le
Notes
/Sa
1 dy
log 3 1 ___________________
y dx
___________________
dy
y log 3 ___________________
dx
on
___________________
dy x
i.e., 3 log 3 ___________________
dx
cti
to ___________________
..
xx
5. Let y x ___________________
du
y xy ___________________
___________________
Taking logs, we get
___________________
log y y log x
pro
1 dy 1 dy
y log x
Re
y dx x dx
dy 1 y
log x
dx y x
for
dy 1 y log x y
dx y x
dy y2
t
dx x 1 y log x
No
dy
II. Find , if
dx
(i) ey yx (ii) y ax y
yx
S,
m n
(iii) x m yn x y (iv) x y yx
E
Solution:
1. ey yx
UP
Taking logs, we get

y log e x log y
(c)
i.e., y 1 x log y  log e log e e 1

le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
dy 1 dy
x log y 1
dx y dx
___________________
dy x dy
___________________ log y
dx y dx
on
___________________
___________________
dy x
1 log y
dx y
cti
___________________
___________________ dy y x
i.e., log y
dx y
___________________
du
___________________ dy y log y
dx y x
___________________
2. y ax y
Taking logs, we get

yx pro
log y x y log a x log y
Re
1 dy dy 1 dy
log x 1 x log y 1
y dx dx y dx
for
1 x dy
i.e., log a log a log y
y y dx
t
dy log a log y y
No
dx 1 y log a x
m n
3. x m yn x y
Taking logs, we get

S,
m log x n log y (m n ) log x y

E
1 1 dy 1 dy
UP
m n (m n ) 1
x y dx x y dx
m n dy m n m n dy
i.e.,
x y dx x y x y dx
(c)
le
dy n m n m n m
dx y x y x y x Notes
/Sa
___________________
dy nx ny my ny mx nx mx my
i.e., ___________________
dx y x y x x y
___________________
on
dy nx my nx my
i.e., ___________________
dx y x y x x y
___________________
cti
dy ( nx my) nx my ___________________
i.e.,
dx y x y x x y
___________________
dy 1 1
du
i.e., ___________________
dx y x
___________________
dy y ___________________
4. xy
dx
yx
x pro
Taking logs, we get
Re
y log x x log y
for
1 dy 1 dy
y log x x log y 1
x dx y dx
dy x y
i.e., log x log y
dx y x
t
No
dy y log x x x log y y
i.e.,
dx y x
dy y x log y y
dx x y log x x
S,
Check Your Progress

E
Fill in the blanks:

UP
1. To differentiate a function of the form a f ( x ) we use a

method called ……………. differentiation.
2. Differentiation of x x is …………….
(c)
le
Summary
Notes
dy
/Sa
___________________ If y = ex, then ex
dx
___________________
dy
___________________ If y = ax, then a x log a
dx e
on
___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
cti
___________________
Differentiate (x logxx)x
___________________
___________________ Keywords
du
___________________
Composite Functions: If a function is made up of more than one
___________________ function then it is called a composite function.
pro
Explicit Functions: If a function is in the form y = f(x), then the
function is said to be in the explicit form.
Implicit Functions: If the variables x and y are related by means
Re
of an equation, then the function is said to be in the implicit form.
Logarithmic Differentiation: To differentiate a function of the
form af(x) we use a method called logarithmic differentiation.
for

dy
1. Find when y = u2 + 5, u = v2 + 2 and v = x2 – x.
dx
t
No
2. Find the elasticity of demand of the following demand function

x = 200-4P at x = 40
3. Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x:
S,
2
(i) x3 1 (ii) 1 x2
2
x2
E
1 x 1
(iii) 4
(iv)
x2 x 1 x2 x 1
UP
x
(v) log xe x (vi) ee
1 x2
(vii) e (viii) log x 1 x2
(c)
le
1 x
(ix) log log log x (x) Notes
1 x
/Sa
2 ___________________
(xi) x 1 e3 x 7
(xii) 23 x 1
___________________
1
1 x2 2x ___________________
(xiii) (xiv)
on
1 x2 1 x2
___________________
e log x 1 e2x ___________________

(xv) (xvi)
cti
2
log x x2 1 ___________________
___________________
1 x2 x
(xvii) (xviii) e log 4 x 5
du
___________________
x
___________________
1
(xix) 1 x (xx)
x 2ex ___________________
(xxi) x log log x (xxii)

1 e2x
1 e2x
pro
Re
2 1 x2
(xxiii) 2 3x e3 x (xxiv) log
1 x2
1
(xxv)
for
x 1 x2
dy
4. Find , if
dx
(i) xy c2 (ii) x2 2xy 3 y2 0

t
No
2
(iii) x2 y2 9 (iv) x y 4y
3
(v) ax 2 2hxy by2 0 (vi) 27ay2 4 x 2a
S,
(vii) ey 1 log x ex 1 log y (viii) x y 1 xy
2 x2 y2
E
(ix) x2 y2 a 2 y2 x2 (x) 1at (0,4)

16 9
UP
(xi) x2 6xy 3 y2 8 (xii) e xy 4 xy 2
1 1
(xiii) x y 1at , (xiv) e xy 4 xy 2x
4 4
(c)
(xv) x3 y3 3axy
le
dy
Notes
5. Find , if
dx
/Sa
___________________
___________________
(i) If y x x x x .......... , prove that
dy 1
___________________
dx 2y 1
on
___________________
dy ex
___________________ (ii) If y ex ex ex ........ , prove that
dx 2y 1
cti
___________________
1 dy 1
___________________ (iii) If y , prove that 2
1 dx x y 1
x
___________________ 1
du
x
___________________ x ........to
___________________
(iv) If
dy
y
f x
pro
f x
.
f x f x ....... , prove that
dx 2y 1
Re
dy 2x 7y
(v) If x 2 7xy 3 y2 5, prove that .
dx 7x 6y
6. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x

for
x ex
(i) log x (ii) ex
x2 log x
(iii) log x (iv) x
t
x x x2
(v) x log x log x (vi) x1
No
x x
(vii) x2 1 (viii) 1 x x2
x2 1 x
(ix) x2 1 e (x) ee ex
S,
dy
7. Find , if
dx
E
(i) xy yx 2a 0 (ii) xy ex y
UP
x
(iii) xy yx 2ax 0 (iv) ex y 0
(c)
le
Further Readings
Notes
/Sa
Books ___________________
___________________
on
___________________
Sivayya and Sathya Rao, An Introduction to Business Mathematics ___________________
cti
Web Readings ___________________
www.ams.org/tran/...6/S0002-9947-1927-1501380-6.pdf ___________________
du
www.intuitive-calculus.com/implicit-differentiation.html ___________________
___________________
www.pinkmonkey.com/studyguides/subjects/calc/.../c0404801.asp
___________________
pro
math.stackexchange.com/.../question-about-how-to-implicitly-
differentiate-composite-functions
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Studies ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
cti
___________________
Case Study 1: Cost and Price
___________________
A company is manufacturing and selling towels. The marginal
du
cost for producing towels is 0.15 CAD per towel. A market survey ___________________
has shown that for every 0.10 CAD increase in the price per towel,
___________________
the company will sell 50 towels less per week. Currently the
company sells 1000 towels per week against the price that ___________________
maximizes their profit.
pro
(Note: As usual, even though towels are only sold in integer units,
assume we can use differentiable functions to describe the
relevant quantities.)
Re
Question:
What is the price of one towel?
Source: http://people.math.sfu.ca/~vjungic/Zbornik_Nov1_2010.pdf
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Case Study 2: Stocks
Notes
Stocks of a company are initially issued at the price of $10. The
/Sa
___________________ value of the stock grows by 25% every year.
___________________ Questions:
___________________ 1. Show that the value of a stock follows a geometric sequence.
on
2. Calculate the value of the stock ten years after the initial
___________________
public offering.
___________________ 3. Plot a graph of the sequence over a period of 10 years after it
was issued.
cti
___________________
Source: http://www.hec.ca/en/cam/help/topics/geometric_sequences_and_series.pdf
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 21: Parametric Functions
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
BLOCK-V
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Detailed Contents
le
Notes
/Sa
UNIT 21: PARAMETRIC FUNCTIONS
___________________  Integration: Indefinite Integrals
 Introduction  Definite Integrals
___________________
 Concept of Parametric Functions  List of Standard Formulae for Integrals
___________________
on
 Successive Differentiation
UNIT 24: DEFINITE INTEGRALS
___________________
 Introduction
UNIT 22: APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
___________________
 Theory of Definite Integrals
Introduction
cti

___________________  Definite Integrals by the Substitution Incorporating
 Increasing and Decreasing Functions Change of Limits
___________________
 Maxima and Minima  Definite Integrals using Integration by Parts
___________________
du
UNIT 23: INTEGRAL CALCULUS UNIT 25: CASE STUDIES
___________________
 Introduction
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Parametric Functions Gather more information on
parametric functions.
___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Parametric Functions ___________________
 Concept of Parametric Equation ___________________
 Successive Differentiation
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
In this unit, we will discuss parametric functions. Further we will
discuss concept of parametric Equation. We will also focus on
successive differentiation. We will consider many worked out
Re
Concept of Parametric Functions

If the variables x and y are given in terms of a new variable t, then
for
the function is said to be in the parametric form and ‘t’ is called the
parameter.
In general, the parametric function is given by x f t ,y g t

t
where f t and g t are functions of the parameter t.

No
x f t ,y g t are called the parametric equations.
dy
To find when the Parametric Equations are given
dx
S,
Let x f t and y g t be the parametric equations.

E
dx
Differentiate x f t w.r.t. t to get
dt
UP
dy
Differentiate y g t w.r.t. t to get
dt
dy
(c)
dy dt
then
dx dx
dt
le
This method of differentiation is called Parametric Differentiation.
Notes
/Sa
___________________ Worked Examples
___________________ dy
Find, if
___________________ dx
on
___________________ 1. x at 2 , y 2at
___________________
2. x t, y 1/ t
cti
___________________
3. x 2et , y 3e t
___________________
___________________ 4. x et log t, y e t log t
du
___________________
3at 3at 2
5. x ,y
___________________ 1 t3 1 t3
6. x log t
pro
t2 1 , y t2 1
Solution:
Re
1. x at 2 , y 2at
Differentiating both the equations w.r.t. t, we get

dx dy
for
2at, 2a
dt dt
dy dy / dt 2a 1
dx dx / dt 2at t
t
2. x t, y 1/ t
No
dx 1 dy 1
Differentiating w.r.t. t, we get , 3/2
dt 2 t dt 2t
1
S,
dy dy / dt 3/2
2t 1
dx dx / dt 1 t
2 t
E
3. x 2et , y 3e t
UP
dx dy
2et , 3e t
dt dt
dy dy / dt
(c)
dx dx / dt
le
3e t
Notes
2e 2t
/Sa
___________________
3
___________________
2e 2t
___________________
4. x et log t, y e t log t
on
___________________
dx 1
et log t et ___________________
dt t
cti
___________________
1 t
e log t ___________________
t
du
___________________
dy t 1 t
e log t e
dt t ___________________
___________________
e t 1
t
log t pro
dy 1 t
e log t
dy dt t
Re
dx dx 1
et log t
dt t
1 t log t
for
2t
e 1 t log t
3at 3at 2
5. x y
1 t3 1 t3
t
dx 1 t 3 3a 3at 3t 2
No
2
dt 1 t3
3a 1 t 3 3t 3
2
1 t3
S,
3a 1 2t 3
2
1 t3
E
UP
3at 2
y
1 t3
dy 1 t 3 6at 3at 2 3t 2
2
(c)
dt 1 t3
le
Notes
3at 2 t 3
Activity 2
/Sa
___________________ 1 t3
Analyze the significance of
successive differentiation
___________________ dy
dy dt 3at 2 t 3
___________________
dx dx 3a 1 2t 3
on
___________________ dt
___________________
dy t 2 t3
cti
___________________
dx 1 2t 3
___________________
___________________ dx 1 1
du
6. 1 2t
dt t t 2
1 2 t2 1
___________________
___________________
1 t2 1 t 1
t t2 1 pro t2 1 t2 1
dy 1 t
2t
Re
dt 2 t2 1 t2 1
dy t
dy dt t 2
1 t
dx dx 1
for
dt t2 1
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
t
No
1. If the variables x and y are given in terms of a new

variable t, then the function is said to be in the
……………. form.
2. In above statement variable ‘t’ is called the ……………..
S,
Successive Differentiation
E
If y f x is a differentiable function then by differentiating it

