Marland 2014

Alternatives to SF6 in HV Circuit Breaker Insulation
2014
Alternatives to SF6 in
HV Circuit Breaker
Insulation
ENG4111/4112 Dissertation
SF6 is an environmentally potent and OH&S concerning substance, however it

is the dominate insulation medium used in HV circuit breakers. This dissertation
explores the benefits of alternative designs and technologies that seek to
eliminate or reduce the use of SF6 in HV circuit breakers.
Michael Marland - 0061004355
University of Southern Queensland

3
10/30/2014
Abstract
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6 ) is a synthetic gas extensively used in the high voltage (HV) electricity
transmission and distribution industry. The unique and unrivalled properties of SF6 gas that enable it
to resist/recover from spark conduction have positioned it as the preferred HV arc interruption
medium. Since its introduction in the 1960’s HV circuit breakers utilising SF6 have provided less
frequent maintenance requirements and reduced installation footprints compared to their Oil/Air
predecessors.
Unfortunately however, SF6 has an extremely high global warming potential (GWP), 22,800 times
that of carbon dioxide. This high global warming potential combined with a long shelf life (3000
years in atmosphere) has seen the gas identified as one of the six most potent contributors to
climate change. Additionally, the decomposition by-products of SF6 used for arc extinguishment
threaten the occupational health and safety of maintenance staff.
A case study examining the use of SF6 in the region of Central Western NSW has been undertaken as
a part of this dissertation. The Central Western NSW electricity grid was found to utilise 10,216 kg of
in-service SF6 gas in its HV circuit breakers and associated apparatus. Additionally, SF6 insulated
equipment was found to contribute a growing 70% market share of switchgear applications 66 kV
and above. A government prescribe annual leakage rate of 0.89% of capacity combined with
handling losses suggests the case study area’s SF6 insulated equipment is responsible for 2,905
tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions per year.
Alternatives, eliminating or reducing the use of SF6 insulation in HV circuit breakers and associate
apparatus do exist and in some cases are fast becoming the more popular and cost effective option.
Established solid-dielectric/vacuum and dry-air/vacuum circuit breakers are two such alternatives
eliminating SF6 reliance in the 66 kV and below spectrums. Other advancements include non-
conventional current transformers with digital outputs that are revolutionising traditional circuit
breaker installation concepts.
The 40 year dominance associated with SF6 insulated switchgear is placing utilities in vulnerable
positions. With the ongoing replacement of obsolete oil designs expected to finalise in the next
decade Australian circuit breakers 66 kV and above could be near 100% SF6 insulated by 2025.
Despite a recent fall in national electricity demand, infrastructure upgrades and the diversifying
renewable generation mix are supporting continual SF6 insulated equipment growth. Environment
driven regulated SF6 price rises or application bans are of increasing concerns to network utilities.
This dissertation provides reasonable and practical recommendations of pro-active technology

implementations and trials that will help alleviate reliance on SF6 . The proposals also seek to respect
restricting network operating budgets recently implemented in an effort to curb rising electricity
commodity prices whilst simultaneously offering environmental and OH&S beneficial alternatives.
I
Limitations of Use
Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences
ENG4111/ENG4112 Research Project
Limitations of Use
The Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Health, Engineering &
Sciences, and the staff of the University of Southern Queensland, do not accept any
responsibility for the truth, accuracy or completeness of material contained within or
associated with this dissertation.
Persons using all or any part of this material do so at their own risk, and not at the risk of the
Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Health, Engineering &
Sciences or the staff of the University of Southern Queensland.
This dissertation reports an educational exercise and has no purpose or validity beyond this
exercise. The sole purpose of the course pair entitled “Research Project” is to contribute to
the overall education within the student’s chosen degree program. This document, the
associated hardware, software, drawings, and other material set out in the associated
appendices should not be used for any other purpose: if they are so used, it is entirely at the
risk of the user.
II
Certification of Dissertation
Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences
ENG4111/ENG4112 Research Project
Certification of Dissertation
I certify that the ideas, designs and experimental work, results, analyses and conclusions set
out in this dissertation are entirely my own effort, except where otherwise indicated and
acknowledged.
I further certify that the work is original and has not been previously submitted for
assessment in any other course or institution, except where specifically stated.
M. Marland
0061004355
III
Acknowledgements
Mr Andreas Helwig
For his continual support both as project supervisor and professional mentor
The University of Southern Queensland
For the opportunity to study Electrical Engineering externally and for their commendable distance
education services
Transgrid
For their employment, professional development opportunities, advice and insight into the
transmission industry
Mr Dane Bland
For his contributions and insights into distribution level equipment
Miss Danielle Corbett
For her continual love and support throughout my university study and professional career
IV
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ I
Limitations of Use ........................................................................................................................ II
Certification of Dissertation ........................................................................................................ III
Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................... IV
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... V
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. IX
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ X
Glossary of Terms ....................................................................................................................... XI
Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Setting the Scene .................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 This Dissertation...................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 2: What is Sulphur hexafluoride (𝐒𝐅𝟔) ........................................................................ 3
2.1 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6)..................................................................................................... 4

2.2 Electrical Properties ................................................................................................................ 6
2.2.1 Dielectric Strength .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Electrical Current Interruption ........................................................................................ 7
2.3 Environmental Impact............................................................................................................. 8
2.4 Use in High Voltage Industry................................................................................................... 9
2.5 Life cycle of SF6 in Electrical Equipment ............................................................................... 11
2.5.1 Manufacturing of Equipment ........................................................................................ 11
2.5.2 In service Equipment..................................................................................................... 11
2.5.3 Equipment Decommissioning ....................................................................................... 11
2.6 Manufacturing and Costs ...................................................................................................... 12
2.7 Occupational Health & Safety with SF6................................................................................ 13
2.7.1 By-Product Hazards ....................................................................................................... 13
2.7.2 Heavier than Air Hazards .............................................................................................. 13
V
2.7.3 Pressure Hazards ........................................................................................................... 14

2.8 Gas Quality ............................................................................................................................ 15
2.8.1 Gas Quality Limits for In-Service Equipment ................................................................ 15
2.9 Applicable Standards ............................................................................................................ 16
2.9.1 Australian Standards ..................................................................................................... 16
2.9.2 International Standards ................................................................................................ 16
2.10 The Need to find a Replacement .......................................................................................... 17
Chapter 3: HV Circuit Breaker Trends and Innovation ............................................................ 19
3.1 High Voltage Circuit Breakers ............................................................................................... 20

3.2 History ................................................................................................................................... 21
3.3 Circuit Breaker Designs and Classifications........................................................................... 23
3.3.1 Voltage Classification .................................................................................................... 23
3.3.2 Application Classification .............................................................................................. 23
3.3.3 Location Classification................................................................................................... 24
3.3.4 Physical Design Classification ........................................................................................ 24
3.4 Current Breaking Techniques ................................................................................................ 26
3.4.1 Air & Air Blast (AB) Circuit Breakers .............................................................................. 27
3.4.2 Oil Circuit Breakers........................................................................................................ 28
3.4.3 Vacuum (VAC) Circuit Breakers ..................................................................................... 30
3.4.4 SF6 Circuit Breakers ...................................................................................................... 32
3.5 Maintenance ......................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 4: Case Study - The Central Western NSW................................................................. 37
4.1 Central Western NSW ........................................................................................................... 38

4.2 The Central Western NSW Electrical Power Network .......................................................... 40
4.3 Data Collection Aim .............................................................................................................. 44
4.4 Data Collection Methodology ............................................................................................... 45
4.5 Results ................................................................................................................................... 46
4.5.1 Transmission Sites Results ............................................................................................ 46
4.5.2 Distribution Sites Results .............................................................................................. 47
4.5.3 Results Graphics ............................................................................................................ 49
4.6 Age of Oil Circuit Breakers/Growth of SF6 Circuit Breakers................................................. 51
4.7 Dead-Tank vs Live-Tank......................................................................................................... 54
4.8 SF6 Metering Current Transformers ..................................................................................... 55
4.9 Re-closers .............................................................................................................................. 57
4.10 Environmental Effects and Cost ............................................................................................ 58
4.11 Case Study Data Summary .................................................................................................... 60
VI
Chapter 5: SF6 Replacement & Reduction: Materials, Technologies & Strategies .................... 61
5.1 Continual Development of the Vacuum Interrupter (VI) ...................................................... 62

5.1.1 Vacuum Interrupter Limitations ................................................................................... 62
5.1.2 Vacuum Interrupter Development ............................................................................... 62
5.2 Vacuum Interrupters Embedded in Solid-dielectric.............................................................. 64
5.2.1 Solid-dielectric Designs ................................................................................................. 64
5.2.2 Implication of Solid-dielectric Designs on Case Study Area .......................................... 65
5.3 Vacuum Interrupters Encased in Dry Air............................................................................... 67
5.3.1 Compressed Dry Air Designs ......................................................................................... 67
5.3.2 Implications of Dry Air Designs on Case Study Area ..................................................... 68
5.4 Current Transformers ........................................................................................................... 69
5.4.1 Oil Current Transformers .............................................................................................. 69
5.4.2 Implications of Oil Current Transformers on Case Study Area ..................................... 69
5.4.3 Non-Conventional Current Transformers ..................................................................... 70
5.4.4 Implications of Non-Conventional Current Transformers on Case Study Area ............ 71
5.5 Octafluorocyclobutane (c-C4F8) .......................................................................................... 73
5.5.1 Octafluorcyclobutane as an Insulating Gas ................................................................... 73
5.5.2 Implications of Octafluorocyclobutane on Case Study Area ........................................ 73
5.6 Leakage Monitoring .............................................................................................................. 75
5.6.1 Leakage Calculation ...................................................................................................... 75
5.6.2 Leakage Monitoring ...................................................................................................... 77
5.6.3 Implications of Leakage Monitoring in Case Study Area .............................................. 78
5.7 Government Regulations ...................................................................................................... 79
5.7.1 Government Regulations .............................................................................................. 79
5.7.2 Implications of Government Regulations on Case Study Area ..................................... 80
Chapter 6: Environmental, Cost & Life Cycle Analysis ............................................................. 81
6.1 Australian Electricity Demand and Infrastructure Growth ................................................... 82

6.1.1 Australian Electricity Demand ....................................................................................... 82
6.1.2 Infrastructure growth ................................................................................................... 83
6.1.3 Infrastructure Drivers.................................................................................................... 84
6.2 National Emissions ................................................................................................................ 86
6.2.1 Australian Emissions ..................................................................................................... 86
6.2.2 NSW Emissions & Case Study Perspective .................................................................... 86
6.3 SF6 Equipment Emissions life cycle....................................................................................... 88
6.3.1 Manufacturing of Equipment ........................................................................................ 88
6.3.2 Transportation of Equipment ....................................................................................... 88
6.3.3 In-service Equipment .................................................................................................... 89
6.3.4 Equipment Decommissioning ....................................................................................... 89
6.4 SF6 Usage if Nothing Changes............................................................................................... 90
VII
6.5 SF6 Usage if SF6 is Banned Tomorrow .................................................................................. 93

6.5.1 Banning of SF6 in MV equipment ................................................................................. 93
6.5.2 Phased Replacement of all SF6 Insulated Circuit Breakers .......................................... 94
Chapter 7: The Proposal ........................................................................................................ 95
7.1 Primary Proposal: Proactive Actions ..................................................................................... 96

7.1.1 Medium Voltage (MV) SF6 Switchgear Purchasing Suspension ................................... 96
7.1.2 Dry-air to SF6 50% Market Share (66 kV) by 2035 ........................................................ 98
7.1.3 Regional Leakage Detection Cameras ......................................................................... 100
7.2 Technology Trials Initiatives ................................................................................................ 102
7.2.1 Optical Current Sensor Trial ........................................................................................ 102
7.2.2 Octafluorocyclobutane Trial ....................................................................................... 104
7.3 Company Strategies ............................................................................................................ 105
Chapter 8: Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 107
8.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 107

8.2 Further Work....................................................................................................................... 109
References............................................................................................................................... 111
Appendix A: Project Specification ............................................................................................. 114
Appendix B: SF6 MSDS ............................................................................................................. 116
Appendix C: Transgrid Maintenance Plan Excerpts .................................................................... 125
Appendix D: Transgrid Management Plan 2011-16 Excerpts ...................................................... 131
Appendix E: Australian National Greenhouse Gas Accounts Excerpts ......................................... 137
VIII
List of Figures
Figure 2-1 Molecular Model of Sulphur Hexafluoride ............................................................................ 4

Figure 2-2 DC breakdown strength of SF6 and other substances .......................................................... 6
Figure 2-3 Simplistic Overview of Electrical Network ........................................................................... 10
Figure 2-4 Global Annual SF6 Consumption ......................................................................................... 10
Figure 3-1 Oil Circuit Breaker Built in 1901 ........................................................................................... 22
Figure 3-2 Excerpt from Transgrid Network Management Plan 2001-6: Circuit Breaker Age Profile .. 22
Figure 3-3 Live Tank (left) & Dead Tank (right) Circuit Breakers .......................................................... 25
Figure 3-4 Single Line Diagram Demonstrating the Different Classifications of HV Circuit Breakers ... 25
Figure 3-5 Electric arc in a gaseous medium........................................................................................ 26
Figure 3-6 Bulk Oil (BO) Circuit Breaker (left) and Small Volume Oil (SOV) Circuit Breaker (right) ...... 29
Figure 3-7 11kV Vacuum Circuit Breaker .............................................................................................. 30
Figure 3-8 Concentrated arcing (a) and diffused arcing (b) source: Cahier Technique no.193............. 31
Figure 3-9 Radial contacts (a) and axial contacts (b) source: Cahier Technique no.193 ....................... 31
Figure 3-10 EHV SF6 Circuit Breaker ..................................................................................................... 32
Figure 3-11 Puffer SF6 circuit breaker opening sequence .................................................................... 33
Figure 3-12 Self blast SF6 circuit breaker.............................................................................................. 33
Figure 4-1 NSW Regional Local Government Divisions ......................................................................... 38
Figure 4-2 Central West NSW Region - Local Council Boundaries (NSW Government Region) ........... 39
Figure 4-3 Central West NSW Region - Local Council Boundaries (For Project Purposes) ................... 39
Figure: 4-4 Central West NSW Region – Electrical Grid Single Line Diagram ....................................... 41
Figure 4-5 Central West NSW Region –Electrical Grid Google Earth Representation .......................... 42
Figure 4-6 Example HV Circuit Breaker Name-plate ............................................................................. 44
Figure 4-7 Pie Chart of Case Study Results - Circuit Breaker Types (less than 66kV) ........................... 49
Figure 4-8 Pie Chart of Case Study Results - Circuit Breaker Types (66kV)........................................... 49
Figure 4-9 Pie Chart of Case Study Results - Circuit Breaker Types (132kV)......................................... 50
Figure 4-10 Pie Chart of Case Study Results - Circuit Breaker Types (330kV and Above) .................... 50
Figure 4-11 Bar Graph of Types of Circuit Breakers Purchased 1965-2010 (Transgrid) ....................... 51
Figure 4-12 Pie Chart of Case Study Results – Newly Installed Circuit Breaker Types (66kV) .............. 53
Figure 4-13 Pie Chart of Case Study Results – Newly Installed Circuit Breaker Types (132kV) ............ 53
Figure 4-14 Bar Chart 132kV and 66kV SF6 Dead Tank and Live Tank Comparisons............................ 54
Figure 4-15 Live-tank Circuit Breakers with adjacent SF6 Post CTs (left) and Oil Post CTs (right) ....... 56
Figure 5-1 Vacuum Interrupter Layout ................................................................................................. 63
Figure 5-2 Vacuum Interrupter Embedded in Solid-dielectric .............................................................. 65
Figure 5-3 Sumotomo Dry-Air/Vacuum 66kV CB .................................................................................. 67
Figure 5-4 Graphic Representation of Faraday Effect (left) Faraday Effect Current Sensor (right) ...... 71
Figure 5-5 Draft Design of a Live-tank CB with Optical CTs (left) Prototype (right).............................. 72
Figure 5-6 Molecular Model of Octafluorocyclobutante ...................................................................... 73
Figure 5-7 SF6 CT (left) Infra-red Imagery of Leaking SF6 CT (right) .................................................... 77
Figure 6-1 Australian National Electricity Demand Forecast ................................................................ 82
Figure 6-2 Planned Investment in Electricity Infrastructure 2008-2021 .............................................. 83
Figure 6-3 NSW Generation Mix ........................................................................................................... 85
Figure 6-4 Australian Abatement Task to 2020 .................................................................................... 86
Figure 6-5 NSW Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector ......................................................................... 87
IX
Figure 6-6 HV Circuit Breaker SF6 Emissions Life Cycle (% CB Capacity) .............................................. 89
Figure 6-7 Theoretical Distributed Mass Growth of SF6 in Electrical Network Circuit Breakers .......... 92
List of Tables
Table 2-1 SF6 Properties at 25°C............................................................................................................. 5

Table 2-2 Origins of SF6 Impurities ....................................................................................................... 14
Table 2-3 Gas Quality Limits for In-Service Equipment ........................................................................ 15
Table 3-1 Transgrid Circuit Breaker Periodical Maintenance Checks ................................................... 34
Table 3-2 Transgrid Circuit Breaker Maintenance Intervals ................................................................. 35
Table 4-1 Sub-Regional Break Down of Case Study Area ..................................................................... 43
Table 4-2 Transmission Sites Circuit Breaker Data ............................................................................... 46
Table 4-3 Distribution Sites Circuit Breaker Data ................................................................................. 47
Table 4-4 Circuit Replacements from 2011 Onwards ........................................................................... 52
Table 4-5 Case Study Area SF6 Current Transformer Results ............................................................... 56
Table 4-6 Feeder Re-closer Numbers: Case Study Sample ................................................................... 57
Table 4-7 Case Study Data Summary .................................................................................................... 60
Table 5-1 Vacuum /Solid-dielectric Implications Summary .................................................................. 66
Table 5-2 Vacuum/Dry Air Implications Summary ................................................................................ 68
Table 5-3 Oil Current Transformers Implications Summary ................................................................. 70
Table 5-4 Non-Conventional Current Transformer Implications Summary .......................................... 72
Table 5-5 Octafluorocyclobutane Implications Summary..................................................................... 74
Table 5-6 Leakage Monitoring Implications Summary ......................................................................... 78
Table 7-1 Case Study Area Proposal Implications: MV SF6 Switchgear Purchasing Suspension .......... 97
Table 7-2 Case Study Area Proposal Implications: Dry-air to SF6 50% Market Share (66 kV) by 2035 99
Table 7-3 Case Study Area Proposal Implications: Regional Leakage Detection Camera................... 101
Table 7-4 Case Study Area Trial Implications: Optical Current Sensors .............................................. 103
Table 7-5 Case Study Area Trial Implications: Octafluorocyclebutane ............................................... 104
X
Glossary of Terms
Air-Blast (AB) Circuit Breaker: circuit breaker Non-conventional Current Transformer (NCCT):
utilising high pressure air flow for electrical current current senor not utilising traditional magnetic
interruption windings
Carbone dioxide (𝐂𝐎𝟐 ): naturally occurring Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S): safety,
compound, most common pollutant/greenhouse health and well fair of people engaged in
gas employment
Circuit Breaker: electro-mechanical device for Octafluorocyclobutane (𝐜 − 𝐂𝟒 𝐅𝟖 ): Fluorocarbon

interrupting electrical current flow considered for electrical insulation
Climate Change: concept of human influenced Oil Circuit Breaker: circuit breaker using oil as arc
changing global climate extinguishing medium, Small Oil Volume (SOV) or
Bulk Oil (BO)
Current Transformer (CT): instrument for
measuring electrical currents Re-closer: field circuit breaker for sectionalising
long distribution lines
Dead-Tank: design style of HV circuit breakers,
interruption tank at touch potential Renewable Energy: energy generated by means
naturally replenishing resources
Decomposition By-products: chemical substances
formed post arc extinguishment SF6 Circuit Breaker: circuit breaker utilising SF6
gas as arc interruption medium
Dielectric: substance property to resist electrical
current flow Solid-dielectric: solid material utilised for its
ability to resist current flow
Distribution: medium distance electrical network
for supplying customers, typically 11-66kV Substation: network node for electrical power
distribution and transmission
Dry-air: moisture free air used for electrical
insulation at high pressures Sulphur hexafluoride (𝐒𝐅𝟔 ): synthetic gas used for
electrical insulation
Emission: Gas releases to the atmosphere
Switchgear: collective term for HV electrical
Global Warming Potential (GWP): rating assigned circuit breakers and switches
to a compound quantifying its radiative force on the
atmosphere in comparison to 1 kg of 𝐂𝐎𝟐 Transmission: long distance electrical network
typically 132 kV and above
High Voltage (HV): general term for voltage levels
above 1000 V AC, industry term for voltage levels Vacuum Circuit Breaker: circuit breaker
66 kV and above containing a vessel devoid of matter used for
electrical current interruption
Insulation: Substance used for dielectric purposes
in electrical equipment Zone-substation: network node for electrical
power distribution
Live-Tank: design style of HV circuit breakers,
interruption tank at operating voltage potential
Medium Voltage (MV): Industry term for voltage

