Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. Though it looks simple, heat transfer
is a quite complex phenomenon. There are three basic modes of heat transfer.

Conduction

Conduction takes place at a microscopic level. Atoms or molecules at higher temperature have
high levels of energy. Through vibration, this energy is passed on to neighboring atoms and
molecules. In other words, in conductive mode of heat transfer, vibrating atoms and molecules a
part of their energy.

This kind of heat transfer can take place between two or more substances or through the
substance. Conduction can also take place when electrons move from one atom to another.
Transient conduction takes place when temperature within an object changes at the function of
time.

Convection

Convection is a mode of heat transfer which takes place through the movement of collective
masses of heated atoms and molecules. Convection requires actual flow of material particles
whereas in conduction, the heat is transferred through vibration without the atoms or molecules
leaving their original position. In convection, heat transfer takes place through both diffusion and
advection.

As convection requires the actual movement of the heated atoms/ molecules, it requires
presence of a fluid for heat transfer.
Radiation

Radiation is a mode of heat transfer which takes place through vacuum and hence, does not
need a physical medium. Radiation takes place either through vacuum or through a transparent
medium. In radioactive mode, heat transfer takes place through photons present in the
electromagnetic waves. The random movement of atoms and molecules in heated substances
results in emission of electromagnetic waves which carry the heat to be transferred.

The radioactive heat transfer is governed by Stephen-Boltzmann law. A body radiates heat at all
temperatures above the absolute zero, irrespective of the ambient temperature.

What is the relationship of Heat Transfer to Thermodynamics?

Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no indication about how long the
process will take. A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat must be transferred
to realize a specified change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy principle.

In practice, we are concerned with the rate of heat transfer (heat transfer per unit time) than we
are with the amount of heat transfer. For example, we can determine the amount of heat
transferred from a thermos flask as the hot milk inside cools from 95oC to 85oC by a
thermodynamic analysis alone. But, a designer of the thermos flask is primarily interested in
how long it will be before the hot milk inside cools to 85oC, and a thermodynamic analysis
cannot answer this question. Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and thus
the time of cooling or heating, as well as the variation of temperature, is the subject of heat
transfer.

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equilibrium state to
another. Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and
thus it is a non-equilibrium phenomenon. Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be based
on the principles of thermodynamics alone. However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the
framework for the science of heat transfer. The first law requires that the rate of energy transfer
into a system be equal to the rate of increase of the energy of that system. The second law
requires that heat be transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. It is analogous to
the electric current flowing in the direction of decreasing voltage or the fluid flowing in the
direction of decreasing pressure.

PHYSICAL ORIGINS AND RATE EQUATIONS:

It is important to understand the physical mechanisms which underlie the heat transfer modes
and that we are able to use the rate equations that quantify the amount of energy being
transferred per unit time.

Conduction:

Conduction can be imagined as a atomic or molecular activity which involves the transfer of
energy from the more energetic to the less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions
between the particles.

Explanation:

The physical mechanism of conduction is explained as follows:

Consider a gas in which there exists a temperature gradient and assume that there is no bulk
motion. The gas may occupy the space between two surfaces that are maintained at different
temperatures, as shown in Figure 1.2. The temperature at any point is associated with the
energy of gas molecules in proximity to the point. This energy is related to the random
translational motion, as well as to the internal rotational and vibrational motions, of the
molecules.

Higher temperatures are associated with higher molecular energies, and when neighboring
molecules collide, as they are constantly doing, a transfer of energy from the more energetic to
the less energetic molecules must occur. In the presence of the temperature gradient, energy
transfer by conduction must then occur in the direction of decreasing temperature. This transfer
is evident in the Figure 1.2. The hypothetical plane at xo is constantly being crossed by
molecules from above and below due to their random motion. However, molecules from above
are associated with a larger temperature than those from below, in which case there must be a
net transfer of energy in the positive x- direction. Hence, the net transfer of energy by random
molecular motion may be thought of as diffusion of energy.

It is possible to quantify heat transfer processes in terms of appropriate rate equations. These
equations may be used to compute the amount of energy being transferred per unit time. The
rate equation for heat conduction is known as Fourier's Law. The rate equation for the one
dimensional plane wall shown in Figure below, having a temperature distribution T(x) is given by
The heat flux (W/m2) is the heat transfer rate in the x -direction per unit area perpendicular to
the direction of transfer, and it is proportional to the the temperature gradient, dT/dx , in this
direction. The proportionality constant k is a transport property known as the thermal
conductivity (W/m.K) and is a characteristic of the wall material. The minus sign is a
consequence of the fact that the heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature.

the temperature distribution is linear, the temperature gradient may be expressed as

and the heat flux then,

or

This equation provides a heat flux, that is, the rate of heat transfer per unit area. The heat rate
by conduction qx(W), through a plane wall of area A is then the product of the flux and the area
qx= A.

CONVECTION

Convection takes place when energy is transferred from a surface to a fluid flowing over it as a
result of a difference between the temperatures of the surface and the fluid. Convection heat
transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms

Energy transfer due to random molecular motion (diffusion)

Energy transferred by the bulk or macroscopic motion of the fluid (advection)

This fluid motion is associated with the aggregate or collective movement of the large number of
molecules. Such motion, in the presence of temperature gradient, contributes to the heat
transfer. Because the molecules in the aggregate retain their random motion, the total heat
transfer is then due to a superposition of energy transport by the random motion of the
molecules and by the bulk motion of the fluid.

Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the flow.
Forced convection takes place when the flow is caused by an external agent such as fan, pump
or atmospheric winds. For example, consider the use of a fan to provide forced convection air
cooling of hot electrical components on a stack of printed circuit boards.

Natural convection takes place when the flow is induced by density differences caused by the
temperature variations in the fluid. For example, consider heat transfer that occurs from hot
components on a vertical array of circuit boards in still air.

The rate equation for convection is known as Newton's law of cooling. This is given by

q" is the convective heat flux (W/m2). Convective heat flux is proportional to the difference
between the surface and temperatures, Ts and , respectively. The proportionality constant is
termed the convection heat transfer coefficient. It depends on the surface geometry, the nature
of the fluid motion, and the fluid involved. Any study of convection ultimately reduces to a study
of the means by which h may be determined. Although consideration of these means is
postponed to Chapter 6, convection heat transfer will frequently appear as a boundary condition
in the solution of conduction problems. In the solution of such problems we presume h to be
known.

RADIATION

Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter that is at a finite temperature. Radiation occurs
not only from solid surfaces but also from liquids and gases. Regardless of the form of the
matter, the emission may be attributed to changes in the electron configurations of the
constituent atoms or molecules. The energy of the radiation field is transported by
electromagnetic waves. While the transfer of energy by conduction and convection requires the
presence of a material medium, radiation does not. In fact, radiation transfer occurs most
efficiently in a vacuum.

Consider radiation transfer processes for the surface of Figure. 1.4. Radiation that is emitted by
the surface originates from the thermal energy of matter bounded by the surface, and the rate at
which the energy is released per unit area (W/m2) is termed the surface emissive power E.

There is an upper limit to the emissive power, which is prescribed by the Stefan-Boltzmann law

where Ts is the absolute temperature (K) of the surface and is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K 4). Such a surface is called an ideal radiator or black body.