UP
w.r.t. x, we get
dy
f x ...(1)
dx
(c)
le
dy
If f x is a differentiable function, then by differentiating it Notes
dx
/Sa
w.r.t. x, we get ___________________
___________________
d2 y
f x ...(2)
dx 2 ___________________
on
Similarly by differentiating it w.r.t. x, we get ___________________
___________________
d3 y
f x ...(3)
cti
dx 3 ___________________
Again by differentiating it w.r.t. x, we get ___________________
du
___________________
d4 y
f IV x ...(4)
dx 4 ___________________
and so on. ___________________
This process of finding higher ordered derivatives is called

dy
pro
d2 y
successive differentiation. is called first derivative, is
dx dx 2
Re
d3 y
called the second derivative, is called the third derivative and
dx 3
d4 y
is called fourth derivative and so on.
dx 4
for
dn y
In general, is called the nth derivative, which is obtained by
dx n
dn 1 y
differentiating w.r.t. x.
t
dx n 1
No
The nth derivative of y f (x ) is denoted by the symbols

dn y dn
yn , f ( n ) ( x ), , [ f ( x )]
dx n dx n
S,
Worked Examples
I. Find the second, third, fourth derivatives of the following
E
functions:
UP
1
(i) x4 5x 3 7x 2 2x (ii) ax 2 bx c
x
ax b
(iii) (iv) x log x
(c)
cx d
(v) xe x
le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
1
___________________ 1. Let y x4 5x 3 7x 2 2x
x
___________________
dy 1
___________________ 4 x 3 15x 2 14 x 2
dx x2
on
___________________ d2 y 2
12x 2 30 x 14
___________________ dx 2 x3
cti
___________________ d3 y 6
24 x 30
___________________ dx 3 x4
___________________ d4 y 24
du
24
___________________ dx 4 x5
___________________ 2. Let y ax 2 bx c
dy
dx
2ax b 0
pro
d2 y
2a 0
dx 2
Re
2a
d3 y
0
dx 3
for
d4 y
0
dx 4
ax b
3. Let y
t
cx d
No
dy cx d a ax b c
2
dx cx d
acx ad acx bc
S,
2
cx d
ad bc
E
2
cx d
UP
d2 y ac bc 2c
dx 2 cx d
3
d2 y 2c bc ad
(c)
dx 2 cx d
3
le
d3 y 6c 2 (bc ad )
Notes
dx 3 ( cx d )4
/Sa
___________________
d4 y 24c3 (bc ad )
___________________
dx 4 ( cx d )5
___________________
on
4. Let y x log x
___________________
dy 1 ___________________
x log x 1 log x
dx x
cti
___________________
d2 y 1 1
2
0
dx x x ___________________
du
___________________
d3 y 1
dx 3 x2 ___________________
___________________
d4 y
5.
dx 4
Let y
2
x3
xe x
pro
Re
dy
xe x ex 1
dx
d2 y
x 1 ex ex 1
dx 2
for
x 2 ex
d3 y
(x 2)e x e x .1
dx 3
t
No
(x 3)e x
d4 y
(x 3)e x e x .1
dx 4
S,
(x 4)e x
d2 y
II. 1. If x 2 xy y2 0, prove that 0.
E
dx 2
UP
Solution: x 2 xy y2 0
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy dy
2x x y 2y 0
(c)
dx dx
le
dy
Notes x 2y 2x y
dx
/Sa
___________________
dy 2x y
___________________
dx x 2y
___________________
on
___________________ dy dy
2 x 2y 2 2x y 1 2
d y dx dx
___________________
dx 2 x 2y
2
cti
___________________
___________________ 2x y (2x y )
(x 2 y) 2 (2x y ) 1 2
x 2y ( x 2 y)
___________________
du
2
( x 2 y)
___________________
___________________ x 2y 3y 2x y 3x
3xy 6 y2
prox 2y
6x 2
3
3xy
3
x 2y
Re
6x 2 6xy 6 y2
( x 2 y )3
for
x2 xy y2 6 0
6 3 3
0
x 2y x 2y
d2 y
0
t
dx 2
No
d2 y ax b
2. Find , if y
dx 2 bx a
ax b
Solution: y
S,
bx a
dy bx a a ax b b
E
2
dx bx a
UP
abx a2 abx b2
2
bx a
a2 b2
(c)
2
bx a
le
d2 y 2 1 d
a2 b2 2 bx a bx a Notes
dx 2 dx
/Sa
___________________
3 2b b2 a2
2 b2 a 2 bx a b 3
___________________
bx a
___________________
on
2
d y ___________________
3. Find , if y ax .
dx 2
___________________
cti
x
Solution: y a ___________________
dy ___________________
a x log a
dx
du
___________________
2
d y 2 ___________________
a x log a
dx 2
___________________
4. If y x x2 1
m
, prove that x 2 1 y2
pro
xy1 m2 y 0.
m
Solution: y x x2 1
Re
m 1 d
y1 m x x2 1 x x2 1
dx
for
m 1 1
m x x2 1 1 2x
2 x2 1
m 1 x2 1 x
2
m x x 1
x2 1
t
No
m
m x2 1 x
i.e. y1 ,
x2 1
x 2 1 y1 my ...(1)
S,
Differentiating again w.r.t. x, we get

E
1
x 2 1 y2 y1 2x my1
2 x2 1
UP
Multiplying throughout by x 2 1 , we get
x 2 1 y2 xy1 my1 x 2 1
(c)
x 2 1 y2 xy1 m my (using (1))

le
Notes x 2 1 y2 xy1 m2 y
i.e.,
/Sa
___________________ x 2 1 y2 xy1 m2 y 0
___________________ Aliter: Squaring equation (1)

___________________
We get x 2 1 y12 m2 y 2
on
___________________
Differentiating w.r.t. x,
___________________
x 2 1 2 y1 y2 y12 2x m2 2 yy1 (cancelling 2y1 )
cti
___________________
___________________
x 2 1 y2 xy1 m2 y
___________________
du
i.e., x 2 1 y2 xy1 m2 y 0
___________________
___________________ 5. If y ax n 1
bx n
, prove that x 2 y2 n n 1 y 0.
Solution: y
pro ax n 1
bx n
y1 (n 1) ax n 1 1
b( n ) x n 1
Re
n 1 ax n bnx n 1
y2 n 1 nax n 1
bn n 1 x n 1 1
y2 n 1 nax n 1
bn n 1 x n 2
for
x 2 y2 (n 1)nax n 1 . x 2 bn(n 1)x n 2

.x 2
i.e., x 2 y2 n 1 nax n 1
bn n 1 x n
n n 1 ax n 1
bx n
n n 1 y
t
No
x 2 y2 n(n 1) y 0
d2 y
III. Find , if
dx 2
S,
1. x at 2 ,2 y 2at
dx dy
E
2at, 2a
dt dt
UP
dy
dy dt 2a 1
dx dx 2at t
dt
(c)
d2 y d 1 d 1 dt
dx 2 dx t dt t dx
le
1 1 dx
2
( 2at ) Notes
t 2at dt
/Sa
1 ___________________
2at 3 ___________________
c ___________________
2. x ct, y
on
t
___________________
dy dx c ___________________
c,
dt dt t2
cti
___________________
c
___________________
dy dy / dt t2 1
du
dx dx / dt c t2 ___________________
d2 y d 1 ___________________
dx 2 dx t2 ___________________
d
dt
1
t2
dt
dx
2 1
t3 c
2
ct 3
pro
d2 y
Re
IV. Find , if
dx 2
1. x2 xy y2 a2
for
2. x 3 y2 a3
x2 y2
3. 1
a2 b2
t
Solution:
No
1. Differentiate x 2 xy y2 a 2 w.r.t. x
dy dy
2x x y 2y 0
dx dx
S,
dy dy 2x y
x 2y 2x y ,
dx dx x 2y
E
dy dy
2 (x 2 y) 2 (2x y) 1 2
UP
d y dx dx
dx 2 (x 2 y )2
(c)
le
Notes
dy dy
2x 4y x 2y 2x y 4x 2y
dx dx
/Sa
___________________ 2
x 2y
___________________
___________________ dy
3y x 2 y 4x 2y
on
___________________
dx
2
x 2y
___________________
cti
___________________
2x y
3 y 3x
___________________ x 2y
2
___________________ x 2y
du
___________________
___________________ y x 2y x 2x y
3
xy 2 y2
x pro
2y
2x 2
3
xy
3 3
x 2y
Re
2x 2 2xy 2 y2
3
x 2y
for
x2 xy y2
3 2 3
x 2y
6a 2
( x 2 xy y2 a2 )
t
3
x 2y
No
2. x 3 y2 a5

S,
dy
x3 2y y 2 3x 2 0
dx
E
dy 3x 2 y 2 3y
dx 2x 3 y 2x
UP
dy
x y
d2 y 3 dx 3 3y
x y
dx 2 2 x2 2x 2 2x
(c)
le
3 3 3 5 15 y
y y y Notes
2x 2 2 2x 2 2 4x 2
/Sa
___________________
x2 y2
3. 1 ___________________
a2 b2
___________________
on
___________________
2x 2 y dy
0 ___________________
a2 b2 dx
cti
___________________
dy b2 x
___________________
dx a2 y
du
___________________
dy
y x
d2 y b2 dx ___________________
dx 2 a2 y2 ___________________
y x
b2 x
pro
b2 a2 y
Re
a2 y2
b4 a 2 y2 b2 x 2
for
a 2 y2 a 2b2 y
b2 a 2 y2 b2 x 2
a 2 y2 a2 y
t
b4 x 2 y2
No
a 2 y3 a 2 b2
b4 b4
[1]
a 2 y3 a 2 y3
S,
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
E
1. The process of finding higher ordered derivatives is

UP
called ……………. differentiation.

2. The 3rd derivative of x log x is …………….
(c)
le
Summary
Notes
If the variables x and y are given in terms of a new variable t, then
/Sa
___________________
the function is said to be in the parametric form and ‘t’ is called the
___________________
parameter. In general, the parametric function is given by x =
___________________ f (t),y = g(t ) where f (t ) and g(t) are functions of the parameter t.
on
___________________ Also, x = f (t ),y = g(t ) are called the parametric equations. The
process of finding higher ordered derivatives is called successive
___________________
differentiation.
cti
___________________
___________________ Lesson End Activity

___________________
du
If y log x a2 x 2 , prove that a 2 x 2 y2 xy1 0.
___________________
___________________
Keywords pro
Parametric Function: If the variables x and y are given in terms
of a new variable t, then the function is said to be in the
Re
parametric form and ‘t’ is called the parameter.
Successive Differentiation: The process of finding higher
ordered derivatives is called successive differentiation.
for

dy
1. Find , if
dx
t
2 t 2t
No
(i) x ,y (note x y 1)
2 t 2 t
2t 1 t2
(ii) x ,y
1 t2 1 t2
S,
(iii) x e 2t , y e 2t
(iv) x e 1, y log t
E
(v) x t 2 et , y te t
UP
2
(vi) x log t 2 1 , y et 1
t 1 t 1
(vii) x ,y
(c)
t 1 t 1
le
log t
(viii) x t log t, y Notes
t
/Sa
___________________
t2 1 1
(ix) x ,y ___________________
t2 1 t2 1
___________________
e t log t
on
t
(x) x te log t , y ___________________
t
___________________
(xi) x et e t,y et e 1
cti
___________________
1
(xii) x log 2t, y ___________________
2t
du
___________________
c
(xiii) x c 1 t2 , y
1 t2 ___________________
___________________
2.
(xiv) x t
1
t
,y t
1
t
Find the second, third, fourth derivatives of the following:

pro
e ax
Re
(i) (ii) log x a
1
(iii) x log x (iv)
1 x
for
(v) x 3 5x 2 7x 8
d2 y
3. Find , if:
dx 2
2x
t
(i) y x2 2 log x (ii) y

No
1 x2
1
(iii) y log x (iv) y e2x 1 x 2
x
1
S,
(v) y
ax b
4. If y aemx be mx
, then prove that y2 m2 y 0.
E
5. If y e x log x , then prove that xy2 2x 1 y1 x 1 y 0.