levels below 66 kV
XI
XII
Chapter 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Setting the Scene
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6 ) is a synthetic gas that has been extensively used as an insulation medium
in the electrical industry since the 1960’s. The unique properties of SF6 including its high dielectric
strength and superb electrical arc extinguishing abilities have positioned it as the unrivalled
substance of choice for high voltage (HV) arc interruption. Primarily used in HV circuit breakers but
also transformers, its high dielectric strength offers compact designs. Additionally, its extraordinary
molecular recovery post arc extinguishment offers minimal maintenance and high functionality
guarantees.
Despite its unrivalled functionality, SF6 has been labelled as the most potent greenhouse gas ever
evaluated by scientists. The Kyoto Protocol in 1997 indentified the substance as one of the six most
potent contributors to climate change. Alarmingly however, both production and demand for the
substance has further increased since the protocol. The Australian Government Department of
Climate Change and Energy Efficiency in its 2012 report indentified SF6 emissions as having a Global
Warming Potential (GWP) of 23,900. That is 1kg of SF6 has the same global warming potential as
23,900 kg of carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
Additionally decomposition of SF6 upon the extinguishment of intense electrical arcs can give rise to
toxic and Occupational Health and Safely (OH&S) concerning by-products. Minute traces of moisture
in combination with SF6 molecular decomposition during arc extinguishment can produce sulphur
dioxide, hydrofluoric acid and metal fluoride compounds all which are hazardous to maintenance
personnel.
High voltage circuit breakers are used in electrical supply network substations and other applications
where the control and protection of HV electrical equipment is required. The oil insulated and air-
blast circuit breaker predecessor to SF6 have since become obsolete with the last of their generation
install pre 1985. HV circuit breakers are largely considered to provide a 40 year in-service life span
which has seen the obsolete oil and air-blast designs of the past slowly been replaced over the last
30 years. The unrivalled functionality and reasonable cost of SF6 equipment saw limited circuit
breaker technology innovations in the period 1980-2000. The industry was excusable content with
the space saving and low maintenance designs SF6 offered in a less environmentally concerned era.
Currently SF6 insulated circuit breakers hold a 70% market share of in-service units 66kV and above.
By the year 2025, a close to 100% SF6 monopoly is expected in this range without change.
Global environmental awareness and concerns are increasing and the global warming potential of
SF6 has positioned itself as a highlighted substance. So much so that recently there have been calls
in Europe to ban the substance in all new medium voltage (MV) switchgear applications.
Alternatives to SF6 circuit breaker insulation as well as technologies and strategies to help reduce its
usage do exist. Environmental awareness and employee OH&S concerns are prompting a
revolutionary movement away from the potent substance.
1
1.2 This Dissertation
This dissertation seeks to deliver upon the follow five objectives.
1. Research background information on SF6 the substance and the development of HV circuit
breakers in industry to date
2. Determine the actual use of SF6 in existing Australian electrical networks
3. Explore the materials, technologies and strategies that are seeking to, or are capable of,
eliminating or reducing the use SF6 in HV circuit breakers and associated apparatus
4. Examine the environmental, cost and life cycle implications of the continual usage of SF6 in
HV circuit breakers and the benefits or consequences of its reduction or elimination
5. Present recommendations regarding this dissertation’s findings for utilities utilising SF6 to
consider in future infrastructure developments, replacement strategies and maintenance
regimes.
Research into SF6 the substance and the development of HV circuit breakers is intended to form the
literature review proportion of this dissertation. Objective three has been addressed by means of a
case study into the Central Western NSW electrical transmission and distribution network. The
extensive results gathered analysing the region’s 659 HV circuit breakers form the basis of the
subsequent chapters which examine SF6 alternatives and their benefits referred to the case study
area. The concluding recommendations addressing object five seek to provide national utilities
reasonable suggestions that are practical, cost effective, safe, and environmentally sensitive.
2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2: What is Sulphur hexafluoride (𝐒𝐅𝟔 )
This chapter seeks to provide a background on SF6 the substance, its environmental impacts and
extensive use in the HV industry. Additionally, an insight into the life cycle of SF6 containing
electrical equipment, manufacturing and costs of SF6 , related OH&S issues and applicable Australian
and International standards are explored. The primary focus of this introductory chapter to provide
an informative picture about SF6 and the issues concerning its unrivalled and extensive use in HV
circuit breakers worldwide.
As global awareness into our environmental responsibility increases so too do strategies and
technologies intended to eliminate or reduce the reliance on such environmentally potent
substances. Alternatives to SF6 circuit breakers do exist and the need for a greater uptake and
investment into the alternatives of this environmental potent and OH&S concerning substances is
warranted. This point is discussed as the consolidating section of this introductory chapter and is the
is presented as the overwhelming theme of this dissertation
3
2.1 Sulphur Hexafluoride (𝐒𝐅𝟔 )
Sulphur hexafluoride is a synthetic gas extensively used in the high and medium voltage electricity
industry (electrical power transmission and distribution) for its unique properties as a dielectric
insulation and electrical current interruption medium. Sulphur hexafluoride gas is more commonly
known by its chemical formula SF6 . SF6 is formed by six atoms of fluorine tightly bound around a
centrally positioned atom of sulphur. ‘The chemical bond between fluorine and sulphur is known as
one of the most stable existing atomic bonds’ (Glaubitz, 2005, p. 8). The fast cooling and near total
molecular recovery of SF6 gas after being exposed to an electrical arc makes it ideal for arc
quenching. Such a responsibility is burdened by the high electrical current interruption processes
needed for maintaining a safe and reliable electricity supply.
Pure SF6 is odourless, tasteless, non-toxic, non-

corrosive, non-flammable and chemically inert at
ambient temperature. It does not support combustion.
The unique chemical properties of sulphur hexafluoride
gas that enable it to resist spark conduction make it an
excellent high voltage electrical insulator.
“The chemical and thermal properties of SF6 are

extremely stable. The substance’s underactivity is
contributed to the ‘steric hindrance around the sulphur
atom and the non-polarity of the octahedral molecule.
Sulphur hexafluoride is obtained by an exothermal
reaction of fluorine with sulphur: S + F2 → 𝑆𝐹6 .” Figure 2-1 Molecular Model of Sulphur
(Eagleson, 1993) Hexafluoride
“Sulphur hexafluoride was first synthesised in the laboratories of the Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris
in 1900 by Moissan and Lebeau. Fluorine, obtained by electrolysis, was allowed to react with sulphur
in a strongly exothermic reaction, giving rise to a remarkably stable gas.” (Koch, 2003, p. 4)
Harnisch J et al. (2000) researched that sulphur hexafluoride is also known to occur naturally. A
geological study in 2000 identified common granitic rocks and fluorite minerals from which the gas
can be released extremely slowly subject to weathering processes.
For electrical equipment, SF6 offers excellent electric insulation and switching properties. It is
believed that today’s high performance of high voltage (HV) switchgear cannot be reached with any
other gas. Both experimentation and historical industry practice have shown that other gases under
consideration for application in HV switchgear may have better insulating performance or switching
performance, but not both. Most of these gases do not offer long-term stability.
4
Chapter 2
Although the overwhelming majority of SF6 gas manufactured is for the medium and high voltage
electrical supply industry SF6 is used for other industrial purposes. Non-electrical industrial
applications of SF6 include metallurgy, electronics, scientific equipment, ocular surgery, and military
applications. It is used as a cover gas in the magnesium industry, for plasma etching in
semiconductor manufacturing, as a reactive gas in aluminium recycling to reduce porosity.
Additional uses include thermal and sound insulation in double glazed windows, atmospheric tracer
studies and medical applications as well as being previously used in sports shoes.
Table 2-1 SF6 Properties at 25°C
Property Value Units

Physical state Gas
Molecular Formula SF6
Colour Colourless
Density 6.14 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
Relative Density (gas, air =1) 5
Relative Density (liq, water =1) 1.4
Molecular Weight 146.05 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
Thermal Conductivity 0.0136 𝑊 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
Solubility in Water 7000 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣
“ 41 𝑚𝑔 𝑙 −1
Melting Point -50.8 °𝐶
Boiling Point -64 (s) °𝐶
Critical Point:
Temperature 45.55 °𝐶
Density 730 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
Pressure 3.78 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Sound Velocity 136 𝑚 𝑠 −1
Refractive Index 1.00783
Formation Heat -1221.66 𝐾𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
Specific Heat 96.6 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1
CAS Number 2551-62-4
Vapour Pressure @ 20°C 21 𝐵𝑎𝑟
Source: (Koch, 2003), (Air Liquide, 2012) see: Appendix B
5
2.2 Electrical Properties
Sulphur hexafluoride’s preferential use as an insulating gas in the electricity industry is a result of the
unique combination of its physical properties. As previously mentioned SF6 has superb dielectric
strength and arc quenching abilities which make it desirable in high and medium voltage
applications.
Electrical power is transmitted and distributed over power lines more efficiently at high voltages
(132-500 kV transmission 11-66 kV distribution in NSW). High voltage transmission reduces the
electrical current flow required for the same resultant power transmission which in turn reduces
associated power losses and required cable sizes. Transmission is typically used for connecting
longer distances and distribution is used for supply to local customers. For the purpose of this
dissertation, high voltage (HV) is considered as 66 kV and above, while medium voltage (MV) is taken
as 11 kV to below 66 kV. These voltage level descriptions have been chosen for the occasional need
to sectionalise the industry. It should be noted that the term “high voltage” in general however, can
often refer to both MV and HV ranges.
2.2.1 Dielectric Strength

Electrical transmission lines and equipment are constructed in such a way the conductors carrying
the electrical current are insulated from other conductive matter not at their same voltage
potentials. This insulation is provided by means of either a non-conductive material or distance in
air. The dielectric characteristic of an insulating substance refers to its ability oppose the flow of
electrical current leakage through itself. High voltage conductors separated from other conductive
matter at different voltage potentials are prone to leakage currents through the separation medium.
All insulators used for the separation of high voltage conductors can be evaluated by their dielectric
strength. Dielectric strength is determined by the applied voltage across a given length of a material
that produces dielectric breakdown where the applied electric field frees bound electrons. SF6 ’s
excellent dielectric strength is contributed to the electronegative character of its molecule. “Electro-
negativity is the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons” (IUPAC, 1997).
“SF6 gas has a pronounced tendency to

capture free electrons forming heavy ions
with low mobility making the development of
electron flow very difficult.” (Koch, 2003) .
SF6 is considered to have dielectric strength

about three times that of air at one
atmospheric pressure for a given electrode
spacing. Its dielectric strength increases with
increases in pressure. At three times
atmospheric pressure, the dielectric strength
is similar to that of transformer oil.
Figure- Source (Mike de Swardt, 2014)
Figure 2-2 DC breakdown strength of 𝐒𝐅𝟔 and other substances
6
Chapter 2
2.2.2 Electrical Current Interruption

The reliable and safe transmission and distribution of electrical power also requires the ability for
the electrical current flow to be switched on or off. Interrupting current flow in the event of an
electrical fault or for the purposes of rearrangement and isolation of network components are
essential to reliable electrical power networks. The process of interrupting HV high amplitude
current flow with a HV circuit breaker is not particularly an easy one. The separation of two
previously connected conductors passing electrical current between them can produce an electrical
arc attempting to maintain the current flow across the separating conductors. The resultant electric
arc is known as a self-sustaining electrical discharge and is capable of sustaining large electrical
current flow.
“Though the most commonly observed arc discharge occurs across air at atmospheric conditions, the
arc discharge is also observed at high and low pressures, in a vacuum environment, and in a variety
of gases and metal vapours” (Garzon, 1997).
Dissociation refers to the “cleavage of a molecule into two or more, simpler molecules, atoms or
ions” (Eagleson, 1993).
The energy required to separate the molecules is term dissociation energy and the temperature at
which this reversible effect is permitted is the dissociation temperature.
Koch (2003) explains that because of SF6 ’s low dissociation temperature and high dissociation
energy, SF6 is an excellent arc quenching gas. When an electric arc cools in SF6 , it remains
conductive to a relatively low temperature, thus minimising current chopping before current zero,
and thereby avoiding high over voltages. In alternating current (AC), of which is the form of
Australia’s national supply, current and voltage supplied alternate from a positive to negative
amplitude 50 times a second (50Hz). Current flow is easiest to interrupt as it passes through zero
amplitude known as “current zero”. SF6 ’s arc extinquish capability is about ten times that of air.
In addition to these properties, Eagleso’s Concise encyclopedia of Chemistry (1993) acknowledges

that the gases lack of toxic or corrosive effects make the compatibility of SF6 with material used in
electric construction similar to that of nitrogen, up to temperatures of about 180°C.
7
2.3 Environmental Impact
“SF6 , was labelled as the most potent greenhouse gas ever evaluated by the scientists of the Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1995” (Garzon, 1997).
In 1997, at the third conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Kyoto colloquially now known as the Kyoto protocol, the industrialized
countries of the world accepted emission reduction targets for six greenhouse gases. The
international protocol is widely seen as an important step to limit global greenhouse gas emissions.
Emission reductions were negotiated to such levels that were believed to avoid dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
“Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride as well as groups of hydro-
fluorocarbons and per-fluorocarbons were identified as the six most potent contributors to climate
change, in accordance with Annex B of the Protocol. The six greenhouse gases are translated into
their CO2 equivalents to determine the reduction of emissions” (Rhiemeier, et al., 2010).
The concerning and dangerous potential of SF6 ‘s contribution to global warming is that SF6 has an
extremely stable molecular structure. Like all the fully fluorinated family, their molecular structure
ensures that the compound endures a very long life cycle, approximately 3200 years upon release to
the atmosphere. A combination of this stagnant life cycle together with a proficient absorption
ability of infra-red radiation has led to the substance being assigned an extremely high Global
Warming Potential (GWP)
“The GWP rating is a comparative numerical value that is assigned to a compound. The value is
arrived at by integrating over a time span the radiative forcing value produced by the release of 1 kg
of the gas in question and then dividing the value by the value obtained with a similar procedure
with CO2 . Because CO2 is considered the most common pollutant, it has been selected as the basis
of comparison for assigning GWP values to other pollutants. The radiative forcing, according to its
definition, is the change in net irradiance in watts per square meter” (Garzon, 1997).
Hence, SF6 in particular has an extremely high global warming potential, being evaluated at 23,900
times higher than an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide over a 100-year time period. This global
warming potential combined with a long shelf life enforces that even small releases of SF6 into the
atmosphere are a significant concern.
SF6 emissions reduction may prove further problematic in future as the main usage of the identified
greenhouse gas is in the ever expanding electrical power industry. “According to IEA’s World Energy
Outlook 2009, 19,756 TWh of electricity was consumed worldwide in 2007. World electricity demand
is projected to grow at an annual rate of 2.7 % in the period 2007-2015, slowing to 2.4 % per year on
average in the period 2015-2030” (Rhiemeier, et al., 2010).
In Australia however, growth has steadied over the past few years for reasons outlined in Section
6.1 of this dissertation. Despite local trends, without change in current practices the growth in
worlds electricity demand and resulting infrastructure will further utilise, and hence unfortunately
release, increasing amounts of SF6 gas into the atmosphere.
8
Chapter 2
2.4 Use in High Voltage Industry
Australia’s electricity network consists of generation, transmission and distribution. Transmission

relates to transferring power over long distances and in NSW is associated with voltage levels 132kV
and above. Distribution is associated with shorter distances at voltage 66kV and below. Transmission
and distribution networks consist of overhead lines or cables, in addition to other components such
as switchgear and transformers. Switchgear or circuit breakers are used to protect the electrical
network against overload and short circuit currents. Transformers and associated switchgear are
found in high voltage substations and zone substations utilised to step up or down voltage levels for
transmission from generation sites through to distribution to end customers.
Since the early 1960’s, SF6 has be used by the electricity industry in power equipment facilitating HV
transmission and MV distribution of electrical power. Gas insulated switch gear, transformers and
cables are all common uses of SF6 gas in the power industry. Sulphur hexafluoride has a much
higher dielectric strength than air, making it possible to significantly reduce the product footprint
and enable installation in constrained spaces. SF6 insulation superseded aging oil insulated
technology. Its benefits included less maintenance and more compact in designs.
A SF6 gas insulated circuit breaker uses the superior dielectric SF6 gas at a moderate pressure
(typically 600 kPa) for phase to ground insulation and insulation across open contacts. The high
voltage conductors and circuit breaker interrupter mechanisms are encapsulated in the SF6 gas
inside grounded metal enclosures. An atmospheric air installation of comparative dielectric strength
would require meters of air insulation to do what SF6 can do in centimetres. The fully sealed SF6
circuit breaker provides the internal mechanisms protection from deterioration from exposure due
to atmospheric air, moisture and contaminations, etc. As a result, SF6 circuit breakers are
considered more reliable, require less maintenance, and boast a long service life (more than 50
years).
SF6 is used in high voltage circuit breakers at pressures from 400 to 600 kPa absolute. The pressure
is chosen so that the sulphur hexafluoride will not condense into a liquid at the lowest temperatures
the equipment experiences
“SF6 has been tested to exhibit two to three times the insulating ability of air at the same pressure.
SF6 is considered about ten times better than air for interrupting arcs. The now universally used
interrupting substance for high voltage circuit breakers is replacing the older mediums of oil and air.
SF6 decomposes in the high temperature of an electric arc or spark, but the decomposed gas has an
unique ability to recombine back into SF6 so well that it is rarely necessary to replenish the SF6
within equipment” (Mcdonald, 2007).
For these reasons SF6 has become the most dominant insulating gas of choice, particularly in the
transmission voltage range where there is currently no other competitive practical alternative. For
distribution equipment 33 kV and below however, vacuum interpret circuit breaker technology
enjoy an equal if not preferred popularity. Vacuum technology offers similar maintenance regimes to
SF6 with reduced environmental impact. Vacuum technology also eliminates the need for SF6
refilling equipment and stock pile costs. However, main stream vacuum technology is typically only
available for applications up to 33 kV .
9
Figure 2-3 Simplistic Overview of Electrical Network
Figure 2-4 Global Annual SF6 Consumption
Source: (Deux, 2008)
10
Chapter 2
2.5 Life cycle of SF6 in Electrical Equipment
2.5.1 Manufacturing of Equipment

Historically Japan and Europe are responsible for the vast majority of the world’s electrical power
transmission and distribution equipment. High voltage equipment containing SF6 gas for insulation
such as circuit breakers and transformers are manufactured in Japanese and European facilities. A
typical facility consists of a dedicated area for large tanks (approx. 600 kg) filled with liquefied SF6 .
Copper distribution pipes form a network from the tanks to the different stages of the
manufacturing facility controlled by check valves. Counters, pressure gauges and SF6 detectors
monitor the SF6 gas throughout the facility. Manufactured components are assembled and sealed
pressure units are filled with SF6 and tested to appropriate conditions. The gas is consequently
reclaimed out of the equipment and replaced with nitrogen or reduced volume of SF6 at a pressure
slightly above atmospheric to eliminate moisture ingression during shipping. Once delivered and
installed in the final desired location the filling medium is either replaced or topped with SF6 to the
operational required amount and pressure.
2.5.2 In service Equipment

During the life of a SF6 filled circuit breaker the breaker can be expected to operate thousands of
times. The internal SF6 gas could be subject to extinguishing literally thousands of arcs under normal
operating conditions and possibly upwards of 100 large fault arcs. Most utility companies test the
SF6 gas for purity every four years (depending on individual company policy) and gas changes can be
endorsed earlier if needed. Upon a scheduled maintenance or service due to equipment fault, the
equipment’s SF6 gas is reclaimed by an appropriate gas recovery unit to allow for internal
inspection. SF6 gas identified to have purity concerns can be sent away to particular companies for
recycling. After maintenance or other internal work required is completed the equipment is resealed
and re-filled with either new SF6 gas or the previous SF6 gas if deemed suitable. Unfortunately a
portion of the in-service gas will inevitably be leaked from equipment to the atmosphere due to
poor sealing, cracked insulator housing or poor maintenance practices.
2.5.3 Equipment Decommissioning

Once the equipment has eventually served its purpose decommissioning is required. During
decommissioning the remaining SF6 gas is recovered. From here the gas can be disposed in
accordance with local and/or international regulations. More commonly however the gas is
recovered for the purpose of recycling. When returned to a SF6 supplier, the supplying company will
often clean and filter the old gas ready for re-use.
It must be noted that 100% full recovery of the SF6 gas during any handling operation cannot be
considered possible. “Typically between 2 % and 0.4% of the name plate capacity’ is lost during
handling activates” (Rhiemeier, et al., 2010). Filling pressure, correct equipment and efforts in staff
training all contribute towards reducing handling emissions of electrical equipment containing SF6
gas.
11
2.6 Manufacturing and Costs
“About 10 to 20 tonnes of SF6 are imported into Australia annually.” (Australian Government
Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, populaion and Communities, 2012) NSW
transmission and distribution authorities currently purchase SF6 at a rate of $55 per kilogram
As previously mentioned historically Japan and Europe have been responsible for the manufacturing
of the world’s electrical transmission and distribution equipment, however, other regions are known
to play minor but increasing roles. China’s domestic demand in particular has seen their market
share rapidly increase
Global consumption of SF6 has been hard to establish. It is reasoned that the main SF6 consuming
regions of the electrical equipment industry are Europe, Japan and China followed by North America.
Rhiemeier et al. (2010) report on global SF6 emissions trends from electrical equipment assumes
that approximately 80 % of the SF6 consumption for HV and MV electrical equipment is consumed in
these regions. However, detailed data is only available for Europe, Japan, the USA and Korea.
Europe, Japan and the USA’s consumption of SF6 in 2005 alone has been estimated at 1200, 600 and
300 tonnes respectively
Storage wise, the critical temperature and pressure of SF6 is 45.55°C and 3.78 MPa respectively. SF6
is liquefied by compression and is stored and transported as liquid in cylinders or containers in a
liquid state at a pressure of about 6000 kPA. Common cylinder sizes are the “G” size bottle (56kg)
and the “D” size bottle (10 kg) .
Purchased SF6 cylinders should be stored protected from physical damage. Recommended storage
of SF6 cylinders is a cool, dry, well-ventilated area of non combustible construction, away from
heavily trafficked areas and emergency exits. The temperature where cylinders are stored should
not exceed 50 °C. Cylinders must be stored upright and firmly secured to prevent falling or being
knocked over.
Prime Minister Gillard’s Australian Government introduced a “carbon tax” to have effect from 1 July
2012. Despite the subsequent governments overturn of the tax it is worth noting that due to SF6 ’s
high GWP, there was a significant price raise in SF6 .The tax set the price per tonne of all synthetic
greenhouse gases based on the carbon price and the global warming potential (GWP) for each gas
which at the time was $23 /tonne multiplied by 23,900 for SF6 .
“Cost implications of SF6 under the carbon tax, using the initial carbon price of $23 per tonne,
suggested SF6 will translate into $550 AUD per kilo which was a ten-fold price increase. As an
example, a typical live tank breaker of 72 kilovolts (kV) will have a tax burden of around $1,500. On a
dead tank breaker however, which holds more gas in it, will see a more significant rise and on a full
GIS 145 kV system, you would expect to see a tax exposure of around $55,000 per bay” (ABB
Australia, 2012).
The Gillard Australian government did confirmed that recycling SF6 would not be considered as
manufacturing and therefore will not incur a carbon tax.
12
Chapter 2
2.7 Occupational Health & Safety with 𝐒𝐅𝟔
“SF6 is extremely proficient at extinguishing electrical arcs and is completely non-toxic in its pure
state . When SF6 gas is subject to high temperatures however, like those present in an electrical arc,
the SF6 molecules will break down into sulphur and fluorine ions. An electric arc can exceed
temperatures of 10 000 degrees Kelvin. Upon cooling, (below 1000 °K) the gas molecules will
recombine almost totally and only a small fraction will react with other substances such as air,
moisture and vaporised metal.” (Garzon, 1997)
These “other” gaseous and solid breakdown products upon reaction with incinerated SF6 have
proven to produce toxic properties. They can also have strong, distinctive odours and pose health
and safety risks when coming into contact with the skin or eyes. On top of these by-product hazards
are the hazards associated with the heavier than air gas itself as well as storage of the gas in high
pressure vessels.
2.7.1 By-Product Hazards