UP
3
6. If y x2 xy y2 1, then prove that x 2 y y2 6 0.
d2 y
7. Find , if:
(c)
dx 2
le
1 t 2t
Notes (i) x t2 , y t3 (ii) x ,y
1 t 1 t
/Sa
___________________
(iii) x ae t , y bet
___________________
___________________ d2 y
8. Find , if
on
dx 2
___________________
___________________ (i) ax 2 2hxy by2 1 (ii) y2 4ax
cti
___________________ x2 y2
(iii) 1 (iv) y3 3ax 2 x3 0
___________________ a2 b2
___________________ (v) xy 4 y 4x (vi) x 2 y2 xy 0
du
___________________
(vii) x 2 2xy 3 y2 1
___________________
Further Readings pro

Books
Re
for
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_equation –
t
mathworld.wolfram.com/ParametricEquations.html
No
www.geometryexpressions.com/downloads/Parametric%20Function
s.pdf
www.wyzant.com/Help/.../Parametric_Equations.aspx
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 22: Applications of Derivatives
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Applications of Derivatives Calculate the height of a
projectile that is fired straight
up. ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Increasing and Decreasing functions ___________________
 Maxima and Minima ___________________
 Application Problems
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
pro
In this unit, we will discuss Increasing and Decreasing functions.
Further, we will discuss Maxima and Minima. We will also focus
on related application problems. We will consider many worked out
Re
Increasing and Decreasing Functions

A function y f x is said to be increasing in an interval a x b
for
if the value of y increases as x increases.

Whenever x 2 x1 , f x 2 f x1
Definition:
t
No
A function y f x is said to be decreasing in an interval

a x b if the value of y decreases as x increases.
Whenever x 2 x1 , f x 2 f x1 .
S,
A function y f x is said to be neither increasing nor decreasing

if f x 2 f x1 , whenever x 2 x1 .
E
Critical Points
UP
A point on a curve y f x is said to be a critical point if the slope

dy
of the curve is 0 or i.e., 0 or at that point.
dx
(c)
le
Condition for Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Notes
Condition for a function y f x to be increasing is that
/Sa
___________________
f x 0 x in the interval a x b.
___________________
___________________
Condition for a function y f x to be decreasing is that
on
___________________ f x 0 x in the interval a x b.
___________________ Condition for a point on y f x to be critical is that f x 0 at
cti
___________________ that point.
___________________
Worked Examples
___________________
du
I. Find whether the following functions are increasing or
___________________
decreasing or neither decreasing nor increasing.
___________________
1.
2.
2x 2
x2 2x 1
3x
at x
pro
7 at x
0
2
x 5
Re
3. x3 6x 2 12x 1 at any point.
4. x3 4x 2 5x 1 at x 1
5. x2 6x 5
for
Solution:
1. f x 2x 2 3x 7
f x 4x 3
t
No
f 2 4 2 3 8 3 11 0
f x 2x 2 3x 7 is increasing at x = 2.
x2 2x 1
S,
2. f x
x 5
Using quotient rule,
E
x 5 2x 2 x2 2x 1 1
UP
f x 2
x 5
2x 2 8x 10 x2 2x 1
2
(c)
x 5
le
x 2 10 x 9
2 Notes
x 5
/Sa
___________________
0 0 9 9 9
f 0 2 2
0 ___________________
0 5 5 25
___________________
on
2
x 2x 1 ___________________
f x is decreasing at x 0.
x 5
___________________
cti
3 2
3. f x x 6x 12x 1 ___________________
f x 3x 2 12x 12 ___________________
du
3 x2 4x 4 ___________________
2
f x 3 x 2 ___________________
___________________
Since x
3 x 2
2
2
2
0 for all x.
0 and 3 0
pro
f x 0 for all x.
Re
f ( x ) is increasing at all points.
4. f x x3 4x 2 5x 1
for
f x 3x 2 8x 5
f 1 31 81 5
8 8 0
t
x 3 4x 2 5x 1 is neither increasing nor decreasing at

No
x 1.
5. f x x2 6x 5
f x 2x 6 2 x 3
S,
f x 0 x 3 0 x 3
f x 0 x 3 0 x 3
E
x2 6x 5 is increasing x 3 and decreasing x 3.

UP
II. Find the critical points of the following functions:
1. x2 5x 7
(c)
2. 2x 3 9x 2 12x 6
3. y ex
le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
___________________ 1. f x x2 5x 7
___________________ f x 2x 5
___________________ f x 0 2x 5 0
on
___________________ 5
x
2
___________________
5
cti
___________________ x
2
___________________
5
___________________ is the critical point.
du
2
___________________
2. f x 2x 3 9x 2 12x 6
___________________
f x pro
6x 2 18 x 12
6 x2 3x 2
6 x 1 x 2
Re
f x 0 6 x 1 x 2 0
x 1, x 2
1 and 2 are critical points.

for
3. f x ex
f x ex
f x 0 ex 0
t
No
But e x can never be 0 for any value of x.
y e x has no critical point.
Check Your Progress

S,
Fill in the blanks:

1. The ……………. of a function may be used to determine
E
whether the function is increasing or decreasing on any

UP
intervals in its …………….
2. If f (x) > 0 at each point in an interval I, then the

function is said to be ……………. on I. And if f (x) < 0 at
each point in an interval I, then the function is said to
(c)
be ……………. on I.
le
Maxima and Minima
Notes
Activity
/Sa
Let y f x be the equation of a curve. Draw the graph of y f x
___________________
Consider a rectangle of
and consider the portion of the curve between the points x a perimeter 12 inches. Form a
___________________
cylinder by revolving this
and x a . In between these two points, if there is a point
rectangle about one of its
whose ordinate is maximum, this maximum ordinate is called a ___________________
edges. What dimensions of
on
the rectangle will result in a
maximum of the function. This is shown in figure 22.1. ___________________
cylinder of maximum volume?
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 22.1
pro
Similarly, if there is a point whose ordinate is minimum, this
minimum ordinate is called a minimum of the given function. This
Re
is shown in figure 22.2.
t for
No
Figure 22.2
In between two points there may be more than one maxima or

S,
more than one minima. This is shown in figure 22.3.

E
UP
(c)
Figure 22.3
le
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Notes
A function y f x is said to be increasing at a point x a if
/Sa
___________________
dy
___________________ 0.
dx x a
___________________
A function y f x is said to be decreasing at a point x a if
on
___________________
dy
___________________ 0.
dx x a
cti
___________________
dy
___________________ If 0 then the function is neither increasing nor decreasing
dx x a
___________________
du
at x a.
___________________
Maximum and Minimum of a Function
___________________
A function y
an open interval
pro
f x is said to have a maximum at x
a ,a such that f x
a if there is
f a for all
x a ,a and f a is the maximum value of the given
Re
function.
A function y f x is said to have a minimum at x a if there is

an open interval a ,a such that f x f a for all
for
x a ,a and f a is the minimum value of the given

function. Maxima and minima of f a are called extreme values or
extrema.
t
Necessary Condition for a Function to Attain Extreme Values

No
Theorem: A necessary condition for a function f x to have

extreme values at x a is that f a 0.
S,
Proof: Let f x have a maximum at x a.
as we move towards the maximum point on the curve, the curve

E
dy
is increasing and hence 0 and from the maximum point the
dx
UP
dy
curve starts decreasing and hence 0.
dx
dy
Hence as we cross the maximum point the value of changes
(c)
dx
sign from positive to negative.
le
dy
at the maximum point, 0 Notes
dx
/Sa
___________________
dy
Similarly, at the minimum point, 0
dx ___________________
___________________
dy
on
Hence for extreme values, 0.
dx ___________________
Working method for finding maxima or minima: Second ___________________
cti
derivative test: ___________________
dy dy ___________________
Step (1): Find and solve the equation 0 . Let x a, x b
dx dx
du
___________________
etc., be the values of x.
___________________
d2 y d2 y
Step(2): Find , if is negative, then y has a maximum ___________________
at x
dx 2
a and if
dx 2
d2 y
x a
pro
is positive, then y has a minimum value at
dx 2 x a
Re
x a . The maximum or minimum value is f a .
dy d2 y dy
Note: If 0 and 0 at x a for which = 0, then x a
dx dx 2 dx
is said to be a point of inflection and in this case further
for
investigation is necessary to find maxima or minima, which is

beyond the scope of this book since we have to calculate higher
d3 y d4 y
derivatives , etc.
dx 3 dx 4
t
No
Worked Examples
1. Find the maximum and minimum values of the following
functions:
S,
(1) 2x 3 21x 2 36 x 20
(2) x 4 8x 3 22x 2 24 x 5
E
x2 7x 6
(3)
UP
x 10
Solution:
(1) y 2x 3 21x 2 36 x 20
(c)
le
dy
Notes 6x 2 42x 36
dx
/Sa
___________________ dy
0 6x 2 42x 36 0
___________________ dx
___________________ x2 7x 6 0
on
___________________ i.e., x 1 x 6 0 x 1and x 6
___________________
d2 y
12x 42
cti
___________________ dx 2
___________________ d2 y
12 42 30 0
dx 2 x 1
___________________
du
___________________ y has a maximum at x 1 and
___________________ 3
the maximum value 21 21 12 36 1 20 3
d2 y
dx 2
pro
12(6) 42 72 42 30 0
x 6
Re
y has a minimum at x 6 and the minimum value
2 63 21 62 36 6 20 128
(2) Let y x4 8x 3 22x 2 24 x 5

for
dy
4x 3 24 x 2 44 x 24
dx
dy
0 x3 6x 2 11x 6 0
dx
t
No
Since the sum of the coefficients is zero, x 1 is a factor.

Dividing by x 1 , we get x 2 5x 6.
x 1 x2 5x 6 0
S,
i.e., x 1 x 2 x 3 0
E
x 1,2,3
UP
d2 y
12x 2 48 x 44 4 3x 2 12 x 11
dx 2
d2 y
Substitute x 1, 4 3 12 11 8 0
(c)
dx 2
Therefore x 1 is a minimum point.

le
d2 y
Substitute x 2, 4 12 24 11 4 0 Notes
dx 2
/Sa
___________________
Therefore x 2 is a maximum point.
___________________
2
d y
Substitute x 3, 4 27 36 11 8 0 ___________________
dx 2
on
___________________
Therefore x 3 is a minimum point.
___________________
Hence the maximum value of y is at x 2.
cti
___________________
4 3 2
f 2 2 8 2 22 2 24 2 5 3 ___________________
du
The minimum values are at x 1, y 1 8 22 24 5 4 ___________________
___________________
and at x 3, y 81 216 198 72 5 4
___________________
Maximum value
value
3 attained at x
4 attained at x 1 and 3.
pro
2 and minimum
x2 7x 6
(3)
Re
x 10
dy x 10 2x 7 x2 7x 6
2
dx x 10
for
2x 2 27x 70 x2 7x 6 x2 20 x 64
2 2
x 10 x 10
dy x2 20 x 64
0 0
t
2
dx x 10
No
x2 20x 64 0
i.e., x 4 x 16 0
x 4, x 16
S,
2
d2 y x 10 2x 20 x2 20 x 64 2 x 10
dx 2 2 2
E
x 10
UP
2
2 x 10 x 10 x2 20 x 64 72
2 3
x 10 x 10
d2 y 72 1
0
(c)
dx 2 x 4
216 3
le
Therefore y has a maximum value at x 4 and the
Notes
2
4 7 4 6 6
/Sa
___________________ maximum value is f 4 1
4 10 6
___________________
d2 y 72 1
___________________ 0
dx 2 216 3
on
x 16
___________________
Therefore y has a minimum value at x 16 and the
___________________
162 7 16 6 150
cti
___________________ minimum value is f 16 25
16 10 6
___________________
2. Show that the function x 3 3x 2 6x 3 possesses neither a
___________________
du
maximum nor a minimum.
___________________
Solution: y x3 3x 2 6x 3
___________________
dy
dx
3x 2 6x pro 6
dy
0
dx
Re
3x 2 6 x 6 0
2
i.e.,x 2x 2 0
2 4 8 2 2i
for
x 1 i which are imaginary.