Transgrid is the NSW state government owned electrical transmission authority. Transgrid’s (2009)
Management of SF6 policy advises that - One of the breakdown products is thionyl fluoride, which is
a gas with chemical formula: SOF2 . SOF2 has a smell similar to hydrogen sulphide (rotten egg gas).
With time, SOF2 also decomposes in the presence of moisture to form sulphur dioxide (a gas,
chemical formula: SO2 ) and hydrogen fluoride (chemical formula: HF). Hydrogen fluoride, which is
also known as hydrofluoric acid, is normally a gas at ambient temperatures. It is corrosive and will
chemically burn, irritate the eyes, respiratory tract and mucous membranes (nose, mouth, throat,
stomach etc). If it comes into contact with the skin, it can cause burns and deep tissue damage.
Hydrogen fluoride is highly soluble in water, so care should be taken to prevent direct contact with
any liquids present in electrical equipment after failure. The white powdery SF6 breakdown product
which is commonly referred to as “SF6 decomposition products” is a complex mixture of
compounds. It may contain metal fluorides which can act in a similar way to hydrogen fluoride,
creating a dangerous acid in the presence of moisture. Therefore, care must be taken when handling
or working near possible SF6 decomposition products in particular when working with gas that has
been subject to moderate or heavy arc extinguishing.
2.7.2 Heavier than Air Hazards

SF6 is five times heavier than air and as a result will accumulate in low lying indoor areas where
there is no mechanism for the gas to dissipate. SF6 does not support life and there for can cause
asphyxiation in situations where large quantities of SF6 can dilute the oxygen content of the air. The
maximum permissible concentration of SF6 gas in a workroom is 200 ppmv. If the concentration
exceeds this level, personnel should leave the area and forced ventilation should be used to remove
the SF6 gas. Although SF6 is odourless, its contaminant gases are not, therefore if workers detect a
rotten egg smell then they should leave the area as quickly as possible and utilise forced ventilation
to evacuate the area.
13
2.7.3 Pressure Hazards

The failure of pressure vessels containing SF6 gas at high pressure (commonly 600 kPa) is another
hazard associated with SF6 equipment. Cuts, falls and dangerous impacts can result from vessel
failure or explosion. SF6 insulated switchgear is not designed to withstand external impact when
under full pressure and therefore ladders and similar items should not be used up against equipment
under full pressure. Sudden pressure release caused by failed fittings or hoses could also create a
risk of injury through violent movement of parts.
Another hazard associated with SF6 is when the gas is released from a high pressure container to be
used at a lower pressure, rapid temperature drop can occur at the reducing valve. This can occur
when filling equipment from cylinders and could result in freeze burns to nearby personnel.
Table 2-2 Origins of SF6 Impurities
𝐒𝐅𝟔 Situation and Use Source of Impurities Possible Impurities

During Handling in Service Leaks and incomplete evacuation Air, Oil, H2 O
Desorption
Installation Function Partial discharge: Corona and HF, SO2 , SOF2 , SOF4 , SO2 F2
Sparking
Switching Equipment Switching arc erosion H2 O, HF, SO2 , SOF2 , SOF4 , SO2 F2 ,
CuF2 , SF4 , WO3 , CF4 , AIF3
Mechanical erosion Metal dusts, particles
Internal Arc Melting and decomposition of Air
materials H2 O, HF, SO2 , SOF2 , SOF4 , SO2 F2
SF4 , CF4 ,
Metal dust particles
AIF3 , FeF3 , WO3 , CuF2
Source: (Transgrid, 2009)
14
Chapter 2
2.8 Gas Quality
With SF6 impurities having a considerable effect on both the functionality of the gas as an insulating
medium and on occupational health and safety or maintenance personnel, monitoring of gas quality
is of high importance. The gas quality of an SF6 filled circuit breaker can be measured using field test
instruments such as dew point and SF6 content analysers.
The dew point measurement, also known as relative humidity, provides the moisture content of the
gas sample. Dew point is expressed in degrees Celsius and moisture content in parts per million by
volume (ppmv). In addition, devices that compare the speed of sound or thermal conductivity of SF6
with that of pure SF6 are used to determine the SF6 content.
2.8.1 Gas Quality Limits for In-Service Equipment

The maximum allowable contamination levels in gas contained in in-service equipment is shown in
the following table3
Table 2-3 Gas Quality Limits for In-Service Equipment
Impurity Specification
Non-Reactive Gases (Combined Value) 3000 ppmv
SF4, WF6 (Combined Value) 100 ppmv
SOF2, SO2, HF (Combined Value) 2000 ppmv
H2O 470 pmmv (Dew Point -28°C at 100 kPa)
15
2.9 Applicable Standards
2.9.1 Australian Standards
AS 2791: 1996 - High-voltage switchgear and control gear: Use and handling of sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6) in high-voltage switchgear and control gear. (Reproduction of IEC 1634:1995).
AS 62271.100-2008 High-voltage switchgear and control gear: Part 100: High-voltage alternating
current circuit breakers (Reproduction of IEC 62271-100, Ed. 1.2 (2006) MOD).
2.9.2 International Standards

IEC 60694-2002, Common Specifications for High-Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear Standards
IEC 62271-100-2003, High-Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear—Part 100: High-Voltage

Alternating-Current Circuit-Breakers
IEC 61634 report: High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Use and handling of sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) in high-voltage switchgear and controlgear
IEEE Guide to Specifications for Gas-Insulated, Electric Power Substation Equipment, IEEE Std.
C37.123-1996
IEEE Guide for Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Gas Handling for High-Voltage (over 1000 Vac)
Equipment IEEE Std C37.122.3™-2011
IEEE Std 1247TM-1998, IEEE Standard for Interrupter Switches for Alternating Current Rated Above
1000 Volts.
16
Chapter 2
2.10 The Need to find a Replacement
Sulphur hexafluoride, as far as the electrical power industry in concerned, seems too good to be
true. It’s extremely fast post arc quenching recovery, space saving dielectric design capability,
resistance to spark conduction, and zero toxic effects in its pure state make it an electrical power
engineer’s dream insulation medium with next to no substitute. However, like asbestos was thought
the inimitable substance of its time, the global warming potential and occupational health and safety
risks associated with SF6 warrant research into replacement mediums.
Ruben Garzon, almost 16 years ago in his 1997 book High Voltage Circuit Breakers Design and
Applications notes that:
“Presently the concentration of SF6 has been reported as being only about 3.2 parts per trillion by
volume. This concentration is relatively low, but it has been observed that it is increasing at a rate of
about 8 % per year. This means that if the concentration continues to increase at this rate, in less
than 30 years the concentration could be about 50 pptv. More realistically, assuming a worst case
scenario, the concentration of 50 pptv is expected to be reached by the year 2100. A more optimistic
estimate is 30 pptv. At these concentrations the expected global wanning attributable to SF6 has
been calculated as 0.02 and 0.014°C for the most pessimistic and the most optimistic scenarios
respectively. Additional data indicates that the expected global warming due to SF6 , through the
year 2010 is about 0.004 In comparison with an increase of 300 parts per million by volume (ppmv),
of CO2 , the expected change in the global temperature is 0 .8 °C.” (Garzon, 1997)
Even though these contributions to global warming could be perceived as minor they are none the
less human inflicted contributions. The International Energy Agency’s World Energy Outlook predicts
global electricity demand (and most likely SF6 resulting infrastructure) to grow at an annual rate of
2.4 % in the period 2015-2030. The most likely proportional growth in SF6 electrical equipment
could be magnified by the continual replacement of obsolete air and oil circuit breakers by SF6
designs. Undoubtedly, SF6 technology has a potent and ever increasing foothold in today’s electrical
industry. With no foreseeable alternative in the high end transmission voltage scope, combined with
best practice gas handling techniques releasing between 2 and 0.4% of equipment nameplate
capacity atop of annual leakage estimates (typically 1% of capacity) continual SF6 emissions are a
daily reality.
Alternative technologies and SF6 minimising strategies do exist. The tendency towards vacuum
interrupters and solid-dielectric designs in the sub 33 kV medium voltage range is offering some
positive outlooks. In an industry driven by proven reliability to maintain commodity supply to
already high price conscious customers, few innovations have been explored or accepted from the
1980’s up until the now. Our more recently environmentally concerned and educated global
community has seen calls in Europe for the banning of SF6 in MV switchgear applications. With an
SF6 circuit breaker monopoly in HV applications fast approaching the time for innovation is now.
17
18
Chapter 3
Chapter 3: HV Circuit Breaker Trends and Innovation
The previous chapter outlines the properties of SF6 and its unrivalled application in the electrical
power industry as an insulation medium. However it is also apparent that SF6 is an extremely potent
environmental substance attributed with concerning OH&S risks.
Any innovative approach eliminating or reducing SF6 use in high voltage circuit breakers for the
future requires a detailed understanding of HV circuit breaker technology and practices to date. High
voltage circuit breakers have evolved a long way since their introduction in the early 1900s. From
separation in air to oil immersed contacts through to vacuum interrupters and SF6 technology,
knowledge of the evolution of circuit breaker designs is fundamental to future developments.
Today a large mix of circuit breakers are common in any given substation site. High voltage circuit
breakers typically experience an up to 40 year life cycle, meaning a substation could contain a
mixture of brand new through to 40 year old equipment. Four decades ago many now obsolete
technologies were considered state of the art.
High voltage circuit breakers come in many different shapes and sizes and can be classified by
voltage, application, location, physical design or current breaking technique. This chapter seeks to
explore these design classifications and evolutions, the relevance of which is highly important to
understanding any eventual SF6 eliminating or reducing designs and strategies. Additionally this
chapter provides a brief history of high voltage circuit breakers, their application and current
maintenance activities involved with different types.
19
3.1 High Voltage Circuit Breakers
AS 62271. 100-2008, High-Voltage Switchgear and Control Gear, Part 100: High-Voltage Alternating
Current Circuit Breakers, defines circuit breakers as:
“A mechanical device capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit
conditions and also making, carrying for a specific time and breaking currents under specified
abnormal circuit conditions such as those of short circuit.” (Standards Australia, 2008)
High voltage circuit breakers reside in high voltage substations and are used for the protection and
control of electrical current flow though substation equipment such as transformers, feeders,
busbars and reactive plant. HV substations accommodate the transformation of large transmission
voltages used for connecting long distances down to lower level distribution voltages that supply
local customers. A substation will typically comprise of multiple incoming and outgoing feeders,
transformers and associated plant. Circuit breakers provide a means to turn on or off the electrical
current flow through HV apparatus and will automatically operate (cut off supply) in the event of
electrical fault detection.
A circuit breaker must be able to close onto and maintain full load current for long periods of time
and then also be able to automatically disconnect that current irrespective of the inductive or
capacitive nature of the load current. A circuit breakers primary purpose however is to interrupt and
disconnect fault currents from damaging the system. The open circuit breaker gap across its contacts
requires an ability to withstand rated system voltage. Circuit breakers are also required to carry
short circuit fault currents for small periods of time, most commonly until another circuit breaker
nearer to the fault location opens to clear the fault. In the event of closing a circuit breaker onto a
fault it must have the ability to immediately re-open to clear the fault. The ability to withstand the
effects or arcing at the contact surfaces and withstand the electromagnetic and thermal conditions
which arise as a result of fault conditions is a major design consideration of circuit breaker
engineers.
Circuit breakers are one of the few electro-mechanical devices in a substation which may remain in a
quiescent state for long periods of time (even years) and then are required sometimes unexpectedly,
to operate in less than 20 milliseconds. They must be designed to operate satisfactorily after long
idle periods of service with great reliability. They are also called upon to operate at their maximum
capacity very late in their life since generally their initial installation coincides with lower system
fault levels.
There was a considerable change in the design of circuit breakers in the 1970’s. The theory of
operation has now evolved an in many cases the power utilities committed themselves to a 30 or 40
year life with an outdated design.
The high voltage circuit breakers now offered by the majority of manufacturers are generally spring
operated SF6 with very similar operating principles. These have now evolved to the point where
they are extremely reliable, compact and require minimum maintenance.
20
Chapter 3
3.2 History
Historically the need to reduce power transmission losses has driven the need to develop higher
voltage equipment and infrastructure. Electrical transmission power loss is directly related to the
amount of electrical current being transmitted. At higher transmission voltages, less current is
required to flow to produce the same resultant electrical power and thus higher voltage
transmission systems are desirable. High voltage circuit breakers needed to protect and control the
flow of electrical current along network transmission and distribution lines have there for also had to
evolve alongside the growing electrical power systems.
“It was in Tamworth NSW that Australia and the southern hemisphere seen the first town street
lights illuminated by means of electricity on the 9th of November 1888” (Wilkenfeld & Spearritt,
2004).
Throughout the next two decades the capital cities and many other towns illuminated their streets
by mean of electricity and in 1905 Sydney council (the latter of the capital cities to embrace
electricity) had 519 customers.
Australia, heavily influenced by a its European settling culture today reliably delivers country wide
house hold supply at the European nominal 230 V ±10% (phase-to-ground). The nations four wire
415 V (phase-to-phase) low voltage distribution network is feed via distribution transformers from a
three wire medium voltage distribution network 11kV up to 66kV in New South Wales. Transmission
voltages in NSW are restricted to 132 kV, 330 kV and 500 kV with a one off 220 kV line that runs
from Darlington Point to Broken Hill in the far western region of the state. The transmission network
links the states generation supply to the distribution networks.
“To achieve current interruption some of the early circuit breaker designs simply relied on stretching
the arc across a pair of contacts in air, later arc chute structures, including some with magnetic blow-
out coils were incorporated, while other devices used a liquid medium, including water but more
generally oil, as the interrupting medium.” (Garzon, 1997)
In Australia for system voltages up to 33kV, minimum oil circuit breakers were common use for
indoor applications up until to the late seventies. Outside applications utilised a mixture of air-blast
(AB), bulk oil (BO) and small oil volume (SOV) designs until the advent of vacuum (VAC) and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) in the late seventies early eighties. Today SF6 circuit breakers are the
overwhelming majority in applications 66 kV and above with the exception of some well maintained
small oil volume circuit breakers that are currently serving out the remaining years of their service
life. These aging SOV installations will eventually be replaced with most likely a SF6 incorporated
design. Below 66 kV sees vacuum and SF6 designs in all new installations and are slowly but surely
replacing the few remaining high maintenance prone oil circuit breakers still in service.
“Much of the development of interrupter designs in both SF6 and vacuum took place in the
seventies and eighties. It is fair to say that there have been few innovations in interrupter design in
the last few years although design improvements in other parts of the equipment have led to more
simple spring and other type mechanisms, to improvements in automation, in safety features and in
reduced costs.” (Harris, 1996)
21
Figure 3-1 Oil Circuit Breaker Built in 1901
Below is an excerpt from Transgrid’s ‘Network Management Plan 2001-2006’ which gives an
overview of the range of circuit breakers they had in-service and their installation periods.
Figure 3-2 Excerpt from Transgrid Network Management Plan 2001-6: Circuit Breaker Age Profile
22
Chapter 3
3.3 Circuit Breaker Designs and Classifications
High voltage circuit breakers can be grouped by many different criteria. Common criteria adopted to
group circuit breakers are often the installations’ intended voltage application e.g. 11 kV, the
installations’ specific network application e.g. transformer or line circuit breaker, the installations’
location e.g. indoor or outdoor, and also the circuit breakers’ specific design characteristics. An
important circuit breaker classification is also the method and medium used for electrical current
interruption and the variations of these are outlined specifically in the next section 3.4 Current
Breaking Techniques.
3.3.1 Voltage Classification

High voltage is defined by Australian standards as a voltage level exceeding 1000 V ac or 1500 V dc.
Circuit breakers designed to have an in service rating of above 1000 V ac or 1500 V dc are therefore
considered as high voltage circuit breakers. High voltage circuit breakers can be further categorised
into two groups by voltage level, namely that of “distribution” (66 kV and below in NSW) and
“transmission” (132 kV and above). It should be noted that “distribution” level equipment is
sometimes referred to as “medium voltage” equipment even though MV typically refers to
equipment less than 66 kV. The classification of high voltage equipment in Australia is outlined in
Australian Standard: AS 62271 in coordination with ANSI C37.06 and the International Electro-
technical Commission (IEC) 56
3.3.2 Application Classification
The network specific applications of a circuit breakers within a given high voltage electrical network
is an important classification. High voltage circuit breakers protecting and/or controlling the flow of
electrical current in equipment such as transmission/distribution lines, transformers, generators and
reactive plant may be similar (or in fact be the exact same) in appearance but will have vastly
different settings and operational objectives. Many of these differences will be more prevalent in
the relay or control settings operating the circuit breaker and may be considered within the scope of
secondary systems. However, some variations for example point-on-wave operation used by
reactive plant circuit breakers are at times achieved by slightly different mechanical linkages in an
otherwise undistinguishable ordinary line circuit breaker. It is therefore common in industry to
identify high voltage circuit breakers by their application on occasion e.g. transformer breaker,
capacitor breaker, etc.
23
3.3.3 Location Classification

High voltage circuit breakers can be utilised in either indoor or outdoor electrical substations and
switching yards. In rural or other settings where space is in surplice it is common for the electrical
transmission and distribution substation equipment to be securely fenced off in open air, outdoor
compounds. In other urban or settings where space (or extreme weather) is sometimes an issue
electrical substations are located indoors. The primary difference between an indoor and outdoor
circuit breaker is generally the structural packaging or enclosure housing. Indoor circuit breakers
generally utilise the same internal chambers and operating mechanisms as outdoor circuit breakers
but are instead housed in cabinets located inside a building or sometimes within a metal clad
enclosure that itself is located outside. Indoor circuit breakers also have slightly different high
voltage conductor arrangements to their outdoor counterparts, often allowing for the use of
insulated high voltage cables as opposed to spaced bare conductors used in outdoor yards. High
voltage circuit breakers cabinets located inside a substation building are often situated side by side,
connected by a common bus to further reduce the infrastructure footprint.
3.3.4 Physical Design Classification

Physically there are two main design categories of high voltage circuit breakers that hold the most
significance, that being “dead-tank” or “live-tank”.
A dead-tank high voltage circuit breaker is one in which the vessel (or tank) containing the electrical
current breaking mechanism (or interrupter) and insulating medium is at ground voltage potential
considered “dead” in terms of voltage hazard potential. This design allows for the tank to be safely
contactable during operating conditions and located within reach of maintenance staff. Usually
however, maintenance is still conducted under de-energised conditions. An advantage of dead-tanks
is that ladders and or elevated work platforms are not usually needed during maintenance outages.
The high voltage conductors are held at safe distances away from the grounded voltage metal tank
by means of tall insulation bushings. The bushings allow for the high voltage conductors to feed
down through them and into the tank, at all times remaining insulated from the metal tank
enclosure wall. The design offers a structurally stable, four leg, horizontal tank design with high
seismic withstand capability. The dead-tank design’s main advantage however is that it allows for
the inclusion of multiple low voltage, bushing type, current transformers on both sides of the
interrupter. This configuration is highly advantageous to protection and metering secondary systems
as well as eliminating a common protection short coming known as blind spots inherit in other
current transformer/circuit breaker arrangements.
The high voltage circuit breaker live-tank configuration consists of the vessel or tank housing the
interrupter kept at what could be considered “live” or system operating voltage levels (i.e. the same
voltage level as that of the high voltage conductors feeding into the circuit breaker). The high
voltage conductors feed in and out of the interrupter housing tank which is supported at a safe
distance from the ground support structure by tall high voltage withstanding bushings. This design
allows for a smaller installation footprint to that of the dead-tank, however, the tall, top heavy, two
or single legged structure is often seen as having reduced stability and also requires ladders or
elevated work platforms for maintenance staff. External current transformers on additional adjacent
structures are also required for current detection.
24
Chapter 3
Figure 3-3 Live Tank (left) & Dead Tank (right) Circuit Breakers
Figure 3-4 Single Line Diagram Demonstrating the Different Classifications of HV Circuit Breakers
25
3.4 Current Breaking Techniques
High voltage circuit breakers have evolved at a steady pace alongside the evolving electrical power
industry. The electrical current interruption technique together with the insulation medium and the
coordination of these two design aspects has been a major overall design parameter of high voltage
circuit breakers over time. Initially air and oil served the industry as the interruption and insulation
mediums of choice. Remarkable these two initially chosen mediums served the industry so well and
reliably that many oil and some air type installations still exist in service today. The appearance of
vacuum and SF6 technologies in the late 1950’s and overwhelming industry acceptance of these
from the late 1970’s onwards has slowly but surely rendered air and oil obsolete. Vacuum and SF6
technologies offer less maintenance requirements, smaller installation footprints and superior
dielectric recovery and arc quenching abilities.
In the closed position high voltage distribution and transmission network circuit breakers allow
alternating electrical current to flow through their contacts and have no voltage drop. The ideal
operation of a circuit breaker is that when its contacts open apart the electrical current completely
stops flowing and the voltage drop across the produced contact gap is equal to the system voltage.
However, at the moment the circuit breaker contacts begin to move apart the electrons in insulating
material between the contacts begin to migrate towards the positive (anode) contact. This migration
rapidly ionises a conductive path between the two contacts. The conductive path is formed
supported by the increasing voltage drop between the separating contacts and accommodates an
electric arc. The resultant electric arc is known as a self-sustaining electrical discharge and is capable
of sustaining large electrical current flow. The arc will form on both opening and closing of a circuit
breaker, although the arc that requires interruption and control is the opening arc.
Figure 3-5 Electric arc in a gaseous medium
26
Chapter 3
3.4.1 Air & Air Blast (AB) Circuit Breakers

One of the earliest methods for making or breaking current was a plain knife switch in air, perhaps
best envisioned to that of the switch that turned Edison ear power systems on. This simply device
was limited in terms of capacity where early experimentation revealed high voltages could re-spark
across the open air gap and high currents would maintain the arc across the open air gap. More
sophisticated interpretations of the knife switch are still used in industry today however, manually
operated air break switches (ABS) are still commonly used for electrical current interruption at
lightly loaded rural substations or feeders. ABS’s are also still the isolation mechanism of choice for
no-load breaking visual isolation in most high voltage switch yards. It is known now that interrupting
the resulting self sustaining electrical arc in air is directly related to the natural deionisation process
in the air surrounding the arc. Cooling the arc increases the deionisation which in turn increases the
arc resistance. Increased arc resistance limits the arc sustaining electrical current flow and increases
the success rate of arc interruption.
In an air circuit breaker, increasing the resistance of the arc in effect increases the arc voltage. Thus,
to effectively increase the arc voltage any of the following means can be used
1. Increase the length of arc and hence the voltage drop across the arc gap
2. Split the arc into a number of short arcs connected in series, resulting a number of small
voltage drops that can sum to greater than that of one large arc’s voltage drop or even
greater than that of the system voltage enabling quick arc extinguishing.
3. Constricting the arc, by constraining it between very narrow channels. This in effect reduces
the cross section of the arc column and thus increases the arc voltage.
Methods two and three are commonly achieved by the development of the arc chute, a box like
component device that contains a number of either metallic or insulated plates. Drawing the arc into
these segmented chambers aids the cooling process of the arc. The arc can be drawn into the arc
chutes via the assistance of an arc attracting magnetic field produced by a coil known as a magnetic
blow-out coil.
Another successful electrical current interruption technique utilising air was that of the Air Blast (AB)
circuit breaker. Especially popular from the 1940’s-1970’s, until the introduction of SF6 it was the
transmission voltage class circuit breaker of choice and the only design available for successful
interruption above 330 kV. More generally the Gas-Blast circuit breaker could actually use a range of
gases other than air to successfully extinguish the arc, including; nitrogen, carbon-dioxide and
sulphur hexafluoride. There have been a couple of different designs of air blast circuit breakers
exploring a range of air blast directions, nozzle and contact configuration types.
Garzon (1997) advised that in all of the designs of air blast circuit breakers the interrupting process is
initiated by establishing the arc between two receding contacts and by, simultaneously with the
initiation of the arc, opening a pneumatic valve which produces a blast of high pressure air that
sweeps the arc column subjecting it to the intense cooling effects of the air flow.
The number of different systems (mechanical, electro-mechanical, pneumatic, electrical) that

needed to be timed perfectly for operation resulted in extensive maintenance costs. Operation of
the circuit breaker is also extremely loud and often deemed inappropriate in residential settings.
27
3.4.2 Oil Circuit Breakers

Oil insulated circuit breakers are still quite common in the electrical power distribution and
transmission industry in Australia. Despite being considered obsolete to that of newer SF6 designs in
terms of maintenance requirements and dielectric strength degradation speed, well maintained oil
circuit breakers can still be seen in service. The sheer number of oil circuit breakers previously in
service in Australia combined with infrastructure up-grade budget pressures by private and
government utilities have resulted in a small number staying in service where deemed appropriate.
Insulating oil at medium voltage applications is actually superior to that of air or SF6 at atmospheric
conditions for a given contact gap given that it is pure and non-degraded. Unfortunately however, by
nature of its sheer purpose of being the arc extinguishing medium, carbonization and hence
degradation of the oil takes place every time the oil comes into contact with an electrical arc. Small
carbon deposits resulting from in service electrical arc contact carbonization as well as water
quantities from general ingress, poor sealing or maintenance techniques can quickly degrade the
insulating oil’s dielectric strength. Oil insulated circuit breakers require regular oil monitoring and oil
changing maintenance tasks.
The basic oil insulated circuit breaker consist of a pair (one phase) or three pairs (three phases of
opening contacts used for electrical current interruption totally submerged in oil within a sealed
vessel. The insulating oil acts as both the arc extinguishing medium and as an insulation medium
between the energised high voltage contacts and conductive metal vessel housing. During the
opening operation of the current carrying contacts submerged in the oil it is the resultant hydrogen
obtained by the cracking of the oil molecules exposed to the electrical arc that serve as the arc
extinction medium.
Oil is a good extinguishing agent due to its thermal properties and its deionization time constant
which is better than air, especially at high pressures. On separation of the immersed contacts, the
resultant arc causes the oil to break down “releasing hydrogen (≈70%), ethylene (≈20%) methane
(≈10%) gas and free carbon” (Theoleyre, 1999). This gas forms a bubble which, because of the inertia
of the oil’s mass, is subjected during breaking to a dynamic pressure which can reach 5000 to 10,000
kPa. When the alternating current passes to zero, the gas expands and blows on the arc which is
extinguished.
Bulk Oil (BO) volume and minimum oil or Small Oil Volume (SOV) circuit breakers are the two
categories that oil insulated circuit breakers fall under.
In bulk oil circuit breaker designs all phase contacts are located within the same vessel and oil,
sometimes in conjunction with submerged insulating barriers such as Bakelite or compressed paper
boards. Arc resultant gas bubbles need to be restricted from forming conductive paths between
phases and the vessel wall, resulting in large tank designs. As all three phases utilise the same oil,
they require more regular oil monitoring and oil changing. Bulk oil circuit breakers are most
commonly dead-tank style circuit breakers.
28
Chapter 3
Figure 3-6 Bulk Oil (BO) Circuit Breaker (left) and Small Volume Oil (SOV) Circuit Breaker (right)
Small Oil Volume (SOV) circuit breakers utilise separate single phase insulating braking chambers to
confine the arc and resultant gas bubbles. The gas pressure increases as the arc passes through a
successive set of chambers. To help control pressure build up and venting as well as oil circulation,
baffle interrupter chambers were developed which permit the lateral venting of the pressure
generated inside of the chamber. The three pole design for a three phase circuit breaker most
commonly utilise three separate live tanks with a common mechanically linked operating
mechanism. Small Oil Volume circuit breakers only use oil in the live tank interruption chambers and
use a soild dielectric such as porcelain in the phase-to-ground support structure.
29
3.4.3 Vacuum (VAC) Circuit Breakers

Vacuum interrupters (VI) use the exceptional dielectric
characteristics and diffusion capabilities of a vacuum as
the interruption medium. Utilising vacuums and their
dielectric properties isn’t a completely new science with
knowledge of vacuum bulbs and x-ray tubes known
throughout the 1900’s. However, technical difficulties in
vacuum interrupter manufacturing held up the
introduction of vacuum interrupters on the industrial
scene until the 1960’s. These difficulties included
degassing the internal contact materials that would
otherwise degrade the vacuum once in service and
competent welding/brazing technology to attach the Figure 3-7 11kV Vacuum Circuit Breaker
vacuum’s ceramic envelope to its metallic ends.
In theory a vacuum is an ideal high dielectric medium. A vacuum does permit, in the presence of
electrical fields, or electro-magnetic fields, the passage of electrons (Beta particles), protons,
neutrons, quarks, alpha particles (helium nucleus ) etc. Astrophysics has enormous examples of this,
and valve technology uses this for its fundamental operation. However, in reality a vacuum does see
a dielectric strength limitation and this limitation is more a function of contact or electrode shape
and contact opening distance which quickly reduces effectiveness at voltages above 33 kV. For this
reason vacuum interrupter technology is mainly exclusive to medium voltage applications however
some higher voltage VIs are beginning to emerge.
The design of a vacuum interrupter stems from intense analysis of the electrical arc produced upon
opening contacts previously conducting unhindered electrical current within a vacuum. The arcing
column is made up of metal vapour and electrons coming from the contact electrodes which are
vastly different from the other interruption mediums. AC electrical current cycles from a peak
amount to zero to a negative peak amount every 20 milliseconds in Australia’s fifty hertz supply.
Between current zeros an arc has been studied to be in two states depending on current intensity.
“Namely - diffused (<2 kA) and concentrated (>10 kA)” (Theoleyre, 1999). The longer the existence
of the arc in its diffuse mode the easier it is to interrupt the flow of electrical current. Re-
establishment of the arc is supported through current zeros by high residual temperatures of the
contact material. High temperatures enable an arc anode to easily appear where a previous cathode
was. When the energy provided by the arc is no longer sufficient to maintain a high enough
temperature at the foot of the arc the arc ceases to re-establish.
A vacuum interrupter therefore seeks to minimize the heating of the contacts by maximizing the
time during which the arc remains in the diffused mode during the half current cycle. This objective
can be accomplished by designing the contacts in such way that advantage can be taken of the
interaction that exists between the current flowing through the arc and the magnetic field produced
by the current flowing through the contacts or through a coil that may be assembled as an integral
part of the interrupter. This interaction of the magnetic field can be designed in such a way that it
acts in a radial or axial direction with respect to the arc.
30
Chapter 3
Figure 3-8 Concentrated arcing (a) and diffused arcing (b) source: Cahier Technique no.193
“The radial magnetic field design establishes a field created by the current circulating in the complex
shaped electrodes designed for this purpose. The current flowing through the arc obeys
electromagnetic laws and therefore experiences a force moving it from the centre to the outside of
spiral shaped electrode contact, uniformly distributing concentrated arcing heat and aiding arc
diffusion.” (Theoleyre, 1999)
“The axial magnetic field design requires the ions to take a circular trajectory which stabilizes the
diffuse arc and delays the appearance of the concentrated state. The appearance of the arc footing
spot is avoided, erosion is limited and this enables fairly high breaking capacities to be reached.”
(Theoleyre, 1999)
The vacuum interrupter is typically constructed with a ceramic insulating envelope, sealed at both
ends with stainless steel caps. At one end of the internal envelop sits a fixed contact and the other
allows for a moving contact attached most commonly by means of a seamless metallic bellows. The
vacuum is achieved within the interrupter during manufacturing by means of an afterwards sealed
evacuation pipe or by specially design ovens that braze and evacuate the chamber simultaneously.
Figure 3-9 Radial contacts (a) and axial contacts (b) source: Cahier Technique no.193
31
3.4.4 SF6 Circuit Breakers

Due to the non-comparative superior dielectric strength recovery and arc quenching properties of
SF6 gas, SF6 gas high voltage circuit breakers have all but dominated the circuit breaker market in a
relatively short time. Vacuum interrupters are expanding their share of the medium voltage industry
but no alternative currently exists in the high voltage transmission scope where SF6 far supersedes
its air blast and oil predecessors. SF6 circuit breakers offer less maintenance and smaller installation
footprints atop their already superior dielectric recovery and arc quenching capabilities.
The extremely chemically stable gas is non-flammable, non-corrosive, colourless, odourless,

chemically inert and has high enthalpy (high dissipation of heat). The synthetic gas is the almost
perfect arc extinguishing dielectric medium.
“During the arcing phase, in which the temperature can reach between 15,000 °K and 20,000 °K, the
SF6 breaks down. This decomposition is virtually reversible: when the current is reduced the
temperature is reduced and the ions and electrons can reform to make the SF6 molecule.”
(Theoleyre, 1999)
Of the molecules that do not recombine to form SF6 post arc there are some reactive decomposition
by-products formed because of the interaction of sulphur and fluorine ions with trace amounts of
moisture, air, and other contaminants. The harmful effects of these by products are introduced in
section 1.7 (Occupational Health and Safety with SF6 ) of this publication.
The arc that forms within a SF6 circuit breaker can be described as a SF6 plasma cylinder at an
extremely hot temperature surrounded by a cooler gaseous sheath. SF6 reaches its peak thermal
conductivity at around 2,000 °K as opposed to air at 6,000 °K. This difference enables SF6 to cool
much more effectively than air at lower temperatures and is therefore a more proficient manager of
recover voltages faster. This faster time constant is appreciated in comparison to air when large
transient effects prevalent in transmission voltage levels are expected.
SF6 circuit breakers within the higher end of the

distribution voltage range are most commonly dead-tank
designs. In the transmission voltage spectrum, 132 kV
installations are common in both dead and live tank
designs with the latter typically being older designs that did
not incorporate bushing current transformers. From 132 kV
upwards to the 500 kV system in NSW, designs are
exclusively live-tank. Many in the Extra High Voltage (EHV)
range (500 kV) incorporate multiple breaking chambers,
grading capacitors and shunt resistors to aid current
interruption. Pictured right is an EHV SF6 circuit breaker
utilising dual interruption chambers and grading capacitors
SF6 circuit breakers utilise one of two different internal

interruption methods to extinguish the arc, namely the
puffer method or self blast method. Figure 3-10 EHV SF6 Circuit Breaker
32
Chapter 3
The SF6 puffer circuit breaker uses an internal puffer piston action to compress the gas and raise its
pressure to aid cooling. The gas is forced through a Teflon nozzle during the opening stoke, however
the heavy arc blocks the flow of the gas until the current decreases towards zero. This blocking
effect may increase the pressure within the cylinder to a pressure well in excess of the maximum no
load pressure. A high energy mechanism is therefore required to ensure the contact movement
velocity is maintained. As the arc approaches current zero the arc reduces in diameter allowing
maximum gas flow past the arc when it is most needed. If the recovery voltage is too great the arc
may re-strike but will subsequently be attempted to be extinguished with high success at the next
current zero.
Figure 3-11 Puffer SF6 circuit breaker opening sequence
The SF6 self blast circuit breaker utilises a valve between expansion and compression gas volumes
formed upon an opening operation. When interrupting low currents the valve opens under the
effect of the overpressure generated in the compression volume and the arc is extinguished similar
to that in a puffer system. In the case of high currents interruption, the arc energy produces a high
overpressure in the expansion volume, which leads to the closure of the valve. In this second high
current case a self blast circuit breaker uses the pressure increase created by the arc to compress
the gas which extinguishes the arc at current zero. It is possible to reduce the mechanism energy
requirement by 70% in a self blast circuit breaker. A self blast circuit breaker directs hot gas from the
arc into a heating volume adjacent to the nozzle. The hot gas mixes with cold gas in this constant
volume resulting in warm high pressure gas which returns to the arc zone at current zero. The gas
between the open contacts is cooled and interruption is achieved. Self blast pictured below (a)
closed, (b) interrupting low current, (c) interrupting high current, and (d) open.
Figure 3-12 Self blast SF6 circuit breaker
33
3.5 Maintenance
Transgrid, the NSW state transmission authority employs the follow maintenance intervals and
corresponding maintenance checks to their high voltage circuit breaker inventory. (see Appendix C)
Table 3-1 Transgrid Circuit Breaker Periodical Maintenance Checks
Interrupter Type
SF6 Types in SF6 Types
CBs other Vacuum
normal Reactive
than SF6 Types
Maintenance Checks Required application Plant
Inspection
Detailed
Minor
Minor
Minor
Minor
Major
Major
Major
Major
Timing measurement X X X X X X X X
Insulation resistance across breaks and to X X

earth
Alarm, interlocks and indication X X X X X X X X X
Energy source measurements (mechanical X X X X X X X X

tolerance and accumulator pressures)
Lubrication without dismantling X X X X X X X X
Air or hydraulic oil consumption on trip X X X X X X X

and close
SF6 gas density checks and pressure switch X X X X X X
settings
Close and trip checks:
 Operation checks (includes CO X X X X X X X X X

checks)
X X X X
 Point on Wave operation checks
Operating Mechanism Cut-in, cut-outs X X X X X X X X X
Replace Hydraulic Oil X X X X X X
For Small Oil-Non Pressurised CB units X X

change the oil
For Small Oil Pressurised CB units change
X
the oil
Bushing DDF (where DDF point fitted) X X
Contact resistance measurements X X X X X
Dynamic Contact Resistance X X X

measurements
Interrupter Inspection X X X
Condition Monitoring Device data X X X X X

download
34
Chapter 3
Table 3-2 Transgrid Circuit Breaker Maintenance Intervals
Circuit Breaker Service Intervals (All Voltages)

Operational Detailed Minor Major Service
CB Interrupter Type
Checks Inspection Service
SF6 Annual 4 yrs 8 yrs 2,500 ops
SF6 on reactive plant Annual N/A 4 yrs 12 yrs or 800 ops
SF6 capacitor >=80MVAr Annual N/A 2yrs 12 yrs or 800 ops
Small Oil Annual N/A 4 yrs 12 yrs, 800 ops
Vacuum Annual N/A 4 yrs 12 yrs or 800 ops
Bulk Oil Annual N/A 4 yrs 12 yrs or 800 ops
Soure: Table 2-1 & 2-2 (Transgrid, 2012)
35
36
Chapter 4
Chapter 4: Case Study - The Central Western NSW
Building upon the foundation knowledge of SF6 and high voltage circuit breakers presented in
Chapters Two and There, Chapter Four undertakes a regional case study to analyse actual data
concerning SF6 circuit breaker usage. Obtaining some meaningful figures concerning SF6 circuit
breaker usage in Australian regions is an important first step to any future elimination or reduction
strategies of the environmentally potent substance.
The case study seeks to determine the current, real life market share of SF6 circuit breakers as well
as the mass (kg) of SF6 gas currently in service. Data is intended to be obtained across the entire
transmission and distribution voltage spectrum. Additionally, this chapter provides a brief analysis of
the discovered trends in specific voltage range applications as well as preferred design types and
ages of equipment.
The case study focuses on the Central Western Region of NSW. The region presents a fair mixture of
generation, transmission and distribution and supports a 11-500 kV network. The region is
predominately rural but also supports some moderate urban centres as well as large coal and gold
mines.
Accurate data detailing the number of circuit breakers and their amount of in-service SF6 in
kilograms will enable the calculation of annual CO2 equivalent leakage and handing activities
emissions. The primary purpose of the case study is to gain a realistic perspective as well as obtain
tangible working numbers of the power industry’s SF6 use. The data obtained will form the basis of
subsequent chapters seeking to evaluate possible elimination or reduction strategies and their
associated benefits.
37
4.1 Central Western NSW
To analyse the usage of SF6 gas in high voltage circuit breakers in Australia, a bounded Australian
geographical region was chosen in which to investigate and record relevant data. The chosen case
study region was based on that of Central Western New South Wales, Australia. For the purposes of
this research project the region of Central West NSW was deemed appropriate as it enables a
convenient proximity for data collection as well as presenting a reasonable sample of the larger
Australian electrical network and technology mix.
The chosen case study region of approximately sixty-eight thousand square kilometres is a primarily
rural area located right in the heart of the state of New South Wales. The region lies inland, directly
west of Sydney and the Blue Mountains. With a regional population of 237,064 its major urban
centres are Bathurst, Dubbo, Orange and Lithgow
Historically, when the rural regions of NSW were first developing their electrical supply networks the
state’s electrical infrastructure outside of Sydney was made up of numerous isolated smaller
networks managed by local council governments. These small, often diesel generated, load centred,
NSW municipal networks were not connected on a state wide scale until the formation of Electricity
Commission in 1950. The eventual transmission network of initially 132 kV and later 330 and 500 kV,
connected the new larger base load generators to the previously existing local government
networks. Once connected the locally managed networks were eventually amalgamated into larger
state controlled authorities. The local government aligned, connected networks characteristic of
NSW’s overall electrical network enables convenient segmented analysis.
Figure 4-1 NSW Regional Local Government Divisions
38
Chapter 4
The Central West Electrical Transmission Network connects many of the Central Western Local
Government regions. The case study region chosen for evaluation is primarily based on the
transmission network and therefore differs slightly from the state’s allocated combined Central West
NSW Local Government region pictured below.
Figure 4-2 Central West NSW Region - Local Council Boundaries (NSW Government Region)
The subsequent case study area includes additional Local Government regions key to the Central
West Electrical Network. The regions of Dubbo and Wellington are therefore included in this scope
and the region of Bland is excluded as Bland it is connected and supplied solely from the southern
Murrumbidgee region.
Figure 4-3 Central West NSW Region - Local Council Boundaries (For Project Purposes)
39
4.2 The Central Western NSW Electrical Power Network
A Single Line Diagram of the Central West Electrical region of which the case study region is mostly
based on can be seen on the following page.
The diagram depicts the dual 500 kV line (purple) that runs from Bayswater to Bannaby down the
western side of the Blue Mountains. These lines connect the major coal fired power stations near
Muswellbrook (Bayswater 2640 MW, Liddell 2000 MW) to those near Lithgow (Mt Piper 1400 MW,
Wallerwang 1000 MW). It also runs down to the southern portion of the state (Yass, Goulburn,
Canberra). The line was intended to eventually form a ring with NSW’s other dual 500kV line that
runs down the eastern side of the Blue Mountains from Newcastle through Sydney.
From the two 500 kV Substations located in the Central West region (Wollar and Mt Piper), 330 kV
lines (blue) from each run out west to the town of Wellington near Dubbo. An additional dual 330 kV
line connects Mt Piper Substation to Wallerwang Substation and also runs across the Blue
Mountatins to help feed the western portion Sydney. The 132 kV network (red) connects the major
centres of the Central West (Bathurst, Dubbo, Orange etc) to each other and also back to the 330 kV
Substations. From there the 66 kV (Brown) feeders supply the old Local Government Networks with
some 66 kV interconnections between regions allowing for outage back-feeding and further
redundancy.
The following feeders and substations (Pink) and their associated HV Circuit Breakers have not been
included in the evaluation scope for the subsequent reasons:
The 132 kV “940” and “941” feeders to Katoomba and Lawson out of Wallerwang 132 kV substation
have been excluded as they lie outside the Central West region (considered more Blue Mountains or
Outer Sydney) and are also both maintained by Endeavour Energy of which access to their sites was
unavailable.
The 66 kV “852” feeder out of Beryl 132 kV Substation to Dunedoo and Coonabaraban was also
excluded as these sites are geographically substantially north of the chosen region and site
visits/data collection proved beyond time constraints.
The case study does include however, the circuit breaker equipment associated with the high
voltage lines that connect the Central West back to the rest of the NSW grid. The reliability of the
Central West network requires alternate supplies, as does the rest of the state require the Central
West’s infrastructure to aid its reliability. These lines are the 500 kV “5A3,4,6,7”, the 330 kV “76 and
77” lines to Sydney and the 66 kV “891”line to Young.
Consequently the case study region is largely based on the Central West Transmission Network
where possible. The final region takes in the Local Government areas of Bathurst Regional, Blayney,
Cabonne, Cowra, Dubbo, Forbes, Lachlan, Lithgow, Mid-Western Regional, Oberon, Orange, Parkes,
Weddin and Wellington. It has 14 Transmission Substations and 41 Distribution Substations.
The major load centres for the Central West include Cadia Mine, North Parkes Mine, Dubbo, Orange
and Bathurst.
The region presents an adequate mix of high voltage circuit breakers across all voltages levels
present in NSW (500-11 kV).
40
Chapter 4
Figure: 4-4 Central West NSW Region – Electrical Grid Single Line Diagram
500kV 330kV 132kV 66kV Excluded
41
Figure 4-5 Central West NSW Region –Electrical Grid Google Earth Representation
42
Chapter 4
Table 4-1 Sub-Regional Break Down of Case Study Area
Sub-Region Area Population Dwellings Major Towns Substations Generation