2 2
Since the values of x are imaginary, there does not exist any
point on the curve at which the function has the extreme
values. Therefore the given function has neither a maximum
t
No
nor a minimum.
3. Express 15/4 as the sum of two numbers such that their
product is maximum.
15
S,
Solution: Let x and x be the numbers. The product

4
15
x x should be maximum.
E
4
UP
15
Let y x x . The condition for y to be maximum is that
4
dy
0.
dx
(c)
le
15
y x x2 Notes
4
/Sa
dy 15 ___________________
2x
dx 4 ___________________
dy 15
0 2x 0 ___________________
dx 4
on
15 15 ___________________
i.e., 2x or x
4 8
___________________
2
cti
d y 15 ___________________
2 which is < 0 for x . Hence y is maximum at
dx 2 8
___________________
15
x .
du
8 ___________________
15 15 ___________________
the other number is x 15 / 4 15 / 8
4 8 ___________________
15 15
8 8
225
64
is a maximum and
15
8
15
8
pro
15
4
.
4. What is the largest size rectangle that can be inscribed in a

Re
semicircle of radius 1 so that two vertices lie on the diameter.
Solution: Let the sides of the rectangle ABCD be
AB CD 2x and AD BC y.
for
Area of the rectangle is A AB AD 2xy A 2xy

t
No
S,
Now the equation of the circle is x 2 y2 1

E
y 1 x2
UP
dy 1 x
2x
dx 2 1 x 2
1 x2
dA dy x
2x 2y 2x 2 1 x2
dx dx 1 x 2
(c)
dA
0
dx
le
Notes x2
2 1 x2 0
2
/Sa
1 x
___________________
x2 1 x2
___________________ i.e., 0
1 x2
___________________ 1 1
i.e.,2x 2 1, x2 i.e., x
on
___________________ 2 2
___________________ 1
2x 2 2
cti
___________________ 2
___________________ 1 1
y 1
2 2
___________________
du
___________________ the largest size rectangle will have the sides equal to
1
___________________ 2 and .
5.
2
pro
Show that the largest rectangle with a given perimeter is a
square.
Re
Solution: Let x and y be the sides of the rectangle.
perimeter 2x 2y k (given) ...(1)
Area of the rectangle A xy ...(2)

for
k 2x
From (1) , y
2
k 2x
A x
t
2
No
dA 1 1
x 2 k 2x k 4x
dx 2 2
dA k
0 k 4x 0 x
dx 4
S,
k
k 2
4 k
E
y
2 4
UP
d2 A 1
4 2 ve
dx 2 2
k
A is maximum at x .
(c)
4
le
k k
Since x and y , the sides are equal and hence the Notes
4 4
/Sa
rectangle is a square. ___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
on
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. In between these two given points, if there is a point
___________________
whose ordinate is maximum, this maximum ordinate is
cti
called a ……………. of the function. ___________________
2. If there is a point whose ordinate is minimum, this ___________________
du
minimum ordinate is called a ……………. of the given ___________________
function.
___________________
___________________
Summary
Conditions for maxima are:
pro
dy
(i) 0
Re
dx
d2 y
(ii) 0
dx 2
for
Conditions for Minima

dy
0
dx
t
d2 y
0
No
dx 2
Lesson End Activity

A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle.
S,
If the perimeter is 30 meters, find the dimensions of the window so

that maximum amount of light may be admitted.
E
Keywords
UP
Increasing Functions: A function y f x is said to be increasing

in an interval a x b if the value of y increases as x increases.
(c)
le
Decreasing Functions: A function y  f (x ) is said to be
Notes
decreasing in an interval a < x < b if the value of y decreases as
/Sa
___________________
x increases.
___________________
Neither increasing nor decreasing functions: A function
___________________
y  f ( x ) is said to be neither increasing nor decreasing if
on
___________________ f ( x1 )  f ( x 2 ) and x 2  x1 .
___________________
Critical Points: A point on a curve y  f ( x ) is said to be a critical
cti
___________________
point if the slope of the curve is 0 or
___________________
Maximum of the Function: If there is a point whose ordinate is
___________________
du
maximum, this maximum ordinate is called a maximum of the
___________________ function.
___________________ Minimum of the Function: If there is a point whose ordinate is
pro
minimum, this minimum ordinate is called a minimum of the
function.

Re
1. Find maxima, minima and point of inflexion, if any, of the
following functions:
for
(i) y = x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 10
(ii) y = 3x5 –x3
(iii) y = x3 – 3x2+5
t
2. Find whether the following functions are increasing or

No
decreasing or neither increasing nor decreasing. Find the

critical points if they exist.
(i) 2x 3 21x 2 36 x 20 at x 0, 1 .
(ii) x 4 8x 3 22x 2
S,
24 x 5 at x 0, 2 .
x2 7x 6
(iii) at x 1,2,0, 1 .
E
x 10
UP
x2 x 1
(iv) at x 0,3 .
x2 x 1
(v) x 3 9x 2 15x 3 at x 1, 2,4 .

(c)
(vi) 4 x 3 15x 2 12x 2 at x 1, 1 .

le
1
(vii) x at x 2,3 . Notes
x
/Sa
2
___________________
(viii) x 1 x 2 at x 1,3 .
___________________
3. Find the maximum and minimum values of the following ___________________
on
functions:
___________________
3 2
(i) x 9x 15x 3
___________________
cti
3 2
(ii) 4 x 15x 12x 2 ___________________
x2 x 1 ___________________
(iii)
x2 x 1
du
___________________
1 ___________________
4. Show that the maximum value of x is less than its
x
___________________
5.
minimum value.
Show that the minimum value of

2x 1 x
pro 8
is greater
x 1 x 4
Re
than its maximum.
1
6. Show that x x is minimum if x .
e
for
2 4
7. Show that the maximum value of y x 1 x 2 is .
27
1
8. Prove that the minimum value of x log x is .
e
t
9. Show that x 3 6x 2 12x 3 is neither maximum nor

No
minimum when x 2 .
10. Show that 4 x 8x log e 2 is minimum when x 1.
11. A cylindrical tin can, closed at both ends, of a given capacity

S,
has to be constructed. Show that the amount of tin required

will be minimum when the height is equal to the diameter.
E
12. prove that the maximum rectangle inscribable in a circle of

UP
radius r, is a square of side r 2 .
13. An open tank of a given volume consists of a square base with

vertical sides. Show that the expense of lining the tank with
lead will be least if the height of the tank is half the width.
(c)
le
Notes
14. Find two numbers x and y such that x y 12 and xy2 is
maximum.
/Sa
___________________
15. Show that the height of the cylinder of greatest volume
___________________
2a
___________________ inscribed in a sphere of radius a is .
3
on
___________________
cti
___________________
Books
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxima_and_minima
Re
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/math/maxmin.html
www.tech.plym.ac.uk/maths/resources/PDFLaTeX/max_min.pdf
www.math.hmc.edu/calculus/tutorials/extrema/
tfor
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 23: Integral Calculus
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
___________________
Integral Calculus Make careful and precise use
of the differential notation dx
and___________________
be careful when
arithmetically and algebraically
___________________
simplifying expressions.
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Basic Rules of Integration ___________________
 Three Methods of Integration, i.e. Integration by Substitution, ___________________
Integration by Parts and Integration by Partial Fractions
du
 Applications of Integration in Business and Economic Problems ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
Integration is considered as the reverse process of differentiation

or inverse of differentiation. While differentiation deals with
pro
instantaneous change, integration deals with total changes.
Re
On differentiating f ( x ) we get f ( x ). We say that no integrating
f ( x ). We get f ( x ). Hence f ( x ) is called the antiderivative of
f ( x ). In terms of notations, we write this integral as
for
f ( x ) dx F (x ) c, where the symbol on LHS is an integral

sign and c is an arbitrary constant, often termed as the constant of
integration.
t
No
Integration: Indefinite Integrals

Integration as the Reverse process of Differentiation
d
Let F ( x ) be a differentiable function of x. Let F ( x ) f ( x ). Then
S,
dx
F ( x ) is called the antiderivative or integral of f ( x ) w.r.t. x. In
symbol, we write it as
E
f ( x ) dx F ( x ).
UP
d
F (x ) f (x ) f ( x )dx F ( x ).
dx
(c)
d
If F (x ) f ( x ), we also have for an arbitrary constant C
dx
le
d d d
Notes [ F (x ) C ] F (x ) (C ) f (x ) 0 f (x )
Activity dx dx dx
/Sa
___________________
Search out to answer, what
does integration measures. For this reason, we write
___________________
___________________
f ( x )dx F ( x ) C.
on
___________________ Where C is an arbitrary constant.
___________________ This is called the indefinite integral of f ( x ) w.r.t x and C is called
cti
___________________ the constant of integration.
___________________ d
[ F (x ) C ] f (x ) f ( x )dx F (x ) C
___________________ dx
du
___________________ Hence integration is the reverse process of differentiation. f ( x ) is
___________________ called integrand.
Examples
pro
d 10
1. x 10x 9 , 10x 9 dx x10 C
dx
Re
d 1 1
2. (log e x ) , dx log e x C etc.
dx x x
for
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Integration is considered as the ……………. process of
differentiation.
t
No
2. ……………. deals with instantaneous change, while

……………. deals with total changes.
Definite Integrals
S,
If the integral of f x is evaluated between two values a and b

b
E
then it is called the definite integral and is denoted by f x dx

a
UP
If f x dx F x C then
b
b
f x dx F x C a
F b F a
(c)
a is called the lower limit and b is called the upper limit.

le
Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus (Statement only,
without Proof) Notes
Activity
/Sa
Statement: Let f x be a function of x defined on an interval ___________________
Analyze different methods of
integration.
a, b . Let a, b be divided into n equal parts of length h units ___________________
each. ___________________
on
Hence nh b a. Then the fundamental theorem of integral ___________________
calculus states that ___________________
cti
b
___________________
f x dx lim f a f a h f a 2h ..... f a n 1 h
h 0
a ___________________
du
b a ___________________
where h
n ___________________
n 1
___________________
lim
4 0
f a rh
Note: In all indefinite integral problems, after the integration is

pro
over, we add an arbitrary constant C called the constant of
Re
integration.
For evaluating the indefinite integrals, we require the following
formulae called standard formulae.
for
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. In all indefinite integral problems, after the integration
t
is over, we add an arbitrary constant C called the

No
…………….
2. By using proper substitutions, we can reduce the given
integrals to ……………. forms and integrate.
S,
List of Standard Formulae for Integrals

E
1. 1dx x C
UP
2. k dx kx C where k is constant.
xn 1
3. x n dx C where n 1.
n 1
(c)
1 1
Particular case: If n dx 2 x C
2 x
le
1
Notes
4. dx log e x C
x
/Sa
___________________
(This is the case of x n dx where n 1)
___________________
___________________ 5. e x dx ex C
on
___________________
ax
6. a x dx C where a 0 and 1.
___________________ log e a
cti
___________________
1
7. dx log x x2 1 C
___________________ 2
x 1
___________________
du
1
8. dx log x x2 a2 C
___________________ x 2
a 2
___________________
1
9.
x 2
1
dx
pro
log x x2 1 C
1 1 1 x
10. dx log C
1 x2 2 1 x
Re
1 1 a x
11. 2 2
dx log C
a x 2a a x
1 1 x 1
for
12. 2
dx log C
x 1 2 x 1
1 1 x a
13. dx log C
x2 a2 2a x a
t
No
Rules for Integration

1. f x g x dx f x dx g x dx
2. kf x dx k f x dx where k is a constant.
S,
3. k1 f x k2 g x dx k1 f x dx k2 g x dx .
E
Methods of Integration
UP
There are several methods of integration. In this section, we study

these methods one by one.
Integration by Using Standard Formulae

(c)
We shall illustrate this in the following examples.

le
Note: No problem on integration can be solved without using one
or the other standard formula. Notes
/Sa
___________________
Worked Examples
___________________
Integrate w.r.t. x:
___________________
on
1
1. 5x 4 8x 3 7x 2 6x 5 2. x2 1 ___________________
x
___________________
1 3x 2 7x 5
cti
3. 4. 3 ___________________
x x
___________________
2 3
1 1
du
5. x 6. x ___________________
x x
___________________
7. ex xe 1 8. (2x 5)2
___________________
Solution:
1. (5x 4 8x 3 7x 2 6x 5) dx
pro
Re
5 x 4 dx 8 x 3dx 7 x 2 dx 6 xdx 5 dx
x4 1 x3 1 x2 1 x1 1
5 8 7 6 5x C
4 1 3 1 2 1 1 1
for
x5 x4 x3 x2
5 8 7 6 5x C
5 4 3 2
x3
x5 2x 4 7 3x 2 5x C
t
3
No
1 1
2. x2 1 dx x 2dx dx 1dx
x x
x2 1 x3
log e x x log e x x C.
S,
2 1 3
1/ 2 1
1 1/ 2 x x 1/ 2
3. dx x dx 2 x C
E
x 1 1
1
2 2
UP
3x 2 7x 5 3x 2 7x 5
4. 3
dx 1/ 3
dx
x x
(c)
3x 2 7x 1/ 3
5x dx
x 1/ 3 x 1/ 3
le
Notes 3 x 5 / 3dx 7 x 2 / 3dx 5 x 1/ 3
dx
/Sa
___________________
x5/3 x 2/3 1 x 1/ 3
1
3 7 5
___________________ 5 2 1
1 1 1
___________________
3 3 3
on
___________________ x5/3 1
7x 5 / 3 5x 2 / 3
3 C
8 5 2
___________________
3 3 3
cti
___________________
9 8/3 21 5 / 3 15 2 / 3
___________________ x x x C
8 5 2
___________________
du
2
1
___________________ 5. x dx
x
___________________
x2
1
x2
pro
2 dx
1
x 2dx dx 2 1dx
x2
Re
x2 1 x 21
2x
2 1 2 1
x3
for
1
2x C
3 x
3
1
6. x dx
x
t
No
1 1 1
x3 3.x. x dx
x3 x x
1 1
x 3dx dx 3 xdx 3 dx
x3 x
S,
x3 1 x 31 x1 1
3 3 log x
3 1 3 1 1 1
E
x4 x 2
x2
3 3 log x
UP
4 2 2
x4 1 3x 2
3 log x C.
4 2x 2 2
(c)
7. (ex xe 1) dx
le
e x dx x e dx 1dx
Notes
/Sa
xe 1 ___________________
ex x C
e 1 ___________________
8. (2x 5)2 dx ___________________
on
___________________
2
(4 x 20x 25)dx
___________________
cti
4 x 2dx 20 xdx 25 1dx ___________________
___________________
x2 1 x1 1
du
4. 20. 25 x ___________________
2 1 1 1
___________________
4x 3 20 x 2
25x ___________________
3
4x 3
2
10 x 2 25x C
pro
3
Re
Method of Substitution
By using proper substitutions, we can reduce the given integrals to
standard forms and integrate.
for
g ( ax b)
1. If f ( x )dx g ( x ) then f ( ax b)dx C, where
a
a 0.
Put ax b t. Differentiating totally both sides, we get

t
dt
No
adx + 0 = dt.,  dx = .
a
1 1 g ( ax b)
f (t )dt g (t ) C.
a a a
S,
Using this method, we get the following integrals:
1 ( ax b)n 1
b)n dx
E
(i) ( ax C , where a 0, and n 1.

a n 1
UP
e( ax b )
(ii) e( ax b )dx C.
a
1 log( ax b)
(iii) dx C
(c)
ax b a
2. Integrals of the form [ f ( x )]n f ( x ) dx , n 1.

le
Put f ( x ) t.
Notes
/Sa
___________________ f ( x )dx dt
___________________ tn 1
[ f ( x )]n f ( x )dx t n dt
___________________ n 1
on
___________________ [ f ( x )]n 1
C
___________________ n 1
cti
___________________ f (x )
3. Integrals of the form dx .
___________________
f (x )
___________________ Put f ( x ) t.
du
___________________ f ( x )dx dt
___________________
f (x )
f (x )
dx pro
dt
t
log t log [ f ( x )] C
This is a very important integral. When the Nr is the

derivative of the Dr, the integral is logarithm of the Dr.
Re
4. Integrals of the form e f ( x ) f ( x )dx . Put f ( x ) t. f ( x )dx dt.
e f ( x ) f ( x )dx et dt et ef (x ) C , etc.
for
Worked Examples
Integrate w.r.t. x:
t
log x
1. 2. (x 2 7x 5) 3 (2x 7)
No
1 2x 5
3. 4.
e x
e x
( x 5x 9)2
2
ex 1 xe 1
S,
x
5. dx 6.
ex xe 1 x2
E
1
7.
x log x
UP
Solution:
log x 1
1. dx , dx dt.
x x
(c)
Put log x t.
le
log x t2 (log x )2
dx t dt C Notes
x 2 2
/Sa
___________________
2. (x 2 7x 5) 3 (2x 7)dx
___________________
Put x 2 7x 5 t ___________________
on
(2x 7)dx dt ___________________
___________________
(x 2 7x 5) 3
(2x 7)dx t 3dt
cti
___________________
t31 t2 1
dx C ___________________
3 1 2 2( x 2 7x 5)2
du
___________________
1 dx e x dx
3. dx dx ___________________
ex e x
x 1 ( e x )2 1
e
ex ___________________
Put e x t.
pro
e x dx It.
Re
e x dx dt
( e x )2 1 t 2
1
t 1 ex 1
log log C
for
t 1 ex 1
2x 5
4. dx .
( x 5x 9)2
2
t
Put x 2 5x 9 t.
No
(2x 5)dx dt.
2x 5 dt
dx t 2dt
( x 5x 9)2
2
t2
S,
t21 t 1
1 1
2
C
2 1 1 t x 5x 9
E
ex 1 xe 1
5. dx
UP
ex xe
Put e x xe t
(ex ex e 1 )dx dt
(c)
e( e x 1
x e 1 )dx dt
le
dt
Notes (ex 1
x e 1 )dx .
e
/Sa
___________________
dt
___________________ GI
et
___________________
1 1
on
log t log( e x xe ) C
___________________ e e
___________________
x
6. dx .
cti
___________________ 1 x2
___________________ dt
Put 1 x 2 t, 2xdx dt , xdx
___________________ 2
du
___________________ x dt 1 1
dx log t C log (1 x 2 ) C
1 x2 2t 2 2
___________________
7.
1
x log x
dx . pro
1
Put log x t, dx dt
Re
x
1 dt
dx log t log(log x ) C
x log x t
for
Integration by Partial Fractions

1 1
Integrals of the form dx and dx.
x2 a2 a2 x2
t
1 1
i. dx , Resolve into partial fractions.
No
2 2 2
x a x a2
1 1 A B
2 2
x a (x a )( x a) x a x a
S,
1 A( x a) B( x a ).
Put x a, 1 A(0) B(0)

E
1
A
2a
UP
Put x a, 1 A( 2a ) B(0)
1
A
(c)
2a
le
1 1 1 1
2 2 Notes
x a 2a x a x a
/Sa
___________________
1 1 1 1
dx dx dx ___________________
x2 a2 2a x a x a
___________________
on
1
[log( x a ) log( x a )] ___________________
2a
___________________
1 x a
cti
log C. ___________________
2a x a
___________________
ii. In the same way, we can get
du
___________________
1 1 a x
dx log C ___________________
a2 x2 2a a x
___________________
Note: These two integrals must be included into the list of the
standard formulae.
pro
1
Integrals of the form 2
dx can be reduced the one of the
ax bx c
Re
1 1 1
integrals 2 2
dx , 2 2
dx , by completing the
x a x a a x2
2
squares.
for
Worked Examples
Integrate w.r.t. x:
1 1
1. 2.
t
x2 9 36 x2
No
1 1
3. 2
4. 2
x 4 x 12 4x 12x 1
1 1
5. 2
6.
1)( x 2 (1 e )(1 e x )
x
S,
(x 4)
1
7.
E
( x 1)2 ( x 2)
Solution:
UP
1 1
1. 2
dx 2
dx
x 9 x 32
(c)
1 x 3 1 x 3
log log C
2(3) x 3 6 x 3
le
1 1
Notes 2. dx dx
36 x2 62 x2
/Sa
___________________
1 6 x
___________________ log C
12 6 x
___________________
1 1
on
___________________ 3. 2
dx 2
dx
x 4 x 12 x 4 x 4 16
___________________
1 1 (x 2 4)
dx log
cti
___________________
(x 2)2 4 2
2(4) (x 2 4)
___________________
1 x 2
___________________ log C
du
8 x 6
___________________
1
___________________ 4. 2
dx
4x 12x 1
4x 2
1
12x
pro
9 10
dx
1
Re
2
dx
(2x 3) ( 10 )2
1 1 2x 3 10
log
2 10 2 2x 3 10
for
1 2x 3 10
log C
4 10 2x 3 10
t
1
5. dx
No
2
(x 1)( x 2 4)
1
dx
( x 1)( x 1)( x 2)( x 2)
1
S,
Let
( x 1)( x 1)( x 2)( x 2)
A B C D
E
( x 1) ( x 1) (x 2) (x 2)
UP
1 A( x 1)( x 2 4) B( x 1)( x 2 4) C ( x 2 1)(x 2)

2
D( x 1)( x 2).
Put x 1, 1 A(0) B(2)(1 4) C(0) D(0)

(c)
1
B
6
le
Put x 1, 1 A( 2)(1 4) B(0) C(0) D(0)
Notes
/Sa
1
A ___________________
6
___________________
Put x 2, 1 A(0) B(0) C (0) D(4 1)(2 2)
___________________
on
1 ___________________
D
12
___________________
Put x 2, 1 A(0) B(0) C(4 1)( 2 2) D(0)
cti
___________________
1 ___________________
C
12
du
___________________
1
dx ___________________
(x 2 1)( x 2 4)
___________________
1 1
6 x 1
dx
1 1
6 x 1
dx
1 1
12 x 2
dx
1 1
12 x 2
dx pro
1 1
[log x 1 log( x 1)] [log(x 2) log(x 2)]
6 12
Re
1 x 1 1 x 2
log log C
6 x 1 12 x 2
1
for
6. dx
(1 e )(1 e x )
x
1 e x dx
dx
1 (1 e x )( e x 1)
(1 e x ) 1
t
ex
No
Put e x t, e x dx dt
e x dx dt dt
(1 e x )( e x 1) (1 t )(t 1) t 2
1
S,
1 t 1
log C
2 t 1
E
1 ex 1
log x C
UP
2 e 1
1
7. dx
( x 1)2 ( x 2)
(c)
1 A B C
Let
( x 1)2 ( x 2) x 1 ( x 1)2 x 2
le
Notes
1 A( x 1)( x 2) B( x 2) C( x 1)2
/Sa
___________________ Put x 1,
___________________ 1 B(1 2)
___________________ 1
B
on
___________________ 3
___________________ Put x 2,
cti
___________________ 1
1 C( 2 1)2 , C
___________________ 9
___________________ Put x 0,
du
___________________
1 A( 1)(2) B(2) C( 1)2
___________________
1 2A
2
2
3
1
pro 1
9
6 1 9
i.e., 2 A 1
3 9 9
Re
2 1
, A
9 9
1
dx
for
( x 1)2 ( x 2)
1 1 1 1 1 1
dx dx dx
9 x 1 3 ( x 1)2 9 x 2
t
1 1 1
log( x 1) log( x 2) C
No
9 3( x 1) 9
Integration by Parts
Whenever we have to integrate the product of two functions we
S,
have to apply this method of integration by parts.
Theorem: u dv uv v du , where u and v are any two

E
functions of x.
UP
d dv du
Proof: We know that (uv) u v . (Product rule)
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

(c)
d dv du
(uv)dx u dx v dx
dx dx dx
le
i.e., uv u dv v du.
Notes
/Sa
u dv uv v du. ___________________
___________________
Hence the result.
___________________
on
This is the formula for integration by parts. We can rewrite this
___________________
formula as:
___________________
du
cti
uv dx u v dx v dx dx ___________________
dx
___________________
i.e., (First function) (second function) dx
du
___________________
(First function) (Second function) dx ___________________
___________________
second function dx
d
dx
(First function) dx pro
Note:
Re
(i) While applying this formula, the first and the second functions
must be chosen properly. The first function is for
differentiation and the second is for integration. We have to
choose the first and the second function in such a way that the
for
integral on the R.H.S. is simpler than the given integral itself.