(𝒌𝒎𝟐 ) (MW)
Bathurst 3830 38432 15852 Bathurst 1 Transmission
Regional 4 Distribution
Blayney 1520 6991 3020 Blayney 2 Distribution 9.9 MW
Carcoar (wind)
Milthorpe
Cabonne 6080 12815 5586 Cargo 2 transmission 1 MW
Cudal 3 Distribution (landfill)
Manildra
Molong
Cowra 2780 12141 5840 Cowra 1 Transmission 22.5 MW

Woodstock 1 Distribution (hydro)
Dubbo 3410 38747 16054 Dubbo 6 Distribution
Forbes 4750 9217 4174 Forbes 1 Transmission

3 Distribution
Lachlan 15060 6509 3223 Condobolin 2 Distribution
Lithgow 4530 20050 9420 Lithgow 4 Transmission 2400 MW

Portland 1400 MW*
Wallerwang (black coal)
Mid- 8750 22391 10899 Gulgong 2 transmission
Western Kandos 6 Distribution
Regional Mudgee
Oberon 3660 5027 2597 Oberon 2 Distribution 1.32 MW
(wind)
Orange 280 38002 16048 Orange 2 Transmission
4 Distribution
Parkes 5970 14612 6564 Parkes 1 Transmission
Peak Hill 3 Distribution
Tullamore
Trundle
Weddin 3410 3647 1832 Grenfell 1 Distribution
Wellington 4120 8483 3770 Wellington 1 Transmission 14.5 MW
Geurie 4 Distribution (hydro)
14 Transmission
Total 68150 237064 104879 41 Distribution 2449.2 MW
1449.2 MW*
*Note: Wallerawang: EnergyAustralia advises that Wallerawang C unit 7 (500 MW black coal) has been removed
from service in January 2014. Unit 8 (500 MW) will remain available until the end of March 2014, and will then be
placed on a three-month recall should market conditions change. (AEMO: Australian Energy Market Operator, 2014)
reducing regional generation by 1000 MW
Source (Google Maps: NEM Power Stations and Generation Sources, 2014)
(NSW Government, 2014)
43
4.3 Data Collection Aim
The aim of the case study data collection is to collect relevant information on high voltage circuit
breakers in the case study region to obtain an overall insight into SF6 gas utilisation in this field.
SF6 insulated high voltage circuit breaker equipment has been utilized in NSW since its introduction
in the 70’s. A range of HV circuit breaker designs, models and insulation types are available in the
transmission and distribution industries. An exact market share as well as an insight into technology
trends would be vital information for analysis of any eventual SF6 equipment replacement or
reduction.
The case study region data collection phase seeks to obtain information concerning the exact
number of in-service HV circuit breakers servicing the case study area’s distribution and transmission
requirements. The exact proportion of HV circuit breakers utilising SF6 for insulation or current
breaking purposes is the most desirable objective second to the mass in kilograms of in-service SF6
gas. Subsequent relevant data concerning the possible trend towards replacing old non-SF6
insulated equipment with newer SF6 models and the growth of new infrastructure utilising SF6
equipment is also intended to be sort. Additionally, information on HV circuit breaker design types
(e.g. Dead-Tank or Live-Tank) and their respective SF6 gas mass amounts and market share trends is
desirable.
High voltage circuit breaker data can be sort from the equipment’s specific name-plate details.
Figure 4-6 Example HV Circuit Breaker Name-plate
44
Chapter 4
4.4 Data Collection Methodology
The process of collecting data regarding the quantities of SF6 gas in in-service HV circuit breaker
equipment in Central West NSW began with investigating the number and location of all
transmission and distribution substations within the boundaries of the chosen region.
Access to the 14 transmission and 41 distribution sites was achievable by means of personal or
colleague employment with the relevant utility infrastructure owners, namely Transgrid (NSW
Transmission) and Essential Energy (Non-metro NSW Distribution).
Note: Employee site access would not necessarily be considered crucial to the investigation as
similar results could have been compiled with mere site location knowledge, Google Earth, circuit
breaker types/name-plate information, internet research and staff/company public relation officer
interviews. All of the Central West substations are viewable to the general public through mesh
security fences and its concealed 11 kV indoor equipment was most commonly not of SF6 types.
Employee site access did however allow for a more accurate and comprehensive data collection.
Site visits were conducted over the two month period of June and July in 2014 in accordance with
Transgrid and Essential Energy substation entry safety rules by existing trained/inducted staff.
Where site visits were not feasible employee local knowledge and utility data base information was
sort by means of interview/discussion.
Upon site visits, the substation’s name, address, global positioning coordinates and voltage levels
were recorded. All individual HV and MV circuit breakers were then investigated and their attributes
recorded taking into consideration the voltage level, manufacturer, model, type and insulation
medium. If the insulation medium was that of SF6 gas the mass of the contained gas in kilograms
was recorded. The relevant circuit breaker attribute information can be sourced from the circuit
breaker name-plate. All high voltage equipment has an individualised name-plate attached to it in a
readable location. The name-plate contains vital information relevant to that piece of equipment
including manufacturer, model number, mass, manufacture date, service voltage and other
individualised information.
In some transmission substations it was noted that a proportion of HV live-tank circuit breakers
utilised SF6 filled associated post current transformers (CTs) and therefore the mass of SF6 gas in
these associated CTs was recorded as well. Equipment installation dates were desirable but exact
dates proved difficult to obtain in all circumstances. An installation window of whether or not the
equipment had been installed within the last five years was considered obtainable to gain an
approximate trend in new equipment and aging equipment replacements. Installation information
was located from onsite log books, utility data bases, and onsite employee interviews.
The Recorded information was then tabulated in a large Excel spread sheet to allow for convenient
data analysis and query. The site global positioning coordinates were used to map the case study
substations sites on Google Earth. The 55 Google Earth sites were then connected by their respective
transmission and distribution lines for presentation purposes.
45
4.5 Results
A simplified representation of the obtained data collection results from the case study area is
presented below.
4.5.1 Transmission Sites Results

Table 4-2 Transmission Sites Circuit Breaker Data
Site Circuit Breaker No. CB’s

Make Model Type kV 𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) Inst 5yrs
Wollar 500kV Siemens 3AP2F1-2 SF6 Live Tank 500 64.4 3
Barigan Rd, Wollar
Mt Piper 500kV Siemens 3AP3F1-2 SF6 Live Tank 500 96.7 10
Boulder Rd, Portland Sprecher HGF215/2B SF6 Live Tank 330 33 7
Siemens 3AP2F1 SF6 Live Tank 330 64.4 2
Siemens 3AQ2 SF6 Live Tank 330 24 6
ASEA HLR 145 250E Small Oil Vol 132 0 1
Wallerawang 330kV Areva GL 315 SF6 Live Tank 330 40.4 7
Heel St, Wallerwang Areva GL 315 SF6 Live Tank 330 40.4 Yes 2
M&G FA2 SF6 Live Tank 330 40 3
Siemens 3 AS 2 SF6 Live Tank 330 43 2
Wellington 330kV Siemens 3 AS 2 SF6 Live Tank 330 43 5
Goolma Rd, Wellington Areva GL315 SF6 Live Tank 330 40.4 2
Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 132 26.7 Yes 1
ABB LTB145D1 SF6 Live Tank 132 5 4
Alstom S1 145 F1 SF6 Live Tank 132 11.6 1
Wallerawang 132kV Areva DT1 145F1 SF6 Dead Tank 132 34 Yes 13
Heel St, Wallerwang Areva DT1 72.5F1 SF6 Dead Tank 66 13 Yes 11
Mt piper 132kV ASEA HLR 145 250E Small Oil Vol 132 0 6
Boulder Rd, Portland ASEA HLR 84 2501B Small Oil Vol 66 0 7
Beryl 132kV Areva GL 312 SF6 Live Tank 132 9.9 2
Beryl Rd, Beryl Siemens 3AP1FG SF6 Live Tank 132 9.8 2
Areva GL 309 SF6 Live Tank 66 7.4 3
ASEA HLC 72.5 Small Oil Vol 66 0 1
Siemens 3AP1FG SF6 Live Tank 66 4.5 2
Orange 132kV ASEA HLD 145 Small Oil Vol 132 0 1
William St, Orange Siemens 3AP1FG SF6 Live Tank 132 9.8 2
Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 132 26.7 4
ABB LTB145D1 SF6 Live Tank 132 5 1
Delle HPGE 9/12E Small Oil Vol 66 0 12
Orange North 132kV Areva DT1 145F1 SF6 Dead Tank 132 34 Yes 13
McLachlan St, Orange
Panarama 132kV ASEA HLR 145 250E Small Oil Vol 132 0 4
Mid-Western Hwy, Bathurst ASEA HLC 72.5 Small Oil Vol 66 0 8
Alstom GL 390 F1 SF6 Live Tank 66 6 2
Cowra 132kV Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 132 26.7 2
Bulkhead Rd, Cowra Siemens 3AP1FG SF6 Live Tank 132 9.8 2
Alstom S1 145 F1 SF6 Live Tank 132 9 2
ABB EDFSK1-1 SF6 Live Tank 66 2.5 7
Alstom GL 390 F1 SF6 Live Tank 66 6 2
Forbes 132kV Alstom S1 145 F1-3 SF6 Live Tank 132 12 2
Newell Hwy, Forbes Areva S1 145 F1-3 SF6 Live Tank 132 12 1
Alstom S1 72.5 F1 SF6 Live Tank 66 3 3
GEC FXT-9 SF6 Live Tank 66 3.5 2
ABB SK 1-1 SF6 Live Tank 66 2.5 1
46
Chapter 4

Parkes 132kV Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 132 26.7 Yes 2
Pat Meredith Dr, Parkes Sprecher HGF 312 SF6 Live Tank 132 6 4
GEC FXT-9 SF6 Live Tank 66 3.5 4
Areva GL 390 F1 SF6 Live Tank 66 6 1
Molong 132kV Alstom S1 145 F1 SF6 Live Tank 132 9 4
Delight St, Molong Alstom S1 72.5 F1 SF6 Live Tank 66 3 3
Reyrolle LMVP Vacuum 11 0 6
Manildra 132kV Alstom S1 145 F1 SF6 Live Tank 132 9 3
Old Orange Rd, Manildra Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 132 26.7 1
4.5.2 Distribution Sites Results

Table 4-3 Distribution Sites Circuit Breaker Data

Bathurst 66kV Alstom unknown SF6 Dead Tank 66 13 Yes 10
Russell St, Bathurst Email J18 Bulk Oil 11 0 9
Bathurst Uni 11kV Holec unknown Vacuum 11 0 1
Blayney 66kV Reyrolle LMVP Vacuum 11 0 10
Marshall Lane, Blaney Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 6
Burrendong Dam 66kV unknown unknown unknown 66 0 1
Canowidra 66kV Hawk Sid Horizon SF6/Vac 11 2.6 2
Eugowra Rd, Canowindra Sprecher FXT-9 SF6 Live Tank 66 3.5 1
Condobolin 66kV Hawk Sid Horizon SF6/Vac 22 2.6 9
Maitland St, Condobolin AEI LGIC/44 Bulk Oil 22 0 1
Cowra 66kV M&G Evolis 17P1 Vacuum 11 0 14
Wyangla Rd, Cowra Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 Yes 2
Cumnock 66kV Kyle KFME Oil Re-closer 11 0 4
Baldry Rd, Baldry Siemens 3AP1FG SF6 Live Tank 66 4.5 Yes 1
Dubbo 132kV Delle HPGE 9/12E Small Oil Vol 66 0 1
Wheelers Lane, Dubbo Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 7
Sprecher FXT-9 SF6 Live Tank 66 3.5 2
Alstom S1 72.5 F1 SF6 Live Tank 66 3 1
ABB EDF SK1-1 SF6 Live Tank 66 2.5 1
Oerlikon TOF 60.6 Small Oil Vol 66 0 1
ASEA HLR 145 2502B Small Oil Vol 132 0 1
Alstom DT1 145 F1 SF6 Dead Tank 132 34 1
Sprecher HGF 112-1 SF6 Live Tank 132 4 1
Dubbo South 132kV Siemens 3AH5204-2 Vacuum 11 0 10
Boundary Rd, Dubbo Areva DT1 145 F1 SF6 Dead Tank 132 34 Yes 4
Dubbo West 132kV Reyrolle LMVP Vacuum 11 0 9
West St, West Dubbo Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 132 26.7 4
Eulomogo 66kV M&G Evolis 17P1 Vaccum 11 0 10
Sheraton Rd, Dubbo ASEA HLR 72.5 Small Oil Vol 66 0 4
Forbes 66kV
Patterson St, Forbes M&G Evolis 17P1 Vaccum 11 0 14
Geurie 11kV Nu-Lec N15 SF6/Vac 11 1.8 1
Mitchell Hwy, Geurie Nu-Lec U15 Vacuum 11 0 3
Grenfell 66kV Kyle KFME Oil Re-closer 11 0 4
Cowra rd, Grenfell Sprecher FXT-9 SF6 Live Tank 66 3.5 1
Gulgong 66kV
Fisher St, Gulgong M&G DM1-A SF6 Live Tank 22 2 3
Ilford 132kV ASEA HLR 145 2502B Small Oil Vol 132 0 1
Ilford Hall Rd, Ilford Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 1
Areva unknown SF6 Dead Tank 66 15 1
47

Schnider unkown SF6 Dead Tank 66 2.9 1
Lake Cargellico 66kV
Lake Rd, Lake Cargelligo Nu-Lec N24 SF6/Vac 22 1.8 2
Mandurma 66kV Nu-Lec N24 SF6/Vac 11 1.8 3
Felltimber Rd, Mandurama Reyrolle 66 OSM Small Oil Vol 66 0 1
Molong 66kV Galileo OCE60 Small Oil Vol 66 0 3
South St, Molong W’house unknown Bulk Oil 11 0 2
Moolarben 66kV
Ulan Rd, Ulan Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 Yes 1
Mudgee 132kV Hawk Sid Horizon Vacuum 22 2.6 10
Mortimer St, Mudgee GEC GL 107 SF6 22 2.5 1
Siemens 3AQ1FG SF6 Live Tank 66 4.4 Yes 1
Mumbil 11kV
Neirea Rd, Mumbil Kyle KFME Oil Re-closer 11 0 3
Oberon 132kV ABB SACE HA1/ZC SF6 11 1 12
Lowes Mount Rd, Oberon ABB LTB145D1 SF6 Live Tank 132 5 3
Oberon 66kV M&G Evolis 17P1 Vacuum 11 0 10
O’Connell Rd, Oberone ASEA HLC 72.5 Small Oil Vol 66 0 1
Orange Industrial 66kV BBC HBS 12.06.25C SF6 11 1 11
Cleargate Rd, Orange EIB HPFA 409G Small Oil Vol 66 0 4
Orange North 66kV
March St, Orange Reyrolle LMVP Vacuum 11 0 14
Orange South 66kV Reyrolle LMVP Vacuum 11 0 17
Lords Place, Orange Siemens 3AQ1FG SF6 Live Tank 66 4.4 Yes 3
Orange West 66kV GEC SBV2 Vacuum 11 0 11
Glendale Cres, Orange Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 1
EIB HPFA 409G Small Oil Vol 66 0 3
Parkes Town 66kV Siemens 3AH5204-2 Vacuum 11 0 15
Brolgan Rd, Parkes Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 4
Sprecher FXT-9 SF6 Live Tank 66 3.5 1
Paytens Bridge 66kV AEI JB821 Oil 11 0 3
Paytens Bridge Delle HPGE 9/12E Small Oil Vol 66 0 1
Peak Hill 66kV Nu-Lec N15S SF6/Vac 11 1.8 4
Whitten Park Rd, Peak Hill Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 Yes 1
Phillip St (Dubbo) 66kV
Phillip St, Dubbo Reyrolle LMVP Vacuum 11 0 13
Raglan 66kV Siemens 3AF0143-4 Vacuum 11 0 8
Adrienne St, Raglan Areva GL 107 SF6 Live Tank 11 2.5 3
M&G Evolis 17P1 Vacuum 11 0 3
Hawk Sid Vaccum 11 2.6 1
ASEA HLC 72.5 Small Oil Vol 66 0 4
Stewart 66kV GEC SBV2 Vacuum 11 0 11
Mitchell highway, Bathurst ASEA HLC 72.5 Small Oil Vol 66 0 5
Trundle 66kV Hawk Sid Horizon Vacuum 22 2.6 4
Back Trundle Rd, Trundle Nu-Lec N15S SF6/Vac 11 1.8 3
Ulan 66kV
Ulan Rd, Ulan Nu-Lec N24 SF6/Vac 22 1.8 3
Ulan Switch 66kV Siemens 3AQ1FG SF6 Live Tank 66 4.4 1
Ulan Rd, Ulan ASEA HLC 72.5 Small Oil Vol 66 0 6
Wellington Town 132kV M&G Evolis 17P1 Vacuum 11 0 9
Pierce St, Wellington ASEA HLC 72.5 Small Oil Vol 66 0 3
EIB HGF 312 SF6 Live Tank 132 4 1
West Jemalong 66kV Reyrolle LMVP Vacuum 11 0 7
Condobolin Rd, West Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 Yes 2
Jemalong Siemens 3AQ1FG SF6 Live Tank 66 4.4 4
Yarrendale 66kV ASEA HLC 72.5 Small Oil Vol 66 0 1
Yarrendale Rd, Yarrendale Siemens 3AP1DT SF6 Dead Tank 66 13.7 Yes 1
48
Chapter 4
4.5.3 Results Graphics
Circuit Breakers Less than 66kV
30
10%
42
Vacuum
13%
Bulk Oil
26 SF6/Vacuum
SF6
8%
214
69% 135.4kg of SF6
Figure 4-7 Pie Chart of Case Study Results - Circuit Breaker Types (less than 66kV)
The below 66 kV range was made up of the 11 and 22 kV distribution circuit breakers. In this range,
the 312 circuit breakers, the majority utilised vacuum interrupters. A moderately low number of SF6
breakers were recorded. The 42 SF6 /vacuum models only use SF6 gas for phase to ground
insulation, utilising vacuum interrupters for current breaking.
Circuit Breakers 66kV
50
69 26%
37% SF6 Live Tank
SF6 Dead Tank
Small Oil Volume
69 1121.7kg of SF6
37%
Figure 4-8 Pie Chart of Case Study Results - Circuit Breaker Types (66kV)
Above 66 kV the choice of circuit breaker was limited to either SF6 dead/live-tank or Small Oil
Volume (SOV) Designs. The 188 Circuit breakers saw a nearly equal share of the three types.
49
Circuit Breakers 132kV
24
22% 35
32% SF6 Live Tank
SF6 Dead Tank
Small Oil Volume
50 1840.5kg of SF6
46%
Figure 4-9 Pie Chart of Case Study Results - Circuit Breaker Types (132kV)
The 109 132 kV circuit breakers displayed a surprisingly large market share of the popular SF6 dead-
tank design type. This number was contributed by two fairly recently constructed 132 kV substations
in the case study area that utilised only dead-tank designs.
Circuit Breakers 330kV and Above
SF6 Live Tank
49 2529.4kg of SF6
100%
Figure 4-10 Pie Chart of Case Study Results - Circuit Breaker Types (330kV and Above)
The 49, 330 kV and above circuit breakers were all SF6 live-tank models. In this range few other
designs can functionally compete.
50
Chapter 4
4.6 Age of Oil Circuit Breakers/Growth of 𝐒𝐅𝟔 Circuit Breakers
The case study reveals two main types of high voltage circuit breakers in use: Small Oil Volume (SOV)
and SF6 . The NSW state transmission authority Transgrid, suggests in its Network Management Plan
2011-2016 (see Appendix D) that:
“Small Oil Volume circuit breakers are now considered to be obsolete technology and this type of
circuit breaker is no longer generally available. Maintenance costs for this type of circuit breaker are
higher than SF6 units, and a substantial level of maintenance knowledge and effort are required to
ensure continued reliability of the circuit breakers. Support for these circuit breakers from
manufacturers is limited as this type is no longer supplied.” (Transgrid, 2011)
Transgrid indicates that an expected economic life of a HV circuit breaker is up to 40 years or shorter
taking into consideration reliability and supportability. Transgrid and the distribution authority
Essential Energy conduct economic evaluations on circuit breaker replacements on a case by case
basis. Occasionally entire model replacements are recommended where trending data indicates
future type faults are a high possibility.
Aging circuit breaker replacement is not limited to obsolete Small Oil Volume types but can also
encompass early SF6 designs (1975-1987). These designs have also proven to be prone to type faults
(e.g. corrosion, gas leaks) and refurbishment programs have been largely proven unsuccessful.
Transgrid as an entire company employs 1483 high voltage circuit breakers in its NSW transmission
infrastructure, ranging from 11-500 kV. The company stopped purchasing Small Oil Volume type
circuit breakers in the late 80’s and has a diminishing number of the aging technology still in service.
The overwhelming majority of obsolete Small Oil Volume circuit breakers are replaced with new SF6
models in the 33 kV and above voltage ranges.
Age of In-service Circuit Breakers (Transgrid)
400
350
300
250
No. Circuit
Breakers
200
150
100
50
0
1965-1969 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004 2005-2010
Time Period Purchased
Small Oil Vol Bulk Oil SF6 Vacuum
Figure 4-11 Bar Graph of Types of Circuit Breakers Purchased 1965-2010 (Transgrid)
51
Table 4-4 Circuit Replacements from 2011 Onwards
Make Model Type kV Install Project No. in Case No. in Case

Date Time Study Area Study Area
Range Frame (Transgrid) (total)
Brown Boveri ELF SF6 66 1981-86 2013 0 0
Delle HPGE Small Oil Vol 66 1973-75 2018 14 17
ASEA HLD Small Oil Vol 132 1968-81 2020 1 1
M&G FA1 SF6 132 1980-86 2013 0 0
ASEA HKEY Small Oil Vol 132 1957-60 2011 0 0
ASEA HLR Small Oil Vol 132 1972-84 2014 21 23
Sprecher HPF Small Oil Vol 330 1976-81 2015 0 0
M&G FA2 SF6 330 1980-84 2019 3 3
M&G FA4 SF6 500 1982-83 2017 0 0
ASEA HLR Small Oil Vol 66 1983 as req. 16 20
Magrini Bulk Oil 11 unknown 2016 0 0
Siemens 3AS2 SF6 330 1982-84 as req. 7 7
Siemens 3QS2 SF6 330 1991-93 as req. 6 6
Total: 68 77
Transgird’s 2011-2016 Network Management Plan identifies 13 HV circuit breaker models it plans on
replacing in the next five years. Six of these models are Small Oil Volume types in the 66 kV and
above voltage range which will more than likely need to be replaced with SF6 models.
If Essential Energy follows a similar replacement strategy as Transgird it is plausible that a total of 61
new SF6 type HV circuit breakers could be installed in the case study area in the next five years.
An analysis of the new equipment installed across the case study area in the previous five years
presents that of a coincidental 61 newly installed circuit breakers (66-132 kV) all of which were SF6
type.
Of these 61 new installations in the 66-132 kV range the majority were of dead-tank type
construction. Dead-tank SF6 circuit breakers contain significantly more SF6 gas then their live-tank
counterparts. The average 66 kV SF6 dead-tank contains 13 kg of SF6 gas compared to the average
SF6 live-tank that contains about 4 kg. The 132 kV SF6 circuit breaker range sees about a 27 kg to
10 kg difference in the dead-tank and live-tank designs respectively.
The 66 kV SF6 circuit breaker range saw 95% of new installations within the last 5 years to be
dead-tank type construction with the Siemens 3AP1DT being the most popular. The 132 kV range
saw a 100% market share of newly installed SF6 dead-tanks with the Areva DT1 145F1 the most
popular in this range. The dead-tank type construction is often stipulated in the model number with
the letters “DT”
52
Chapter 4
Newly Installed Circuit Breakers 66kV (Casey Study)
10
24% 16
38% Siemens 3AP1DT
Siemens 3AP/Q1FG
Areva DT1 72.5F1
11 Alstom DT 72.5
26% 5
12%
Figure 4-12 Pie Chart of Case Study Results – Newly Installed Circuit Breaker Types (66kV)
Newly Installed Circuit Breakers 132kV (Casey Study)
5
26%
Siemens 3AP1DT
Areva DT1 145F1
14
74%
Figure 4-13 Pie Chart of Case Study Results – Newly Installed Circuit Breaker Types (132kV)
53
4.7 Dead-Tank vs Live-Tank
From the case study results it is apparent that dead-tank type circuit breaker construction is the
preferred design type of new SF6 circuit breaker installations in the 66-132 kV range. Of the 205 in-
service SF6 66-132 kV circuit breakers in the case study region 119 (58%) were dead-tanks.
Dead-tank designs in NSW have been installed from 2001 onwards. Many manufactures including
Siemens, Alstom, Areva and Mitsubishi offer competitive dead-tank designs. Dead-tank designs
require roughly three times the SF6 gas needed for insulation purposes then their live tank
counterparts. This last decade’s movement towards dead-tank designs is seeing a growing shift in
their installations and consequently a growing amount of in service SF6 gas.
132kV & 66kV SF6 Dead Tank vs Live Tank Comparison (Casey Study)
132kV 50 35
66kV 69 51
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

66kV 132kV
SF6 Dead Tank 69 50
SF6 Live Tank 51 35
Figure 4-14 Bar Chart 132kV and 66kV SF6 Dead Tank and Live Tank Comparisons
Dead-tank designs are seen as preferable as they allow for the interrupter tank to be located at
ground voltage potential considered “dead” in terms of the voltage hazard potential. The design
type allows for the tank to be safely contactable during operating conditions.
The dead-tank design’s main advantage is that it allows for the inclusion of multiple low voltage,
bushing type, current transformers on both sides of the interrupter. Current transformers are vital
for conveying a useable, reduced ratio, representation of the primary operating current. The
reduced secondary current is supplied to protection and metering relays which monitor and operate
the circuit breaker in the event of a high current fault. This reduced representative current supplied
to the relays allows for smaller secondary cable sizes and reduced relay component insulation. The
dead-tank’s all in one compact design is seen as superior to the live-tank design which utilises
separate high voltage “post” current transformers on adjacent structures giving the live-tank
infrastructure an unwanted overall larger installation footprint.
54
Chapter 4
4.8 SF6 Metering Current Transformers
Although live-tank SF6 circuit breaker designs exhibit lower amounts of required SF6 gas insulation,
this is not always the case given the overall infrastructure needed for circuit breaker operation.
When considering a circuit breaker’s current transformer (CT) requirements, additional SF6 may not
have been accounted for.
As mentioned previously, a high voltage circuit breaker requires extremely accurate CTs to convey
smaller representative currents to protection relays. The protection relays utilise the secondary
representative currents to determine whether the circuit breaker needs to operate in the event of
large fault currents. Live-tank circuit breaker designs minimise the overall required amount of non-
solid insulation medium (oil or SF6 ) by housing only the interruption vessel (or tank) atop solid-
dielectric post insulators. Unlike the dead-tank design the required CTs are not housed within the
same unit. Being that the interruption tank is held at the “live” operating high voltage level, further
insulation and a cumbersome design would be required to accommodate “built in” CTs.
As such, the CTs required for live-tank circuit breakers are housed inside or on top of separate,
specific high voltage, “post CTs”. These post CTs live separately on directly adjacent structures in
series with the circuit breaker.
Traditional HV CTs most commonly consisted of a “hairpin” primary conductor that loops down
though multiple toroidal current transformers all submerged in insulating oil. The submerged
current transformers are housed in a tank at ground potential whilst the hairpin extends up though
the post porcelain housing to the high voltage conductors. As the transformer oil is rarely subject to
arcing the oil does not suffer the same high maintenance regimes associated with carbonising circuit
breaker oil, however it does still require periodic monitoring. For this reason oil post CTs have been
regarded as adequate for their purpose however rising maintenance and condition monitoring cost
have seen an onset of new designs.
Live-tank post CTs are a more modern design where the primary conductor and current transformers
are housed in a tank held at the live operating voltage atop a post insulator. The secondary wiring is
insulated and taken to ground. This design often utilises SF6 as the tank filled insulation medium.
The shorter primary conductor of this arrangement gives better rigidity and high short circuit current
withstanding capability.
In the case study area 46 live-tank circuit breakers were observed to have SF6 insulated adjacent
post CTs utilising a total of 4239 kg of SF6 . Three CTs per circuit breaker gave a total of 138 SF6
insulated CTs. Disregarding the 500 kV range where 100% of circuit breakers are SF6 live-tanks with
SF6 post CTs, the post CT equipment category adds a further 2304.6kg of in service SF6 to the case
study area.
33% of 330 kV circuit breakers in the case study area (all live-tanks in this range) utilised SF6
insulated post CT’s. In the 132 kV range 25.53% of live-tanks used SF6 insulated post CT’s and 5.66%
of 66 kV live-tanks.
55
Table 4-5 Case Study Area SF6 Current Transformer Results
Site Circuit Breaker No. CB’s CT Total 𝐒𝐅𝟔

Make Model kV 𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) per CT (kg)
Forbes 132kV Areva S1 145 F1-3 132 1 13.5 40.5
Molong 132kV Alstom S1 72.5 F1 66 3 6.4 57.6
Molong 132kV Alstom S1 145 F1 132 4 6.6 79.2
Orange 132kV Siemens 3AP1FG 132 2 13.5 81
Mt Piper 500kV Siemens 3AP2F1 330 2 25.7 154.2
Wallerawang 330kV Areva GL 315 330 2 25.7 154.2
Wallerawang 330kV Siemens 3 AS 2 330 2 25.7 154.2
Wellington 330kV Areva GL315 330 2 25.7 154.2
Wellington 330kV ABB LTB145D1 132 5 13.5 202.5
Wallerawang 330kV M&G FA2 330 3 36 324
Wollar 500kV Siemens 3AP2F1-2 500 3 49.6 446.4
Wallerawang 330kV Areva GL 315 330 7 43 903
Mt Piper 500kV Siemens 3AP3F1-2 500 10 49.6 1488
Total 46 4239
Figure 4-15 Live-tank Circuit Breakers with adjacent SF6 Post CTs (left) and Oil Post CTs (right)
56
Chapter 4
4.9 Re-closers
Another important consideration in the case study area’s SF6 quantities is that of Line Re-closers. A
Line Re-closer is a pole mounted circuit breaker that resides outside the substation along MV
distributions lines (mainly 11-22 kV) to sectionalise the line in the event of a fault. In particular on
long sections of radial lines, the use of multiple Re-closers enables a minimum amount of supply loss
to customers. When a fault occurs on a radial line the closest Re-closer upstream of the fault will
operate. The operation of the Re-closer cuts supply to the downstream faulted section of line whilst
ensuring supply is unaffected upstream. A Re-closer earns its name from its ability to re-close
automatically after a small time delay post fault operation. This time delay often lets any previous
fault instigators, such as a fallen tree branch, clear and supply is restored open re-closing. A Re-
closer can often be set to operate or “trip” and then close multiple times in an effort to allow the
fault a chance to clear. Mainly rural feeders utilise Re-closers due to their long distance nature
where it would be inconvenient to lose supply to the whole line when the fault could be sectioned
off only at the extreme end.
Evaluation of every feeder in the 11-22 kV range in the case study area would be a large evaluation.
For the purpose of this research project ten rural feeders were chosen at random and the types of
Re-closers utilised recorded.
Table 4-6 Feeder Re-closer Numbers: Case Study Sample
Re-closer Feeders Insulation

Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Medium
Noja 1 1 1 1 4 2 2 2 1 2 Solid-dielectric
Reyrolle 1 1 1 1 1 Oil
Lexington 4 2 3 1 Oil
Nu-Lec N 3 6 4 4 3 3 4 3 2 SF6/Vacuum
Nu-Lec U 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 Solid-dielectric
Nu-Lec W 1 Solid-dielectric
Nu-Lec 2 3 3 1 1 2 3 Solid-dielectric
Duo
Kyle 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Oil
One popular type of Re-closer is the Nu-Lec N Series. The N Series utilises vacuum interrupters
within a SF6 filled tank (SF6 for phase to ground insulation purposes). The N Series can handle up to
38 kV operating voltages and has relatively high fault current interrupting capabilities. Its
self-sustaining control system runs off small batteries re-charged from the HV conductors via a small
power transformer which makes it convenient for outlying rural substations also.
Of the 312, 11-22 kV circuit breakers in substations in the case study area a conservative
approximation of 20% could be assumed as supplying rural feeders. From the sampled data it could
be hypothesised that each rural feeder has an average of 3.2 N Series Nu-Lec Re-closers. The 61
likely rural feeders could accommodate 195 N series Re-closers given the sampled data trends. Each
N Series Nu-Lec contains 1.8 kg of SF6 gas, equating to approximately 350 kg of additional SF6 in the
case study area.
57
4.10 Environmental Effects and Cost
From data collected it can be deduced that transmission and distribution substations in the case
study area employ a total of 9866kg of in-service SF6 gas for circuit breaker and associated current
transformer purposes in 11-500 kV equipment range. With an additional estimated 350 kg for
distribution line Re-closers the case study could quite possibly contain excess of 10,216 kg of SF6 gas
in its electrical infrastructure network. The over 10 tonnes of stored SF6 has a global warming
potential of 23,900 times that of carbon dioxide.
Of the contained 10 tonne potential, minimal environmental impact is caused unless the gas is
released to the atmosphere. The two main causes of SF6 gas loss from HV circuit breaker equipment
are vessel/seal leaks and losses during handling activities such as routine maintenances.
The Australian Government Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency in its National
Greenhouse Accounts Factors report of July 2012 present an annual SF6 gas leakage rate of gas
insulated switchgear and circuit breaker applications as 0.89% of capacity (see Appendix E). This
figure is based on the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting (Measurement) Determination
2008 (Section 4. 102)
Using the example calculations in the report as basis to determine the CO2 equivalent, the case
study area leakage emissions (𝐸𝑙 ) are calculated by:
𝑄 × 𝐺𝑊𝑃 (4.1)
𝐸= ×𝐿
1000
Where:
E = Emissions (tonnes CO2 )
Q = Quantity (kg)
GWP = substance global warming potential rating
L = Annual leakage rate (decimal %) i.e. 10% = 0.1
10216 × 23900
𝐸𝑙 = × 0.0089 = 2173 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2
1000
Maintenance wise “Typically between 2 % and 0.4% of the name plate capacity’ is lost during
handling activates” (Rhiemeier, et al., 2010). At minimum a detailed inspection of a SF6 filled circuit
breaker is required every 4 years (in reality SF6 alarms or circuit breaker service faults could cause
for more regular handling activities). A detailed inspection requires SF6 density and pressure checks
which require SF6 handling activities. Taking an average handling loss as 1.2% of capacity every four
years (or 0.3% annually) the handling emissions of the case study area can be calculated as:
58
Chapter 4
Annual handling emissions (𝐸ℎ ) of case study equipment can similarly be calculated as:
10216 × 23900
𝐸ℎ = × 0.003 = 732.5 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2
1000
The total annual case study 𝐒𝐅𝟔 emissions can be calculated as:
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑙 + 𝐸ℎ (4.2)
Total annual case study 𝐒𝐅𝟔 emissions = 2905.5 tonnes 𝐂𝐎𝟐 equivalent
Using the above leakage and handling loss rates and the annual cost of SF6 replacement at a rate of
$55 per kilogram, the annual cost of SF6 replacement in the case study area can also be determined,
and has been calculated as:
𝐶 = ((𝑄 × 𝐿𝑙 ) + (𝑄 × 𝐿ℎ )) × 𝑐 (4.2)
Where:
C = Annual cost of SF6 ($)

Q = Quanty (kg)
𝐿𝑙 = Annual leakage rate, leakage (decimal %)
𝐿ℎ = Annual leakage rate, handling (decimal %)
c = substance cost per kilogram ($/kg)
((10216 × 0.0089) + (10216 × 0.003)) × 55 = $6686.37
This equates to $267,454 over the 40 year life cycles of typical circuit breakers.
Alternatively, if carbon pricing for CO2 was returned to $23/tonne, this would equate to 10 times the
value: $2,674,548
Note: leakage = 90.92kg SF6 , handling loss = 30.65kg SF6
59
4.11 Case Study Data Summary
Table 4-7 Case Study Data Summary
Population: 237,064
Area: 2 68,150
(𝑘𝑚 )
Dwellings: 104,879
Generation: (MW) 2449.2 (1449.2 Wallerawang closed)
Substations: No. Mass of SF6 (kg)

Distribution: 41 1281.4
Transmission: 14 8584.6
total: 55 9866.0
Circuit Breakers No. Mass of SF6 (kg)

11 kV 279 58.1
22 kV 33 77.3
66 kV 189 1121.7
132 kV 109 1840.5
330 kV 36 1369.2
500 kV 13 1160.2
total: 659 5627.0
Current Transformers No. Mass of SF6 (kg)

66 kV 9 57.6
132 kV 36 403.2
330 kV 54 1843.8
500 kV 39 1934.4
total: 138 4239.0
Re-closers* No. Mass of SF6 (kg)

195 350
New CBs (<5yrs) No. Mass of SF6 (kg)

66 kV 42 514.3
132 kV 19 1180.9
total: 61 1695.2
CB Replacement (5yrs) No. Mass of SF6 (kg)

66 kV 37 0
132 kV 24 0
330 kV 16 565
total: 77 565
Annual Emissions % Mass of SF6 (kg) 𝐂𝐎𝟐 Equivalent (tonne)

Leakage 0.89 90.26 2173.0
Handling Activities 0.30 30.65 732.5
Total: 1.29 120.91 2905.5
*calculations based on reasonable assumptions.
60
Chapter 5
Chapter 5: SF6 Replacement & Reduction: Materials, Technologies &

Strategies
Chapter Five of this dissertation explores materials, technologies and strategies to replace or reduce
SF6 and its associated emissions in high voltage circuit breaker applications. Due to the
environmental and OH&S concerning attributes of SF6 , replacement and reduction strategies are
seeing further development and utilisation. With the major use of SF6 being for insulation in HV
circuit breakers and their associate apparatus, innovations providing either replacement or
reduction in this field are highly welcomed.
Chapter Three explained that after the overwhelming industry acceptance of SF6 insulated circuit
breaker technology in 1970’s and 80’s there was few innovations in circuit breaker and interrupter
designs. The industry experienced a relatively stagnate innovative period leading into the new
millennium, excusably content with the highly reliable, low maintenance, space saving and
affordable designs offered by SF6 .
It wasn’t until the global community became more concerned with climate change in the early
2000’s that an awareness of SF6 and its global warming potential sparked a re-consideration of the
medium. By this time, 30 plus years of continued investment in SF6 circuit breakers had refined the
design to such proficiency and market affordability that alternatives would have to be extraordinary
to compete. Energy is one of the most scrutinised and essential commodities. Energy providing
utilities suffer extreme public and consequently government pressure to ensure that their service is
of the highest possible reliability at affordable prices. Hence the industry as a majority is quite
conservative when it comes to new technology that seeks to replace its already reliable service at
“acceptable” prices.
Despite this conservative nature, recent public environmental awareness pressure has seen a re-
evaluation of some previously overlooked technologies prior to the SF6 revolution as well as the
introduction of some new ideas. This Chapter examines more closely these technologies and also
strategies that seek to reduce or eliminate SF6 in HV circuit breakers and associated apparatus. The
concepts presented are a mixture of some already industry accepted practices gaining popularity to
some that are in theoretical stages. However all boast competitiveness to SF6 , with some even
suggesting benefits (beyond environmental) above what SF6 designs currently offer.
The seven replacement/reduction concepts are:
1. solid-dielectric circuit breakers

2. dry air/vacuum circuit breakers
3. Live-tank circuit breakers with Oil current transformers
4. Live-tank circuit breakers with non-conventional current transformers (NCCT)
5. Octafluorocyclobutante
6. Leakage monitoring - specialist camera equipment
7. Government regulations.
61
5.1 Continual Development of the Vacuum Interrupter (VI)
The first two SF6 alternatives presented in this chapter have relied heavily upon the development of
the vacuum interrupter (VI) over the past half century. Being that the vacuum interrupter is one of
the most promising alternatives; its developments are therefore worthy of a brief consideration.
5.1.1 Vacuum Interrupter Limitations

Vacuum Circuit Breakers came into use in the 1960’s. In theory a vacuum is an ideal dielectric
medium - no substance should result in any conducting electrons. However, in reality a vacuum does
see a dielectric strength limitation and this limitation is more a function of contact or electrode
shape, as well as the contact material used and contact opening distance. The required contact
distance to maintain dielectric strength for a vacuum interrupter increases quite quickly for voltages
above 30 kV. For this reason VI technology has previously been exclusive to medium voltage
applications (typically 11-33 kV).
The main hindrance to the VI development has been the technical difficulties involved in its
construction. These included such areas as the degassing of the contact and the lack of the proper
welding or soldering technologies needed to effectively and reliability attach the external ceramic
envelopes to the metallic ends of the interrupters. Both of these technical difficulties have been
improved dramatically over the last 30 years. Degassing the contacts is an especially important
requirement as the release of any gases trapped within the contact metals can significantly degrade
the vacuum. It is essential that the materials used for the contacts and the surfaces in contact with
the vacuum be very pure and gas-free.
Although the small insulation gap required rapidly increases for voltages above 30 kV, the simplicity
of the mechanisms means the vacuum bulb can generally be very compact. It is actually the breaking
capacity, which is proportional to contact diameter, which is the defining property of the vacuum
internal envelope volume. Externally however, it is the dielectric strength of the external enclosure
material that defines the overall device size. The external dielectric strength is limited by the
insulation capacity the surrounding air or medium. A requirement for compensation for adverse
ambient conditions such as soiling of the ceramic surface or extreme condensation is needed and
typically takes the form of an insulating gas or mould.
Up until the last 20 years, VI designs had been limited to sub 33 kV voltages applications. This
limitation was mainly to maintain the functional sizes required for integration into tank type circuit
breakers. Initially high voltage vacuum designs utilised combinations of glass containers and spiral
electrodes insulated externally with SF6 gas. Although there were no discharge products, and
relatively small amounts of SF6 gas were used, it had previously not been possible to completely
eliminate the use of SF6 gas for external insulations for high voltages.
5.1.2 Vacuum Interrupter Development

To maintain the maximum vacuum bulb seal, mobile inserting parts are avoided in VI designs.
Contacts are consequently placed simply end to end.
62
Chapter 5
Contact materials are sort to have a low resistance to reduce the tendency to weld which can occur
after closing under short-circuit conditions. Low contact to contact resistance is a desired property
maintained by means of high contact pressure, requiring contacts to attribute high mechanical
strength also. In the early 1980’s cooper Chromium (CuCr) based electrode materials came into use
exhibiting superior current interruption and voltage withstand performance.
Contact shapes and designs have also been experimented with. Designs seek to take advantage of
either axial or radial magnetic field interactions with the arc to maintain its defused state and aid
interruption. Explanations of developed contact shape designs have been previously outline in
section 3.4.3
Upon developing the superior current breaking, axial magnetic field electrode structures in the
1990’s, a combination of glass containers and the new axial field electrodes came into use. In 2001
developments in ceramic bulb construction that had previously been unique to sub 33 kV deigns
extended to 66 kV. Ceramic VI chambers exhibit greater production ability and higher baking
temperatures which result in cleaner vacuum interiors. Furthermore, detailed electric and magnetic
field analysis’s and measurement technologies carried out and developed prior to 2001 optimised
the modern electrode structure. This electrode optimisation combined with a more capable ceramic
bulb construction paved the way to high capacity, higher voltage withstand vacuum interrupters.
The modern vacuum interrupter’s external dielectric strength is still however limited somewhat by
the insulation capacity of the surroundings, although mediums other than SF6 gas can be used. A
major advantage of the VI over other interruption mediums is that the internal dielectric requires no
checking whatsoever throughout the service life of the interrupter. Functional designs are now
available that utilise vacuum interrupters and eliminate the use of SF6 external insulating gas in the
11-66 kV range. Solid-dielectric and dry compressed air are two such dielectric SF6 gas elimination
mediums.
Figure 5-1 Vacuum Interrupter Layout