(ii) Take u = log, inverse, algebraic, trig, exponential functions in
the order of priority (LIATE).
t
(iii) In the case of repeated application of integration by parts

No
formula, we can directly use the following formula:
uv dx uv1 u v2 u v3 u v4 ......
Where '' indicates derivative and suffixes indicate integration.

S,
Worked Examples
E
Integrate w.r.t. x:
1. xe x 2. log x
UP
3. x n log x , (n 1) 4. x 2e x
log x
5. 6. [log x ]2
(c)
x2
le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
___________________ d
1. x e x dx x e x dx e x dx x dx
I II dx
___________________
___________________ xe x e x 1 dx xe x ex C
on
___________________
2. log x dx log x 1dx
I II
___________________
cti
___________________ d
log x 1 dx (1 dx ) (log x ) dx
dx
___________________
___________________ 1
du
(log) x x dx x log x 1 dx
x
___________________
x log x x C
___________________
log x dx pro
x log x x C
which must be included into the list of standard formulae.

Re
3. x n log I x dx (n 1)
xn 1 xn 1 1
log x dx
n 1 n 1 x
for
xn 1 1
log x x n dx
n 1 n 1
xn 1 xn 1
1
log x
t
n 1 n 1n 1
No
xn 1 1
log x C
n 1 n 1
x x
e e
4. x I2 eIIx dx x2 2x dx
S,
1 1
x 2e x
2 xe x dx
E
I II
x x
e e
x 2e x
UP
2 x 1 dx
1 1
x 2e x
2xe x
2 e x dx
(c)
x
a
x 2e x
2xe x
2
1
le
x 2e x
2xe x
2e x
C
Notes
/Sa
log x
5. dx log x . x 2dx ___________________
x2 I II
___________________
x 21 x 21 1
log x dx ___________________
2 1 2 1 x
on
___________________
1 1
x x
log x x 1dx ___________________
1 1
cti
___________________
1 2
log x x dx ___________________
x
du
___________________
1 x 21 1 1
log x log x C ___________________
x 2 1 x x
___________________
6. (log x )2 dx (log x )2 1 dx
I
1
II pro
(log x )2 x x . 2 log x dx
x
Re
x (log x )2 2 log x dx
x (log x )2 2 log x 1 dx
I II
for
1
x (log x )2 2 (log x )x x dx
x
x (log x )2 2 (log x )x 1dx

t
No
x (log x )2 2 x (log x ) x C
Integrals of the Form e x [ f ( x ) f ( x )] dx

S,
Consider e x f ( x ) dx . Integrating by parts, we get

E
e x f ( x ) dx f ( x )e x e x f ( x )dx
II I
UP
e x f ( x )dx e x f ( x )dx ex f ( x )
i.e., ex [ f (x ) f ( x )] dx e x f ( x ) C.
(c)
le
Worked Examples
Notes
Integrate w.r.t. x:
/Sa
___________________
1 x 1
___________________ 1. e x log x 2. ex
x x2
___________________
on
Solution:
___________________
1
___________________ 1. e x log x dx .
x
cti
___________________
1
___________________ Put log x f (x ) f (x )
x
___________________
du
1
___________________ e x log x dx ex [ f ( x ) f ( x )] dx
x
___________________
2.
ex f (x )
ex
x 1
dx
e x log x
pro ex
C
1 1
dx
x2 x x2
Re
1 1
Put f (x ) f (x )
x x2
1
G. I . ex [ f (x ) f ( x )] dx e f (x ) ex C
x
for
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
t
1. Whenever we have to integrate the product of two

No
functions we have to apply method of …………….

2. It is advisable to take u = log, inverse, algebraic, trig,
exponential functions in the order of priority
symbolized as …………….
S,
Summary
E
a dx ax c (where a and c are constants)

UP
xn 1
x ndx c
n 1
a f ( x ) dx a f ( x ) dx
(c)
le
Integration by substitution method is used when basic rules of
Notes
integration are not directly applicable.
/Sa
___________________
According to integration by parts, the integral of the product of two
functions = First function × Integral of second – Integral of ___________________
[Differential coefficient of first × integral of second] ___________________
on
___________________
Lesson End Activity ___________________
cti
dx ___________________
Integrate .
x4 1
___________________
du
___________________
Keywords
___________________
Integration: Integration is the reverse process of differentiation.
___________________
Constant of Integration: If f(x)dx = F(x)+C. Where C is an
arbitrary constant. This is called the indefinite integral of f (x)
pro
w.r.t x and C is called the constant of Integration.
Re
Integrand: As integration is the reverse process of differentiation
so f(x) is called integrand.

for
1. Evaluate the following integrals:
(i) (x a x b ) dx
t
(ii) e5 x dx
No
(iii) (2e 2 x 2x ) dx
2. Integrate the following w.r.t. x

S,
(i) ax 2 bx c (ii) 2x 3 5x 2 3x 7
3
x3 3x 2 1
E
(iii) (iv) x
x x
UP
1
(v) e x xe 2e e (vi) x 2
x
3
1 1
(c)
(vii) x 2 (viii) x
x x
le
2
Notes 1 x2 5x 8
(ix) x (x)
x x
/Sa
___________________
___________________
3. Integrate the following w.r.t. x:
___________________ 1 1
(i) x
(ii) x
e 1 1 e
on
___________________
log x 1
___________________ (iii) (2x 2 3x 1)3 .(4 x 3) (iv)
x
cti
___________________
ex 1
___________________ (v) x 2
(vi)
(e 1) x (3 log x 2)
___________________
du
2x 7 x 3
___________________
(vii) 2
(viii)
x 7x 3 x 2
6x 5
___________________
4.
(ix) (2x 2 6x pro
3) 3 (2x 3)
Evaluate the following integrals by the method of integration

(x)
x
x
2
1
by substitution:
Re
(i) (x 4 1)5 x 5 dx
ex  ex
(ii)  dx
ex  ex
for
2
(iii)  e ax bx  c
(2a  b) dx
5. Evaluate the following integrals by using the method of

integration by parts:
t
No
1
(i) ( 2x log x 7) dx
x
(ii) 4x log (x 2 ) dx
(iii) x 4 .e x
dx
S,
6. Integrate w.r.t. x:
E
x 6x 2 11x 6
(i) (ii)
(3 x )(3 2x ) ( x 1)( x 2)( x 3)
UP
x 1 1
(iii) 2
(iv) 2
3x 5x 2 8x 8x 1
x 1
(c)
(v) (vi)
x 2 12x 35 x 2 16
le
1 1
(vii) 2
(viii)
x 3 49 x2 Notes
/Sa
1 1 ___________________
(ix) (x)
5 2x 2 x (log x 1)(2 log x 1) ___________________
7. Integrate w.r.t. x: ___________________
on
(i) x 2 log x (ii) (1 x )e x ___________________
___________________
(iii) ( x 2 1)e x
(iv) x 3 log x
cti
___________________
x
xe
(v) x 2 e x (vi) ___________________
(1 x )2
du
___________________
log (log x )
(vii) x 2 e7x (viii) ___________________
x
___________________
(ix) x 2 e ax
(xi) x log (1 x )
(x) x (log x )2 pro
8. Integrate w.r.t. x:
Re
1 x log x xe x
(i) ex (ii)
x (1 x )2
for
Further Readings
Books
t
No

S,
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral
E
www.cliffsnotes.com/.../Integration-Techniques.topicArticleId-
39909,articleId-39901.html -
UP
www.elainetron.com/apcalc/topic4.htm
library.thinkquest.org/3616/Calc/S3/S3.htm
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)
UNIT 24: Definite Integrals
le
Notes
Activity
/Sa
Find___________________
the difference between
Definite Integrals indefinite and definite
___________________
integrals.
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
cti
 Theory of Definite Integrals ___________________
 Definite Integrals using Substitution ___________________
 Definite Integrals using by Parts
du
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
In this unit, we will discuss theory of definite integrals. Further we
will discuss definite integrals using substitution. We will also focus
pro
on definite integrals using by parts. We will consider many worked
out examples to make the concept more clearer.
Re
Theory of Definite Integrals

Suppose f ( x ) is a function of x defined and continuous on a closed
for
interval [ a, b] (i.e., a x b). Now, if f ( x )dx F ( x ) C , then the

“definite integral of f (x ) from a to b” is defined by
b b
t
f ( x )dx [ F ( x ) c ] which denotes the difference between the

No
a
a
values of F ( x ) c at x b and x a and hence given by

b
f ( x )dx [ F (b) c ] [ F ( a ) c ]
a
S,
i.e., f ( x )dx F (b) F (a)

E
Since the value of a definite integral is a fixed number independent

UP
of the arbitrary constant of integration, it is called a “definite”

integral.
(c)
le
Note:
Notes
/Sa
___________________
1. The end points of the interval [a, b], namely a and b, are called
respectively the lower limit and upper limit of the definite
___________________
integral.
___________________
2. To evaluate the definite integral of f(x) between the limits a
on
___________________ and b:
___________________
(i) The indefinite integral f ( x ) dx is determined as a
cti
___________________
function of x;
___________________
(ii) The values of the indefinite integral at x a and x b are
___________________
du
evaluated; and then
___________________
(iii) The difference between the values at x b and x a gives
___________________ b
3.
pro
the value of definite integral
a
Generally, while evaluating definite integrals, we drop out the

f ( x ) dx .
constant C from the beginning itself.