Source: (Dr. Drews, 2013)
63
5.2 Vacuum Interrupters Embedded in Solid-dielectric
5.2.1 Solid-dielectric Designs

“One method of increasing the external dielectric strength of the vacuum interrupters is to embed
the chamber in a solid material (e. g. silicone or epoxy resin moulding compound). In such cases, the
vacuum interrupter is additionally well protected against external mechanical influences such as
impacts.” (Fenski, et al., 2007)
Like most high voltage circuit breakers a Solid-dielectric/vacuum circuit breaker is a three pole
device consisting of three interruption chambers (vacuum interrupters) actuated by a linked
mechanical or magnetic operating mechanism. Poles can either be manufactured in column or
embedded form. In each case each pole of the solid-dielectric design consists of a VI, bolted to its
terminal connections embedded inside an insulating tube or casting of epoxy resin.
In the embedded casting technique the VI can be encapsulated within the resign with the smallest
number of bolted connections. This technique eliminates maintenance and facilitates compact and
robust designs.
“The main advantages of embedded poles are high dielectric strength without additional external
compensation in air. The design also sees high usability in an extremely wide range of climatic
conditions and good protection of the vacuum interrupter from dust, mechanical impacts and
moisture. Furthermore, the greatly reduced number of individual parts required allows significantly
increased production reliability to be achieved with shortened production times.” (Fenski, et al.,
2007)
Solid-dielectric embedded pole designs are available and established on the Australian market for all
indoor and outdoor applications up to 40 kV with short circuit breaking capacity of 50 kA
Alternate epoxy resin systems are available for outdoor applications to withstand even the most
adverse environmental conditions. The hydrophobic cycloaliphatic epoxy resin (HCEP) now
commonly used boasts high ultra violet resistance, high impact strength and is unaffected in
temperatures as low as minus 60 degrees Celsius.
This solid-dielectric, highly compact, robust and maintenance free design is fast becoming the
dominating technology of choice in medium voltage circuit breakers. The run until fail design has an
extremely low in-service environmental impact and eliminates oil and SF6 handling activities
inherent to the alternatives.
64
Chapter 5
Figure 5-2 Vacuum Interrupter Embedded in Solid-dielectric
Source: (Fenski, et al., 2007)
5.2.2 Implication of Solid-dielectric Designs on Case Study Area

The strong movement towards solid-dielectric vacuum technology in the case study area’s circuit
breaker range below 66 kV can be already seen. Results show 69% of circuit breakers in substations
in this range where found to be vacuum interrupter type designs using solid-dielectric or in some
cases simply the ambient air as the external dielectric medium. Also, 47% of Re-closers were found
to be solid-dielectric vacuum types.
However, 23% of circuit breakers less than 66 kV in case study area substations are still utilising SF6
gas, attributing to 28.8 tonnes of annual CO2 emissions in leakage alone. It should be noted that
more than half of the SF6 containing circuit breakers in this range were using vacuum interrupters
for current breaking combined with SF6 gas for external dielectric purposes only. Furthermore, 30%
of Re-closers were also using SF6 for external dielectric purposes, with an estimated 350 kg of SF6 in
this field attributing a further 74.4 tonnes of unnecessary annual CO2 emissions. Thus, a total of 98
substation circuit breakers (includes 26 oil type) and possibly 340 oil or SF6 /vacuum relcosers could
be beneficially replaced with a solid-dielectric vacuum design.
65
The routine maintenance of a vacuum circuit breaker compared to an SF6 /vacuum circuit breaker is
typically the same (both based on vacuum type) with a minor service ever 4 years, major every 12
years or 800 operations. However, the SF6 /vacuum design is more prevalent to non-routine call out
activities such as SF6 leakage alarms. SF6 filled circuit breakers also require additional SF6 handling
equipment such as evacuation/filling pumps and storage cylinders for more involved maintenance
activities, which increases maintenance costs and logistics.
Additionally 8% of substation circuit breakers and 22% of field Re-closers, all in the sub 40kV range
were still utilising oil as the insulation medium and would be soon due for replacement. A sensible
replacement for these aging models would be the respective indoor or outdoor solid-dielectric
vacuum replacements rather than SF6 designs.
Many indoor high voltage board type circuit breaker design companies produce a replacement
modular vacuum design that can be utilised in the same compartment as the previous rack-able oil
circuit breaker. Other replacements include entire module exact matching swap designs with the
only difference being the internal circuit breaker now utilises vacuum interrupters encased in solid-
dielectric resin. Newer indoor designs offer comparative or even slightly smaller installation
footprints.
Outdoors, solid-dielectric Re-closers are smaller and weigh less than their SF6 counterparts. A Nu-
Lec U Series solid-dielectric model weighs 146 kg and is significantly smaller than the N Series 327 kg
SF6 model. This same installation footprint reduction can been seen in rural substations also which
use Re-closers mounted on steel structures within the yard as a convenient self sufficient circuit
breaker replacement. In the case study area substations, 16 of the 72 SF6 insulated circuit breakers
below 66 kV where N Series Nu-Lec Re-closers, utilised as substations permanent circuit breakers.
Furthermore, and maybe most importantly, the continued investment in solid-dielectric/ vacuum
circuit breakers over the last decade has reduced their price to that lower then SF6 models. With
comparative maintenance regimes and installations sizes, zero emissions and cheaper purchasing
costs the solid-dielectric design is unsurprisingly gaining dominance in the market.
Table 5-1 Vacuum /Solid-dielectric Implications Summary
Item SF6 CB Vacuum/Solid-dielectric

CB
Case study Substation units effected 72 -
Case study Re-closer units effected 195 -
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) total 485.4 0
Annual Leakage emissions 𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) 4.32 0
Annual Leakage emissions 𝐂𝐎𝟐 equiv (tonnes) 103.2 0
Typical unit cost ($) 20,000* 18,000*
Maintenance requirements Comparative Comparative
Installation size Comparative Comparative
*Prices based on 22kV Re-closer models
66
Chapter 5
5.3 Vacuum Interrupters Encased in Dry Air
5.3.1 Compressed Dry Air Designs

For 66 kV circuit breaker applications, a high
voltage withstand vacuum interrupter has been
developed. The development was made possible
by the optimisation of the electric field with axial
field electrodes and encapsulation of the
interrupter within composite insulation. An
environmentally friendly insulation type gaining
popularity is that of high pressure dry air.
Conventional vacuum circuit breakers in the

66 kV range utilise SF6 gas filled tank enclosures
to externally insulate the internal vacuum
interrupter. Dry air insulated vacuum interrupter
designs seek to replace the SF6 gas with the
Figure 5-3 Sumotomo Dry-Air/Vacuum 66kV CB
compressed dry air medium within a similar
installation footprint/design size. It was
additionally theorised as a possible retro fitting
direct replacement option.
The dielectric strength of dry air is about one third that of SF6 gas. Early designs accommodating the
additional gas and larger container sizes required for a similar dielectric response resulted in actual
equipment being unsatisfactorily large. To reduce equipment sizes down to that similar to existing
SF6 designs some additional dielectric strategies were undertaken. These strategies involved
increasing the pressure of the sealed dry air to a higher value than that of sealed SF6 and also
adopting dielectric moulded coverings for the internal high voltage conductors. These dielectric
design adjustments meant that the overall circuit breaker could be made to a similar size to that of
existing SF6 designs.
One consequence of utilising the insulation medium at higher pressures than existing designs is that:
“the container and bellows of the vacuum interrupter must withstand excessive stress” (Matsui, et
al., 2006). This consequence has been overcome by means of an alternatively designed VI structure
in which the bellows it not adversely effected by external pressure increase.
There are currently both dead-tank and live-tank 66 kV dry-air/vacuum circuit breakers available on
the market. The Japanese company Sumotomo produces a 66 kV dead-tank circuit breaker with
integrated low voltage bushing type current transformers similar to that of the Siemens 3APDT1 SF6
design. Alternatively, Alstom now produces a 66 kV dry-air/vacuum VL109 live-tank as a direct
replacement for its SF6 type GL309.
One design altercation that Alstom noted in its development of the GL309 replacement was that of
the lower required stoke of the vacuum interrupter. The modified mechanical energy balance meant
optimising the mechanical chain/spring operating mechanism to make it possible to keep their
established FK-type operating system.
67
“An environmental life-cycle analysis has shown that the vacuum technology-based VL109 compared
to its SF6 equivalent, has a climate change impact 24 percent lower but with a higher electrical and
mechanical lifetime and reliability.” (Dr. Drews, 2013)
5.3.2 Implications of Dry Air Designs on Case Study Area

With both live-tank and dead-tank dry-air/vacuum designs now available in the 66 kV circuit breaker
range, it is possible that 100% of case study circuit breakers in this range could be eventually
replaced with this technology. The available technology enables zero in-service equipment SF6
emissions. However, with only limited companies offering dry-air designs, awaiting a greater market
spread may be warranted in any across the board replacement strategies to avoid type fault
consequences.
Rising SF6 amounts associated with ongoing replacement of obsolete oil insulated 66 kV circuit
breakers could be also be reduced with dry-air/vacuum alternatives. Currently the 119 SF6 filled, in-
service, dead and live-tank 66 kV circuit breakers within the case study area attribute 238.5 tonnes
of annual CO2 equivalent emissions in leakage. Annual SF6 emissions and handling activities could
be greatly reduced with a phased replacement of aging oil and SF6 filled 66 kV circuit breakers
Maintenance wise, Transgrid’s current regime suggests that a vacuum circuit breaker requires a
minor maintenance every four years as opposed to a SF6 model only requiring a detailed inspection
in the same time frame. However, a minor maintenance for a vacuum circuit breaker requires the
same number of activities as a detailed inspection for a SF6 circuit breaker and would approximate
the same personnel labour hours cost.
One of the great design philosophies of circuit breaker manufactures is to deign equipment similar
to, or smaller than, that of existing equipment installation footprints. This is especially important in
substation design where phase clearances and equipment spacing is of fundamental concern. There
has been no exception to this philosophy in the development of SF6 free equipment with very few
designs making the market that can not directly compete with existing equipment installation sizes.
Thus, making any possible future replacement options as straight forward an activity as possible.
Additionally, investigations into equipment pricing have shown that currently the leading Japanese
manufactured 66 kV dry-air/vacuum dead-tank is $36,000 cheaper than the leading European
manufactured SF6 model. Arguably national economic factors and company “quality assurance”
marketing could reflect in the price difference, however, both designs advertise similar functionality.
Table 5-2 Vacuum/Dry Air Implications Summary
Item SF6 CB Vacuum/Dry Air CB

Case study Substation units effected 119 -
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) total 1121.7 0
Annual Leakage emissions 𝐂𝐎𝟐 equiv (tonnes) 238.6 0
Typical unit cost ($) 105,000* 69,000*
*Prices based on Siemens 3APDT1 (SF6 ) and Sumotomo DT VCB (vac/dry-air)
68
Chapter 5
5.4 Current Transformers
Live-tank circuit breakers utilise one third of the insulation gas required in dead-tank designs, but
require external current transformers. Additional SF6 usage reductions can be made by utilising
live-tank circuit breakers with non-SF6 adjacent current transformers.
5.4.1 Oil Current Transformers

Oil filled current transformers may seem dated but they may still present some relevance
considering the environmental potency of the SF6 alternatives. Mineral oil-based transformer oil
used in CTs can be made from either naphtha or paraffin. The production of more commonly used
naphtha , requires extraction from crude oil and further refining processes. Being as naphtha is just
one of many refinery products, its share exhibits a moderate production energy requirement; 1.6 MJ
(0.44 kWh) per kilogram of transformer oil produced (Lippiatt, 2007). Based on these figures each
tonne of transformer oil refined in a NSW would produce 387.2 kg of CO2 emissions. Interestingly,
1.8 kg of in service SF6 exhibit a similar amount of CO2 equivalent emissions annually.
To recap from section 4.8, traditional oil insulated CTs most commonly consist of a “hairpin” primary
conductor that loops down though multiple toroidal, paper insulated current transformers all
submerged in insulating oil. The submerged current transformers are house in a tank at ground
potential whilst the hairpin extends up though the post porcelain housing to the high voltage
conductors.
The concerning transformer oil additive Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were banned in 1975
(Australian Governement Department of Environment, 2014). Monitored transformer oil can achieve
a 30 year plus life span. Unlike a power transformer the secondary windings of a CT expects minimal
current flow and intense heating of the oil is uncommon. The oil is also rarely subject to electrical
arcing and so carbonising is also uncommon. Moisture content within the oil is the main concern
which can adversely affect the winding’s paper insulation properties. One of the benefits of the aged
technology is that experience in oil testing can predict oil degradation rates and CT failures.
As SF6 is environmentally potent to the atmosphere, oil can also be a pollutant the ground and
water ways. Substations have accommodated oil equipment for the majority of their existence and
are equipped with bunds and oil spill kits however this pollutant property should be noted.
5.4.2 Implications of Oil Current Transformers on Case Study Area

It was found that 138 SF6 CTs account for 4239 kg of SF6 gas in the case study area and contribute
for more than 900 tonnes of equivalent annual CO2 emissions in leakage. A substantial SF6
reduction could be made with the uptake of an alternate current transformer medium. Oil filled
current transformers do require more regular maintenance and monitoring than SF6 , however these
savings could be outweighed in the future if harsh SF6 emissions fees and regulations are imposed.
“Environmental regulations on greenhouse gasses require SF6 be handling carefully, and recycling
where possible. This can create additional installation and repair costs, depending on local laws.”
(Holman, 2013)
69
Although Oil filled CTs are not without their own inherent costs they are slightly cheaper to purchase
then SF6 CTs and maintenance staffs are confident with the established technology. Power utilities
are also already equipped to handle and maintain the assets, making them a viable possibility.
Table 5-3 Oil Current Transformers Implications Summary
Item SF6 CT Oil CT

Case study units effected 138 -
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) total 4239 0
Annual Leakage emissions CO2 equiv (tonnes) 901.7 0
Typical unit cost ($) 9000* 8000*
Maintenance requirements Limited Periodical monitoring
*Prices based on 132kV single phase units, 66-132kV range
5.4.3 Non-Conventional Current Transformers

The exciting new developments in non-conventional current transformers and their applications
could comprise a separate dissertation in themselves. This small section seeks to present a brief
summary of the technology and their relevance in reducing the use of SF6 gas, in particularly in
live-tank installations utilising SF6 insulated adjacent post CTs.
“Today non-conventional current transformers (NCCTS) have achieved high performances with a
very small volume. In addition their digital outputs comply with the most stringent requirements of
protective relays and meters. The designs take into account the harshest environmental conditions
of temperature, vibrations and electromagnetic compatibility.” (Roussel, et al., 2001)
Two systems are commonly employed in the NCCT field. The first of which is known as a Rogowski
coil, named after its operating principals definer in 1912, it has seen some high voltage applications
since 1986 onwards. The second is based on the Faraday Effect of polarised light interacting with a
magnetic field.
The Rogowski coil has been utilised in laboratories for many years but now also poses a case for
continual industrialisation into high voltages. The Rogowski coil’s linear voltage output takes
advantage of Ampere’s theorem and the instantaneous measure of the di/dt. Its inherent linearity
gives it many advantages including the possibility of reducing winding ratio varieties (standardisation
potential) and excellent response in transient states (zero saturation, hysteresis and residual flux).
“In 1845 Michael Faraday discovered that the polarisation plane of polarised light rotates as it passes
through a piece of glass placed in a strong magnetic field and propagated parallel to this field. The
polarisation rotation angle (F) is proportional to the circulation of the magnetic field (H) along the
optical path (L).” (Teyssandier, 1995) (see fig 5.4 ).
The Faraday effect-based optical principal is achieved by means of optical crystals or fibres. In both
cases a polarised, monochromatic light source with a single frequency is required. The optical
information is conveyed to the protection, control or metering relays by means of optical fibre
cabling.
70
Chapter 5
“Converting the optical signal into an electrical signal is achieved by comparing the light beams
emitted and received, generally using polarising- separating prisms combined with photodiodes
which convert the light signal into an analogue electrical signal.” (Teyssandier, 1995)
The optical crystal NCCT utilises one or more crystals surrounding (or in close proximity) to the
conductor through which the current to be measured is flowing. Whereas, the fibre technique uses a
monomode optical fibre wound several times around the primary conductor.
The primary insulation of NCCT is simplified relative to conventional free-standing CT. The insulation
of NCCT is provided by means of conventional supporting porcelain or composite insulator. The
composite insulator has an advantage that an optical fibre can wound through the polymer to
ground. This is seen as reliable and non-expensive form of insulation.
Figure 5-4 Graphic Representation of Faraday Effect (left) Faraday Effect Current Sensor (right)
Source: (Teyssandier, 1995)
5.4.4 Implications of Non-Conventional Current Transformers on Case Study Area

Not only could non-conventional current transformers possibly replace the 138 SF6 post CTs in the
case study area but there are also design concepts to retro-fit NCCTs to live-tank conductor
connections. This retro-fit concept could in affect benefit a live-tank circuit breaker with the
incorporated CT advantages that modern dead-tank designs boast, however with one third the
insulation gas requirements.
As stated previously the 138 SF6 CTs account for 4239 kg of SF6 gas in the case study area and
contribute for more than 900 tonnes of equivalent annual CO2 emissions in leakage. Any reduction
in there usage would certainly be environmentally beneficial. A replacement dead-tank design with
incorporated low voltage bushing CTs is one reduction strategy in replacing a SF6 live-tank circuit
breakers with SF6 post CTs combinations. However, replacing the SF6 post CTs with SF6 free
alternatives and keeping the existing live-tank circuit breaker with its reduced insulation
requirements could result in further reductions then simple dead-tank replacement.
71
Substations with completely digital secondary systems are the next logical step in substation design.
NCCTs offer HV hardware with digital, single wire outputs ideal for digitised modern protection and
control relay systems. Another advantage is that CT ratios can be changed with software
With NCCTs direct bus mounting is possible, as well as horizontal mounting or assembly directly on
the circuit breakers. “The total substation footprint can be reduced by as much as 15 to 25%.”
(Alstom, 2012)
One of the main promising features of NCCTs is the possibility of their integration into the 330 kV
plus ranged circuit breaker applications. This range is almost exclusively of live-tank construction in
Australia. Oil CTs in the extra high voltage range (500 kV and above) were non-existent in the case
study area and the 330kV oil CTs are extremely large. The adaption of NCCTs is this range could save
large amounts of space as well as dramatically reducing SF6 gas usage. An EHV dual interruption
chamber SF6 circuit breaker with integrated NCCTs on either end would also eliminate the problem
known as blind spot that is inherent to most live-tanks with adjacent post CT installations.
Figure 5-5 Draft Design of a Live-tank CB with Optical CTs (left) Prototype (right)
Source: (Roussel, et al., 2001) & (Alstom, 2012)
Unfortunately the cost of NCCTs, in particular the optical sensor varieties are extremely expensive
when compared to traditional CTs. Their lower installation and maintenance costs may only be seen
as completive alternatives in the higher voltage ranges.
Table 5-4 Non-Conventional Current Transformer Implications Summary
Item SF6 CT Non-Conventional CT

Case study units effected 138 -
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) total 4239 0
Annual Leakage emissions CO2 equiv (tonnes) 901.7 0
Typical unit cost ($) 9000* 40,000*
Maintenance requirements Limited Undetermined
Installation size Standard Significantly reduced
*Prices based on 132kV single phase units, 66-132kV range (SF6 and optical sensor)
72
Chapter 5
5.5 Octafluorocyclobutane (c-𝐂𝟒 𝐅𝟖 )
5.5.1 Octafluorcyclobutane as an Insulating Gas

There exist many fluorocarbons with a much lower GWP
than SF6 . Octafluorocyclobutane (c − C4 F8) also known as
Perfluorocyclobutane is one such fluorocarbon that has
been considered as an electrical insulation gas. Like SF6 , c-
C4 F8 is a very stable, electronegative gas.
“Its combination of electro negativity, high molecular

weight, and chemical stability is responsible for its
outstanding electrical properties” (Blodgett, 1959).
Figure 5-6 Molecular Model of
Octafluorocyclobutante
Properties of c-C4 F8 , like SF6 , greatly reduce the tendency
of electrons to from a conductive path.
Unlike SF6 however, c-C4 F8 has been identified by the Australian Government Department of
Climate Change and Energy Efficiency as having a GWP of 8,700 as opposed to the 23,900 rating
of SF6. The 64% less GWP of c-C4 F8 corresponds to half as much warming effect as SF6 at an
identical pressure considering the difference of molecular weight between c-C4 F8 (200 g/mol) and
SF6 (146 g/mol). The dielectric strength of c-C4 F8 is suggested to be even greater to that of SF6 ,
about 3.6 times that of air as opposed to 3 times in the case of SF6 . A engineering paper from Kyoto
University, Japan in 1999 found that it’s dielectric strength can be anywhere from 1.11 to 1.80 times
that of SF6 .
A possible disadvantage of the use of c-C4 F8 is however the presence of the carbon atoms which
create conductive dust particles post decomposition. This insulation deteriorating property limits c-
C4 F8 to applications where it would not typically be subject to intense electrical arcs that accelerate
decomposition. Hence, c-C4 F8 could be suitable for purely insulation purposes associated with
circuit breakers (separate CTs, external insulation for VIs) but would be unsuitable as a specific
current interruption medium.
An additional “disadvantage of c-C4 F8 is it s high price, which is now several times higher than that
of SF6 . However, this is considered mainly due to the fact that c-C4 F8 is not used in large quantities.
There is an enough possibility of considerably reducing the price by applying a large amount of c-
C4 F8 in power industry.” (Takuma, et al., 1999)
5.5.2 Implications of Octafluorocyclobutane on Case Study Area