Re
Worked Examples
1 2
1. (x3 3x 2 x 5) dx 2. (3x 1)2 dx

for
0 1
3 2
1 1
3. x dx 4. dx
2 x 1
x
t
1 1
1 x
(ex e x ) dx
No
5. 6. dx
0 0
1 x
Solution:
1 1
3 2 x4 3x 3 x2
S,
1. (x 3x x 5) dx 5x
0
4 3 2 0
1 1 21
E
1 5 (0)
4 2 4
UP
2 2
2 (3x 1)3
2. (3x 1) dx
1
3(3) 1
(6 1)3 (3 1)3
(c)
9 9
le
125 8 117
13 Notes
9 9
/Sa
___________________
3 1/ 2 1 1/ 2 1
1 x x ___________________
3. x dx
x 1 1
2
1 1 ___________________
2 2
on
___________________
3
2 3/2 ___________________
x 2 x
3
cti
2
___________________
2 3/2 2 3/2
(3 ) 2 3 (2 ) 2 2 ___________________
3 3
du
___________________
4 2 10 2 ___________________
[2 3 2 3] 2 2 4 3
3 3
___________________
4.
2
1
1
x
dx
pro
[log x ]12
Re
log 2 log1
log 2 0 log 2.
for
5. (ex e x ) dx
0
[ex e x ]10
t
( e1 e 1 ) ( e0 e0 )
No
1
e (1 1)
e
1
e
e
S,
1
1 x
6. dx
E
0
1 x
1
2 1 x
UP
dx
0
1 x
1
2 1 x
dx
1 x 1 x
(c)
0
le
1 1
Notes
1
Activity
2 dx 1 dx
1 x
/Sa
0 0
___________________
Discuss in group, the limit
splitting criteria
___________________
while 2[ log(1 x )]01 [ x ]01
evaluating definite integrals.
___________________ 2[log(1 1) log(1 0)] [ 1 0]
on
___________________ 2 log 2 1.
___________________
Check Your Progress
cti
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
___________________
1. Since the value of a definite integral is a fixed number
du
independent of the arbitrary constant of integration, it
___________________
is called a ……………. integral.
___________________
2.
pro
The end points of the interval [a, b], namely a and b,
are called respectively the …………. limit and ………….
limit of the definite integral.
Re
Definite Integrals by the Substitution Incorporating
Change of Limits
By using proper substitutions and changing the limits
for
corresponding to the substitutions, we can evaluate the definite

integrals. We illustrate this method in the following examples.
Worked Examples
t
Evaluate the following:

No
1 3
x ex
1. dx 2. dx
0
1 x2 2
ex 1
2 3
1
3. ( x 1) x2 2x 3 dx 4. dx
S,
0 2
x log x
3 1 4
log x 1
E
2
5. dx 6. (x 5
x 1) (2x 1) dx
2
x 0
UP
5 2
1 1
7. dx 8. dx
3
x log x 0
1 ex
1 3
3x
(c)
3 2 2
9. x x 1 (3x 2x ) dx 10. 2
dx
0 2
x 1
le
Solution:
Notes
/Sa
1
x
1. dx ___________________
0
1 x2
___________________
2
Put 1 x t when x 0, t 1
___________________
on
2xdx dt when x 1, t 2
___________________
dt ___________________
xdx
2
cti
___________________
2
dt
G. I . ___________________
1
2t
du
___________________
1
[log t ]12 ___________________
2
___________________
1
2
(log 2 log1) pro
1
log 2.
2
Re
3
ex
2. dx
2
ex 1
Put e x e2 1
for
1 t when x 2, t
e x dx dt when x 3, t e3 1
e3 1
dt
G. I .
t
e2
t
No
3
[log]ee2 1
1
log( e3 1) log(e 2 1)
S,
e3 1
log
e2 1
E
3. ( x 1) x2 2x 3 dx
UP
Put x 2 2x 3 t
(2x 2)dx dt
(c)
dt
i.e., 2( x 1)dx dt ( x 1)dx
2
le
when x 0, t 3,
Notes
/Sa
___________________ when x 2, t 11
___________________ 11
dt
G. I . t.
___________________ 3
2
on
11
___________________ 1 2 32
. t
___________________ 2 3 3
cti
___________________ 3 3
1
11 2 32
___________________ 3
___________________
du
3
1
___________________
4. dx
2
x log x
___________________
Put log x
1
dx dt
t
prowhen x
when x
2, t
3, t
log 2
log 3
x
Re
log 3
1
G. I . dt
log 2
t
[log t ]log 3
log 2
for
log (log 3) log (log 2)
log 3
log
log 2
t
No
3
log x 1
5. dx
2
x
Put log x 1 t when x 2, t log 2 1

S,
1
dx dt when x 3, t log 3 1
x
E
log 3 1
G. I . t dt
log 2 1
UP
log 3 1
t2
2 log 2 1
(c)
1
(log 3 1)2 (log 2 1)2 .
2
le
1 4
6. (x 2 x 1) 5 (2x 1) dx Notes
/Sa
0
___________________
Put x 2 x 1 t when x 0, t 1
___________________
(2x 1)dx dt when x 1, t 3 ___________________
on
3 4
5 ___________________
G. I . t dt
1
___________________
cti
3
4 ___________________
1
5
t
___________________
4
1
du
5 1
___________________
3 ___________________
5 95 5 95
t 3 1 ___________________
7.
5
1
dx
9 1
9
pro
3
x log x
Re
Put log x t when x 3, t log 3
1
dx dt when x 5, t log 5
x
for
log 5
dt
G. I . [log t ]log 5
log 3
log 3
t
log 5
log (log 5) log(log 3) log
t
log 3
No
2
1
8. dx
0
1 ex
2
1
dx
S,
1
0 1
e x
E
2 x
e
x
dx
e 1
UP
x
Put e 1 t
e x dx dt when x 0, t 2
(c)
e x dx dt when x 2, t e 2
1
le
2
e 1
Notes dt
Activity G. I .
t
/Sa
2
___________________
Prepare a report on the
application areas (any 2), 2
___________________
where differentiation and [log t ]2e 1
[log (e 2
1) log 2].
integrations are used.
___________________ 1
x3 x 2 1 (3x 2
on
9. 2x ) dx
___________________ 0
___________________ Put x 3 x2 1 t when x 0, t 1
cti
___________________
(3x 2 2x ) dx dt when x 1, t 1
___________________
1
___________________ G. I . tdt 0 ( the upper and lower limits are equal)
du
1
___________________
3
3x
___________________ 10. dx
2
x 2
Put x 2 1 t
1
pro
2xdx dt when x 2, t 3
Re
dt
xdx when x 3, t 8
2
8
3dt
G. I .
for
3
2t
3 3 3 8
[log t ]38 [log 8 log 3] log
2 2 2 3
t
No
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. By using proper …………. and changing the …………….
corresponding to the substitutions, we can evaluate the
S,
definite integrals.
b
2. 1 dx b a. Here, a and b are …………….
E
a
UP
Definite Integrals using Integration by Parts

We illustrate here some examples of definite integrals where
integration by parts will have to be used to evaluate them.
(c)
le
Worked Examples
Notes
Evaluate the following:
/Sa
___________________
1 1
x x
1. xe dx 2. xe dx ___________________
0 0
___________________
on
e 2
3. log x dx 4. x log x dx ___________________

1 1
1 3 ___________________
cti
2 x 2
5. x e dx 6. (1 x ) log x dx ___________________
0 2
___________________
Solution:
du
___________________
1
x
1 xe dx ___________________
0
___________________
xe x x
e 1 dx
1
1
0
pro
xe x ex (e e ) (0 1) 1
0
Re
1
2. xe x dx
0
1
1
x( e x ) e x .dx
for
0
0
x x 1 1 2
xe e ( e e 1 ) (0 1) 1
0 e
t
3.
No
log x dx
1
log x . 1 dx
1
S,
e
1
[log x . x ]1e x. dx
1
x
E
( e log e log1) 1dx

UP
e log e log1 [ x ]1e
e(1) 0 [ e 1]
(c)
e e 1 1
le
2
Notes 4. x log x dx
/Sa
1
___________________
2
___________________ x2 x2 1
(log x ) . dx
___________________
2 2 x 1
on
___________________ 2
x2 1
log x x dx
___________________ 2 2 1
cti
2
___________________ x2 1 x2
log x
___________________ 2 2 2 1
___________________
du
4 4 1 1
log 2 log1
___________________ 2 2 2 4
___________________
1 1
2 log 2 1
2
1
pro
log1
4
1
2 log 2 1 (0)
2 4
Re
3
2 log 2 .
4
1
5. x 2 e x dx
for
1
x 2ex e x .2x dx
0
1
t
x 2ex 2( xe x e x .1 dx
No
1
x 2ex 2xe x 2e x
0
(1)e1 2(1)e1 2e1 0 0 2e 0

S,
e 2e 2e 2 e 2
3
E
6. (1 x 2 ) log x dx
2
UP
3
x3 x3 1
(log x ) x x dx
3 3 x 2
(c)
3
x3 x2
x log x 1 dx
3 3 2
le
3
x3 x3 Notes
x log x 1
/Sa
3 9 2
___________________
8 8 ___________________
[(3 9) log 3 (3 3)] 2 log 2 2
3 9 ___________________
on
14 28 ___________________
12 log 3 log 2 .
3 9
___________________
cti
Check Your Progress ___________________
du
1. The term ……………. may also refer to the notion of the ___________________
antiderivative. ___________________
2. Integration by substitution method is used when ___________________

……………… rules of integration are not ………………
applicable.
pro
Re
Summary
The end points of the interval [a, b], namely a and b, are called
respectively the lower limit and upper limit of the definite integral.
To evaluate the definite integral of f(x) between the limits a and b:
for
(i) The indefinite integral is determined as a function of x

(ii) The values of the indefinite integral at x = a and x = b are
evaluated; and then
t
No
(iii) The difference between the values at x = b and x = a gives the

value of given definite integral.
Generally, while evaluating definite integrals, we drop out the
constant C from the beginning itself. It has been tried to develop the
S,
definite integral as a means to calculate the area of certain regions

in the plane. Given two real numbers a < b and a function f(x)
defined on the interval [a, b], define the region R(f, a, b) to be the set
E
of points (x, y) in the plane and with y between 0 and f(x). Note that
UP
this region may lie above the x-axis, or below, or both, depending on
whether f(x) is positive or negative. In computing the area of
R(f, a, b), it will be convenient to count the regions above the x-axis
as having "positive area", and those below as having "negative area".
(c)
We can split up the interval [a, b] into n smaller intervals.

le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
Source: http://www.sparknotes.com/math/calcbc1/definiteintegral/section1.rhtml
cti
___________________
___________________ Lesson End Activity

___________________
du
2
2
___________________
Evaluate x log n dn
1
___________________
Keywords pro
Definite Integral: If the integral of f(x) is evaluated between two
values a and b then it is called the definite integral.
Re
Integration by Parts: Whenever we have to integrate the product
of two functions we have to apply this method of integration by
parts.
for
LIATE: This is the order of priority for selecting the functions

when different functions are associatively given for integration.
Methods of Integration: The methods used to integrate the given
function are called methods of integration. There are different
t
methods of integration like integration by substitution, integration

No
by parts etc.

S,
1. Mention the properties of definite integral.

2. Evaluate the following
E
3 1
1
(i) x 2 dx (ii) x2 dx
UP
2 1
x2
9 4
5x 2 3x 5 1
(iii) dx (iv) x 2 dx
4 x 1
x
(c)
le
1
3 2 2
1 1 Notes
(v) x dx (vi) dx
/Sa
1
x 0
1 x ___________________
1 1
1 x ___________________
(vii) e 2 x dx (viii) dx
0 0
1 x ___________________
on
5
1
3
dx ___________________
(ix) dx (x)
0
1 x 2
x2 4x 5 ___________________
cti
2/3 1 ___________________
dx 3x
(xi) (xii) e dx
0
4 9x 1
___________________
du
4
dx ___________________
(xiii)
2
2 x 4x 8 ___________________
3. Evaluate the following: ___________________
(i)
1
0
2
2x 3
x 3x 1
dx (ii)
8
4
x
x 2 15
pro
dx
Re
2 2
1 log x
(iii) x
dx (iv) dx
1
1 e 1
x
1 3
1 ex
(v) dx (vi) dx
1 ex ex 1
for
0 1
1
x2
(vii) xe dx (viii) (x 2 2x 3)2 ( x 1) dx
0 0
t
4. Evaluate the following:

No
1 e
log x
(i) x 2 e x dx (ii) dx
0 1
x2
1 1
xe x
(iii) dx (iv) log(1 x 2 )dx
S,
0
[1 x ]2 0
2 1
x 2 e x dx
E
(v) x log xdx (vi)

1 0
UP
Further Readings
Books
(c)

le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________ Web Readings

___________________ archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/4/definite.1/-
on
___________________ en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral
___________________
www.sosmath.com/calculus/integ/integ02/integ02.html -
cti
___________________
www.tech.plym.ac.uk/maths/resources/PDFLaTeX/def_integrals.pdf
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
tfor
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
Case Studies ___________________
___________________
on
Objectives
___________________
cti
___________________
Case Study 1: Geometric Sequence and Common Ratio
___________________
Alberta’s crude oil reserves are diminishing by 10% each year.
du
Knowing that 100000 Ml were the initial reserves, show that the ___________________
crude oil reserves describe a decreasing geometric sequence and
___________________
find the common ratio for it.
___________________
Questions:
1. Which volume will remain four years later?
2. Plot a graph of the sequence for a period of 20 years.
pro
Source: http://www.hec.ca/en/cam/help/topics/geometric_sequences_and_series.pdf
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Case Study 2: Least Amount of Time
Notes
You are standing at the edge of a slow-moving river which is one
/Sa
___________________ mile wide and wish to return to your campground on the opposite
side of the river. You can swim at 2 mph and walk at 3 mph. You
___________________
must first swim across the river to any point on the opposite
___________________ bank. From there walk to the campground, which is one mile from
the point directly across the river from where you start your
on
___________________ swim.
___________________ Question:
What route will take the least amount of time?
cti
___________________
Source: http://www.math.ucdavis.edu/~kouba/CalcOneDIRECTORY/maxmindirectory/Max
___________________ Min.html
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
Glossary
le
Glossary Notes
/Sa
___________________
Amount: The sum of the principal and the interest is called the amount. ___________________
Annuity: A fix sum paid at a regular interval under certain stated ___________________
on
conditions.
___________________
p
Antecedent: If is a ratio then p is called the antecedent. ___________________
q
cti
___________________
Arithmetic Progression: A sequence of numbers in which each term
after the first term is obtained by adding a constant quantity to its ___________________
previous term.
du
___________________
At Discount: If the market of a share is less than the face value, it is said ___________________
to be sold at discount (or below par value).
___________________
pro
At Premium: If the market value of a share is more than the face value,
it is said to be sold at premium (or above par value).
Cash Value: Cash value of the investment is the market price at which
can be sold or purchased in a stock market.
Re
Circular Permutations: Instead of arranging the things along a line,
we arrange the things along a circle, which is called circular permutation.
Cofactor: A cofactor of an element aij, denoted by Cij, is its minor with

for
appropriate sign.
Column Matrix: A matrix having only one column.
Combination: The number of ways of selecting ‘r’ things out of ‘n’ things
is called the number of combinations of ‘n’ things taken r at a time.
t
No
n n!
Combination Notation: p(n, r ) n cr  ncr   
r
  r !( n  r )!
Common Difference: Difference between two successive terms in an

A.P.
S,
Common Ratio: The constant multipying factor (quantity).
Composite Functions: If a function is made up of more than one

E
function then it is called a composite function.

UP
Composite Number: An integer which is not a prime number is called a

composite number.
p
Consequent: If is a ratio then q is called the consequent.
q
(c)
Constant: A quantity whose value remains the same.

le
Constant of Integration: If f(x)dx = F(x)+C. Where C is an arbitrary
Notes
constant. This is called the indefinite integral of f (x) w.r.t. x and C is
/Sa
___________________ called the constant of Integration.
___________________ Critical Points: A point on a curve y f x is said to be a critical point if
___________________ the slope of the curve is 0 or
on
___________________ Decreasing Functions: A function y = f(x) is said to be decreasing in an
interval a < x < b if the value of y decreases as x increases.
___________________
Definite Integral: If the integral of f(x) is evaluated between two values
cti
___________________
a and b then it is called the definite integral.
___________________
Determinant: A numeric value that indicate singularity or non-
___________________
du
singularity of a square matrix.
___________________ Direct Variation: If two terms A and B are such that A=KB where K is
___________________ a constant not equal to 0, then A is said to vary as B or we say that A
pro
varies as B or A is proportional to B. This is called direct variation.
Dividend: The profit earned by the Company is distributed to the

shareholders. The portion of the profit for each share is called the
Dividend.
Re
Equation: A statement that two expressions (connected by the sign=) are
equal.
Explicit Functions: If a function is in the form y = f(x), then the function

is said to be in the explicit form.
for
Face Value: This is the price of each share as issued by the company.
This share value will be printed on the share certificate.
Factorisation: If a number can be expressed as the product of two or

t
more numbers, the process is called factorisation.

No
Factors: During the process of factorisation the split pints of a nos. are
called factors. For example 1, 2, 3 are the factors of 6.
Function: A function ‘f’ from a set x to set y is a subset of x.y, denoted as

{(x, y)}, such that corresponding to each value of x, we can associate one
S,
and only one value of y. In such a situation, y is said to be a function of x

and is denoted as y = f (x).
E
Geometric Progression: A sequence of numbers in which each term

after the first term is obtained by multiplying its previous term by a
UP
constant quantity.
Implicit Functions: If the variables x and y are related by means of an

equation, then the function is said to be in the implicit form.
(c)
Increasing Functions: A function y f x is said to be increasing in an

interval a x b if the value of y increases as x increases.
Glossary
le
Indirect Variation: If two terms A and B are such that A=K/B where K
is a constant not equal to 0, then A is said to vary as B or we say that A Notes
/Sa
varies inversely as B or A is inversely proportional to B. This is called ___________________
indirect variation.
___________________
Integrand: As integration is the reverse process of differentiation so f(x)
___________________
is called integrand.
on
___________________
Integration: Integration is the reverse process of differentiation.
___________________
Integration by Parts: Whenever we have to integrate the product of two
cti
functions we have to apply this method of integration by parts. ___________________
Irrational function: A function which is expressed as a root of a ___________________

polynomial.
du
___________________
Joint Variation: If three terms A, B, C are such that A is directly
___________________
proportional to the product of B and C then it is called joint variation.
___________________
pro
LIATE: This is the order of priority for selecting the functions when
different functions are associatively given for integration.
Linear Equation: A Linear expression equated to zero is called a linear

equation.
Re
Logarithmic Differentiation: To differentiate a function of the form
af(x) we use a method called logarithmic differentiation.
Market Value: This is the price at which the shares are sold or
for
purchased in a stock market.
Matrix: An array of numbers arranged in certain numbers of rows and

columns.
Maximum of the Function: If there is a point whose ordinate is

t
maximum, this maximum ordinate is called a maximum of the function.

No
Mean Proportion: If a:b=b:c, then b is called mean proportional.
Methods of Integration: The methods used to integrate the given

function are called methods of integration. There are different methods of
integration like integration by substitution, integration by parts etc.
S,
Minimum of the Function: If there is a point whose ordinate is

minimum, this minimum ordinate is called a minimum of the function.
E
Minor: A minor of an element aij denoted by Mij, is a sub-determinant of

UP
obtained by deleting its ith row and jth column.
Natural Numbers: Numbers denoted by 1,2,3,.........are known as

natural numbers.
(c)
Neither increasing nor decreasing functions: A function y f x is

said to be neither increasing nor decreasing if f(x1)=f(x2) and x2>x1.
le
Par Value: If the market value of a share is equal to the face value of a
Notes
share, it is called the par value.
/Sa
___________________
Parametric Function: If the variable x and y are given in terms of a
___________________ new variable t, then the function is said to be in the parametric form and
___________________
‘t’ is called the parameter.
on
___________________
Permutation: A permutation is an arrangement of a given number of
objects in a definite order.
___________________
n!
Permutation Notation: p(n, r ) n pr  npr 
cti
___________________ (n  r )!
___________________
Perpetuity: Annuity which is forever, i.e., for an infinite period.
___________________
du
Polynomial Function: A function of the form
___________________
y  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ..............  an x n
___________________
pro
Prime Number: In integer p>1 is said to be a prime number if the only
positive divisors of p are 1 and itself.
Principal: The amount borrowed is called the principal.
Proportion: It is a comparison of two ratios.

Re
Quadratic Equation: An equation of the form ax 2  bx  c  0 , where a
0, b, c are constant, is called a quadratic equation.
Rank: A non-negative integral value that represents the minimum

for
number of non-dependent rows or columns in a matrix.
Ratio: Any two quantities of the same kind compared by dividing one by
the other are said to be in a ratio.
t
Rational Function: The ratio of two polynomial functions.

No
p
Rational Number: A number of form where p and q are integers,
q
q  0 and p and q have no other common factors except 1, is called a
rational number.
S,
Real Numbers: The set of all rational numbers and irrational numbers
is called the set of real numbers.
E
Rectangular Matrix: A matrix consisting of m rows and n columns,

where m n.
UP
Root: A value of the variable which satisfies the given equation is called a
solution or root.
Row Matrix: A matrix having only one row.

(c)
Shares: The required share capital is divided into a number of equal

parts having the same face value. Each part so divided is called a share.
Glossary
le
Singular Matrix: A matrix whose determinant is zero.
Notes
Square Matrix: If the number of rows of a matrix is equal to its number
/Sa
of columns, the matrix is said to be a square matrix. ___________________
Stock: It is the aggregate of fully paid up shares of a company, ___________________
consolidated for the purpose of facilitating its division into fraction of any ___________________
on
denomination.
___________________
Stock Exchange: Stock Exchange is a voluntary organisation which
___________________
functions as a market place where all securities like shares and stocks
cti
can be purchased or sold under specified rules and regulations of the Act. ___________________
Stock value: Stock value of the investment is the original face value of ___________________
the shares.
du
___________________
Successive Differentiation: The process of finding higher ordered
___________________
derivatives is called successive differentiation.
___________________
pro
Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if aij= aji
for all values of i and j.
Variable: A quantity whose value changes.

Re
Yield: The ratio of actual interest or dividend received to the actual
amount invested in the stock or share.
t for
No
E S,
UP
(c)
le
Notes
/Sa
___________________
___________________
___________________
on
___________________
___________________
cti
___________________
___________________
___________________
du
___________________
___________________
pro
Re
for
t
No
E S,
UP
(c)

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(c) UNIT 20: Case Study

SLM Development Team

Mr Kapil Mehra Mr A N Sinha

Course Code: BBCQ-121D

Course Name: Business Mathematics

Version: July 2013

© MPower Applied Learning Enterprise

Unit 1 Number System ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 3

Unit 11 Permutations ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 153

Unit 12 Combinations ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 167

Unit 16 Shares and Stock ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 205

Unit 17 Interest and Annuities................................ ................................ .............................. 219

Unit 20 Case Studies................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 283

Unit 22 Applications of Derivatives................................ ................................ ....................... 303

Unit 23 Integral Calculus ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 319

Unit 25 Case Studies................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 355

There are infinity of natural numbers and hence N is an infinite

understand them so that the foundation for higher studies in

mathematics will be strong.

Properties of Natural Numbers

1. Closure law:  a, b  N , a  b  N and a  b  N .

___________________  W  {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,..............} .....(2)

 I or Z  {........  4,  3,  2,  1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4......} ...(3)

1, 3, 5, ........ are called odd integers and 2, 4, 6, .......... are called

satisfying the equation 2x  3  0.

Definition: A number of the form where p and q are integers,

a rational number. The set of all rational numbers is denoted by Q.

Note: All integers are also rational numbers.

A number which can be expressed either as a terminating decimal ___________________

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1. The set of all positive integers, negative integers

together with 0 is called the set of all .....................

The set of all rational numbers and irrational numbers is called

 R  {the set of rationals and irrationals} ...(5)

R is the biggest real set.

Properties of Real Numbers

Let R be the set of all real numbers.

___________________ a b ba and

0 is called the additive identity and 1 is called the

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is called the set of ...................... numbers and is denoted

2. The multiplicative inverse of a is ......................

Imaginary Numbers (or Complex Numbers)

x 2  4  0. The numbers which satisfy such equations are called

The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C. ___________________

C  { a  ib : a, b  R and i  1 is the imaginary unit}

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Fill in the blanks:

2. An imaginary number (a complex number) is

E.g: (i) 890

Here 2, 5, 89 are all prime numbers with powers 1.

2, 3, 5, 7 are all prime numbers with powers 2, 3, 2, 1 respectively.

1. What is a natural number? (or a positive integer)

2. What is a whole number? ___________________

Solution: A number of the form

integers, q  0 and p, q do not have any other common factors

decimal or as a non-terminating recurring (or periodic) decimal

6. What is an irrational number?

Solution: A number which is not a rational number, is called

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