Although research in Octafluorocyclobutane as an insulation gas has been conducted for many
decades the substances is still merely a consideration compared to the traditional SF6 . Industrialised
applications of the gas in the power industry are at this stage experimental and the Australian power
community is oblivious to any commercially available products. However, the reduced GWP of c-
C4 F8 could see the substance gain more attention as an intermediate technology medium given the
rising GWP concerns associated with SF6 .
73
If the application of the gas was deemed appropriate for non-current-interruption insulation
purposes, c-C4 F8 could be utilised for a number of purposes in the case study area. Examples of
which would include; replacement gas insulation for live-tank circuit breaker adjacent post CTs as
well as the external insulation for VI circuit breakers requiring such a medium.
The case study area’s 138 gas insulated post CTs could benefit from the replacement gas. The
4239 kg of CT insulating gas would when subject to the predictive annual leakage rate of 0.89%
would only emit 328 tonnes of equivalent CO2 emissions when filled with c-C4 F8 as opposed to 902
tonnes when filled with SF6 .Filling with c-C4 F8 equates to a reduction of 574 tonnes of equivalent
CO2 emissions annually.
Additionally, the 42 case study circuit breakers and the estimated 195 Re-closers in the medium
voltage range that use SF6 to externally insulate VI used for current breaking could benefit from c-
C4 F8 filling in these non-arc subjective applications. The 42 circuit breakers contribute 96.4 kgs of
SF6 insulation whilst the 195 Re-closers account for a further 350 kg. This 446.4 kg of SF6 emits 94
tonnes of equivalent CO2 emission annually in leakage. A c-C4 F8 filled alternative network would
emit only 34.5 tonnes, providing a reduction of 59.5 tonnes of annual CO2 emissions
As mentioned earlier, the use of in Octafluorocyclobutane is only a consideration at this stage. The
refilling of SF6 equipment with c-C4 F8 could result in warranty voids and is not recommended
outside of dedicate approved trial experimentation.
Equipment Maintenance and monitoring regimes of c-C4 F8 filled equipment would be expected to
remain relatively similar to that of SF6 equipment requiring periodical gas purity analysis. Additional
carbon concentration sampling may be required in a similar fashion to the monitoring of oil filled
equipment to monitor the deterioration of the gas. Similarly to oil, testing over time could predict
the need c-C4 F8 gas replacement given carbonising trends.
Table 5-5 Octafluorocyclobutane Implications Summary
Item SF6 Equipment c-𝐂𝟒 𝐅𝟖 Equipment

Case study units effected:
Current transformers 138 -
Substation Vacuum/𝐒𝐅𝟔 Circuit Breakers 42 -
Re-closers Vacuum/𝐒𝐅𝟔 195 -
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) total 4662 -
Annual Leakage emissions 𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) 41.49 -
Annual Leakage emissions 𝐂𝐎𝟐 equiv (tonnes) 991.7 361.0
Typical unit cost ($/kg) 55 150*
*Price based on international currency conversions
74
Chapter 5
5.6 Leakage Monitoring
5.6.1 Leakage Calculation

Circuit breaker SF6 gas leakage is an important issue which should be closely monitored. Circuit
breakers containing SF6 are fitted with “loss of gas” alarms however the alarms purpose is primarily
for circuit breaker functionality reasons as opposed to environmental concerns. A SF6 filled circuit
breaker requires the correct amount of SF6 for contact dampening, operation below a minimum
amount of SF6 can cause damage to contacts.
As an example of leakage amounts the popular 66 kV Siemens 3APDT1 dead-tank circuit breaker has
been chosen for analysis. There was found to be 47 Siemens type 3APDT1 dead-tanks in the case
study area which equates to 25% of the total 66 kV case study circuit breakers and 37% of all SF6
filled circuit breakers in this range.
The 66 kV Siemens 3APDT1 contains 13.7 kg of SF6 gas at a preferred in-service pressure of 6 bar at
20 degrees Celsius. The 3APDT1 has a low SF6 alarm at 5 bar. The molecular weight of SF6 from
table 2.1 is shown as 146.05 g/mol
Number of moles:
𝑚1 (5.1)
𝑛1 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Where:
𝑛1 =initial number of moles
𝑚1 =initial mass (g)
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =mol weight (g/mol)
13700
𝑛1 = = 93.80 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
146.05
Utilising the Ideal Gas Law for the 6 bar normal condition to determine volume:
𝑃1 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑇 (5.2)
Where
𝑃1 = initial pressure (N/m2 )
V = volume (m3 )
𝑛1 =initial number of moles
R = gas constant 8.314 (J/mol.K)
T= temperature (K)
𝑛1 𝑅𝑇 93.80 × 8.314 × 293.15

𝑉= = = 0.381𝑚3
𝑃1 6 × 105
75
Now utilising the ideal gas law for the 5 bar alarm condition:
Where:
𝑛2 = final number of moles
𝑃2 = final pressure
𝑃2 𝑉 5 × 105 × 0.381
𝑛2 = = = 78.16 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑇 8.314 × 293.15
Remaining mass:
𝑚2 = 𝑛2 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (5.3)

Where:
𝑚2 = final mass (g)
𝑛2 = final number of moles
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =mol weight (g/mol)
= 78.16 × 146.05 = 11415𝑔 = 11.415𝑘𝑔
Mass of leakage loss before alarm is raised:
𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 (5.4)
𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 13700 − 11415
𝒎𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒌𝒈
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Chapter 5
5.6.2 Leakage Monitoring

From 5.6.1 it can be seen a typical 66 kV SF6 circuit breaker installation could emit upwards from
2 kg of SF6 gas before an alarm is raised, equating to almost 48 tonnes of equivalent C02 emissions
(2 × 23,900). Thus, repetitive SF6 leakage to the point of alarm is preferably avoided.
Leaks are most commonly found within the proximity of faulty vessel or bushing seals. Leaks are
usually slow releasing and can take months to reach alarm activating levels.
Leaking SF6 gas is transparent and odourless in nature making human detection extremely difficult.
This detection difficulty is further compounded by the fact that entire sections of substations can
sometimes experience months of non-personnel presence. By the nature of HV equipment also, SF6
containing vessels are commonly situated outside safe HV clearance distances making access to
equipment only possible during de-energised outages. Raising of the “loss of SF6 ” alarms is the most
common initial indication that a leak exists. Additionally, SF6 filled CT’s “loss of SF6 ” alarms are
commonly grouped with the circuit breakers, there for leakage monitoring of such equipment is
heavily reliant on periodical gauge inspections by means of personnel sighting and recording.
When a detected leak is pin pointed and repaired it is preferable to monitor the leakage area to
determine if the leak has been rectified. Simply awaiting the activation of an additional “loss of SF6 ”
alarm months later should never considered a satisfactory leakage repair monitor. Specialist
equipment including gas detectors and infra-red cameras are preferred methods.
Simple gas detectors known as “sniffers” may be low cost but can be inadequate as they rely on
proximity to the leak to provide leak identification. Such proximity to SF6 leaks in substation
environment is often unavailable due to equipment arrangements and HV safe approach distances.
A far better option is infra-red camera technology. Infra-red cameras can visualize leaks in real time
enabling inspection without the need for supply interruption. Cameras can trace leaks to the source
and identify leaks meters away. Specialist models offer additional advantages such as temperature
measurements, a range of gas detections and GPS coordinate recording.
“Infra-red SF6 detection video technology operates in the 10.3-10.7 μm spectrum range.” (FLIR
Systems, 2014)
Figure 5-7 SF6 CT (left) Infra-red Imagery of Leaking SF6 CT (right)
77
5.6.3 Implications of Leakage Monitoring in Case Study Area

Unfortunately some utilities only own one or two infra-red cameras to monitor hundreds of SF6
circuit breakers across substantial geographical distances. Camera monitoring is usually only
considered after “loss of SF6 ” alarms have been raised numerous times on an individual circuit
breaker. Onus is directed onto maintenance staff to successfully identify and rectify any leaks using
proximity detectors which can be understandable difficult.
With an estimated 0.89% of capacity expected to leak annually this equates to approximately 90 kg
of the 10,216 kg case study area. At a rate of 2 kg loss before alarm indication per circuit breaker this
insinuates 45 leakage alarm incidences per year in the case study area.
The cost of quality infra-red SF6 leakage detection cameras is admittedly quite expensive. However,
SF6 leakage amounts prior to alarm activation are extremely costly to the environment not to
mention the cost of SF6 refilling and required maintenance staff labour. Camera monitoring of all
leakage repairs would drastically reduce repetitive leakage and further maintenance staff call outs.
Upon the raising of a “loss of SF6 ” alarm common practice with in the case study area is to call out a
maintenance technician to top up the leaking circuit breaker. This is done immediately to avoid non-
function of the circuit breaker which will normally “lock-out” with a further 0.2 bar pressure loss of
SF6 gas (typically). Lock-out renders the circuit breaker inoperable to avoid detrimental contact
damage that can occur within the circuit breaker due to lack of the dampening medium. The
secondary function of the SF6 gas is to act as a dampening medium for the contact opening and
closing operation.
From this point, an equipment outage for leakage repair is often scheduled. If this scheduling also
prompted the coordination of the camera equipment’s services a reliable leakage repair could be
expected every time. Such scheduling arrangements could require further investment for additional
cameras, however first time repairs, SF6 consumables and environmental savings as well as reduced
equipment revenue losses achieved may far outweigh additional purchasing costs.
For geographically large utility coverage areas a profitable strategy could be to base cameras at the
centres of sub-regions to reduce travelling costs. A single camera based at a central location within
the case study are could significantly reduce repetitive leakage events
Table 5-6 Leakage Monitoring Implications Summary
Item SF6 detector SF6 Camera

Case study units effected 795 795
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) total 5627 5627
Annual Leakage emissions 𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) 50.0803 Estimated 20% reduction
Annual Leakage emissions CO2 equiv 1197 Estimated 20% reduction
(tonnes) 837.9*
Typical unit cost ($) 200-300 130,000
Maintenance requirements - Refill upon call out - Refill upon call out/Leak ID
- Equipment outage - Equipment outage
- Leak identification/Repair - Repair
- Await further alarms - Instant verification
78
Chapter 5
5.7 Government Regulations
5.7.1 Government Regulations

Government regulations are a strong influence on the use of synthetic greenhouse gases in a
particular country. Synthetic greenhouse gases (SGG) include refrigerants and insulating gases of
which common types are hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and and most
importantly for this report, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
On the 17th July 2014 the Abbott government repealed Australia’s carbon pricing scheme better
known as the carbon tax. The carbon tax, introduced 1 July 2014 by the Gillard government, sort to
provide incentive to reduce the usage of environmentally potent substances. The tax required the
country’s largest polluters to purchase emissions permits based initially on a $23.00 cost per tonne
of equivalent emitted CO2 . Emissions were based on a substance’s Global Warming Potential.
Synthetic gases exhibit high GWP (23,900 in the case of SF6 ). The intent was to make their usage
expensive and non-preferable in effort to encourage more environmentally friendly industry
practices and developments. The cost of SF6 increased by a factor of ten per kilogram under the
carbon tax legislation.
Post carbon tax repeal, synthetic gases in Australia are currently subject to the same regulations
prior to the tax. Currently administrative arrangements under the Ozone Protection and Synthetic
Greenhouse Gas Management Act 1989 require the licensing of manufacturers and importers of
SGGs. In addition the Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas (Import Levy) Act 1995
and Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas (Manufacture Levy) Act 1995 require the
payment of a levy based on the weight of gas imported.
“ The application of a carbon price equivalent piggy-backed on these arrangements and required
importers to continue to pay the existing levy on a quarterly basis and an additional levy based on
the GWP of each gas and the relevant carbon price for the calendar year.” (Swoboda, 2013)
In 2006 the European Union banned several uses of SF6 in its territories, including its use in double
glazing, shoes and tires. The Union’s reasoning for the exception in HV switchgear was that no viable
alternative would be available. Recently however, several European Green political groups have put
motions forward to ban the use of SF6 in MV switchgear given competitive alternatives exist. In
2013 Dutch Green Member of European Parliament Bas Eickhout put forward an amendment to ban
SF6 in MV switchgear from 2020, he later compromised to only new MV switch gear beyond 2023 of
which is still under debate.
Other countries and American states have also received public and political party pressure to reduce
or ban SF6 in MV switchgear applications. Carbon pricing and tariffs are also being explored
politically by the global community.
79
5.7.2 Implications of Government Regulations on Case Study Area

NSW utilities currently purchase SF6 at a rate of $55 per kilogram. A substantial rise in SF6
purchasing costs as a result of government regulations would undoubtedly pressure utilities to
consider alternative technologies when budgeting new circuit breaker installations or maintenance
regimes.
Additional SF6 costs would also see a more concerning response in terms of equipment SF6 leakage
management. A price rise may see the re-evaluation of the importance of SF6 leakage detection
cameras and alarm mechanisms. Continual refilling of leaking equipment could prove expensive. SF6
recovery and recycling from decommissioned equipment would also be regarded with a higher
importance.
A European influenced ban on SF6 in MV switchgear in Australia would impact 23% (72 units) of
substation circuit breakers in the case study area. The replacement of this moderate percentage
within a specified time frame (say 10 years) with government incentives would actually be quite
achievable. The estimated 195 SF6 filled field Re-closers would be a significantly larger task however.
Fortunately modern Re-closer installations incorporate an overhead by-pass switch which could
allow replacement without supply interruption. Cost reduced replacement strategies see only the
tank portion of the existing installation replaced, leaving the control gear unaffected. Installation
and commissioning costs would be an additional finance attached to any across the board
replacement strategy.
Currently the NSW electrical distribution and transmission infrastructure is owned and maintained
by the government. Selling or leasing of assets to private entities is however a current political
debate that could affect the near future. Conservative government strategies could change when
they are not personally responsible for financing the consequences of harsher regulations on SF6
pricing or equipment banning.
80
Chapter 6
Chapter 6: Environmental, Cost & Life Cycle Analysis
Chapter Six analyses the environmental, cost and life cycle viewpoints of SF6 in HV circuit breaker
equipment with a particular focus on SF6 equipment growth and emissions. To gain a better
understanding of the benefits of the alternatives presented in Chapter Five an analysis of current
SF6 equipment growth trends and associated environmental consequences needs to be explored.
Furthermore, projected outcomes of a future with no change in current HV SF6 equipment practices
and one in which SF6 is banned tomorrow are presented in this chapter.
Emissions form SF6 filled HV equipment is primarily proportional to the amount of stored SF6 gas
used in in-service equipment. Additional factors such as manufacturing, transportation and recycling
further add to the emissions tally. SF6 filled HV circuit breakers now form the overwhelming
majority of circuit breaker infrastructure in modern HV electrical networks, particular in the higher
voltage spectrum. Electrical infrastructure growths are normally projected to coincide with rises in
electricity supply demands. However, despite Australia’s recent reduction in demand, the
continuing replacement of obsolete oil circuit breakers and investments in a greater percentage of a
renewable energy generation mix has seen SF6 circuit breaker numbers continue to grow.
Australia is currently aiming in to reduce its annual greenhouse gas emission levels to five percent
below its year 2000 level by the year 2020. Although in the grand scheme, SF6 emissions from
electrical equipment currently amount to less than 1% of national emissions, projected growth rates
are concerning and all reductions considered beneficial to the national objective.
With the continued replacement of all HV oil circuit breakers expected to be completed by 2025, HV
networks, particularly in applications above 66 kV will most likely utilise SF6 circuit breakers in near
100% of applications. This projected insulating medium monopoly will leave the industry extremely
vulnerable in the event of any SF6 reductions regulations or taxes imposed by the ever increasing
environmentally concerned community. In an industry already over 70% comprised of SF6 circuit
breakers in applications 66 kV and above the costs of deferring from the SF6 reliant networks could
be unachievable without phased technologies changes and developments.
81
6.1 Australian Electricity Demand and Infrastructure Growth
6.1.1 Australian Electricity Demand

“Population and income growth were largely responsible for the steady increase in electricity
demand in Australia prior to 2006. In recent years, growth in electricity demand has moderated and
electricity consumption has declined in every year since 2009-10” (Australian Government
Department of the Environment, 2013).
Pre 2009 peak demand growth was considerable steady at an approximate 2% pa.
“From 2009–10 to 2013–14, annual energy usage declined by 13,613 GWh (an annual average
decline of 1.8%) to 181,239 GWh.” (AEMO: Australian Energy Market Operator , 2014)
A number of recent events in Australia have contributed towards the moderation of the previously
rising national electricity demand. The2010/11 Queensland floods, milder eastern state weather,
strong growth in photovoltaic solar generation, strong growth in energy efficient technology and
increased tariffs were all seen as initiators of the demand reduction.
Significant electricity demand reductions in Australia however, have been the result of the reduced
production or closure of aluminium smelters in response to less favourable economic conditions.
The closure of the NSW, 300 MW, Kurri Kurri aluminium smelter in 2012, and this year’s closure of
the 360 MW Point Henry aluminium smelter in Victoria, have seen a reduction of approximately
5700 GWh in annual demand. Other Australian smelters have reportedly reduced production by up
to 50%. Projected national electricity demand is not expect to increase to previous trend levels until
2020.
Figure 6-1 Australian National Electricity Demand Forecast

Source: (AEMO: Australian Energyy Market Operator, 2012)
82
Chapter 6
6.1.2 Infrastructure growth

It is a reasonable assumption that beyond the replacement rates of aging equipment, new high
voltage infrastructure in Australia would grow proportional to the national electricity demand. Aging
equipment is certainly an issue in Australia’s electricity infrastructure however, the 2014 AEMO
Report projects a medium scenario based 0.3% demand growth in the next ten years (-1.6%min ,
1.4% max).
Consequently all four NSW electricity network authorities (Ausgrid, Endeavour, Essential &
Transgrid) have presented reduced to steady capital expenditure projections for the period of 2014-
19. Of the four, the state transmission authority, Transgrid, presented the a brief rise in capital cost
for the next three years primarily in asset replacement but trends back below its 2014 expenditure
by 2019.
Prior to 2012 the aging NSW network experienced dramatic increases in capital expenditure. The
coinciding of this upgrade with a number of other economic circumstances was seen to raise
electricity prices. The media later termed the period “gold plating” of the network. Inevitably, public
demand for a reduction in rising electricity prices, a change in government and a realisation of a
newer, adequately reliable network has prompted network authorities to reduce spending.
Despite declining capital expenditure projections in immediate future new electrical infrastructure
projects will still be undertaken where essential. A number of aspects will still prompt continual
infrastructure upgrades but perhaps now at slightly slower than previously predicted uptakes.
Additionally, many large projects budgeted and commenced prior to the 2014 expenditure
reductions are still being undertaken. Many other projects that did not commence are simply being
postponed, subject to post 2019 financial and electricity demand forecasts. Predictions of increased
capital expenditure post 2019 are common to all NSW distribution and transmission authorities.
Figure 6-2 Planned Investment in Electricity Infrastructure 2008-2021
Source: (Infrastructure NSW, 2013)
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6.1.3 Infrastructure Drivers

The following aspects are seen as the major infrastructure drivers in NSW’s electrical networks in the
coming years.
1. Aging equipment –A significant proportion of NSW electrical infrastructure still in operation

is fast approaching its 40 year end of life cycle. The 1970’s and 80’s were a period of
significant electrical infrastructure undertaking in NSW. Taking HV circuit breakers as one
example, of Transgrid’s 1,483 units, 29% are approaching 30 years of service, whilst 4.5% are
pre 1975 models.
2. Supply reliability demand- With the privatisation of NSW electricity retail and generation
providers in 2010, the state authority effectively positioned itself as a network operating and
maintenance providing utility only. Reliably connecting its two customer groups, generation
companies to retail end users, has become the main business objective. Network operating
authorities need to maintain, develop and extend upon exiting infrastructure to provide for
stringent network reliability requirements. Such requirements for non-interrupted supply
are driven by the private owners of the generation and retail sectors for their respective
customers.
3. Inter-regional transmission connection – The eastern states of Australia are all

interconnected with electrical transmission lines operated by the National Electricity
Market (NEM).
“The capacity of inter-regional electricity trade has a direct impact on the wholesale costs
and competitiveness of the national market and therefore the prices paid by businesses and
households. A recent study investigating increased inter-regional power transfer capabilities
in the national electricity market has demonstrated potential market benefits”
(Infrastructure NSW, 2013).
The geographical positioning of NSW in the centre of the eastern states places the states
electrical infrastructure as a vital component of the NEM grid. Infrastructure upgrades to
facilitate larger and more efficient inter-regional transmission are predicted within the next
20 years
4. New generation mix – Currently Australia has in place a Renewable Energy Target (RET)
scheme that is designed to ensure that 20 per cent of Australia’s electricity comes from
renewable sources by 2020. The scheme promotes both environmental benefits and job
creation but will also raise electrical infrastructure requirements for the connection of the
generation sites to the national grid. By their nature, renewable generation sites are often in
isolated locations and require additional infrastructure to support their integration. NSW is
currently committed to seven new renewable power stations, three wind and four solar,
amounting to 616 MW of extra generation capacity by 2016. Generation infrastructure is
also privately funded and constructed; positioning its expenditure outside the state
governments reduced infrastructure budgets.
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Chapter 6
NSW Generation Mix

129 291
1% 2% Coal CCGT
OCGT Solar
281 2745, 17%
Wind Hydro
2%
1388 Biomass Other
9%
10384
598 65%
4% NSW Generation (MW)
Figure 6-3 NSW Generation Mix

Source: (AEMO: Australian Energy Market Operator, 2014)
85
6.2 National Emissions
6.2.1 Australian Emissions

Australia is currently aiming in to reduce its annual greenhouse gas emission levels to five percent
below the year 2000 level by 2020. “Over the period to 2020, the total emissions reduction required
from projected baseline scenario emissions to achieve the minus five per cent emissions trajectory is
431 Mt CO2 . In 2020, the minus five per cent target equates to an emissions reduction, or
abatement task, of 131 Mt CO2 ” (Australian Government Department of the Environment, 2013).
The current annual emission rate of Australia is approximately 600 Mt CO2 .
Figure 6-4 Australian Abatement Task to 2020

Source: (Australian Government Department of the Environment, 2013)
6.2.2 NSW Emissions & Case Study Perspective

Of the recently steady approximate 600 Mt CO2 annual national emissions, the contribution of NSW
in 2012 was reported to be 154.7 Mt CO2 (NSW Government Environment & Heritage, 2012). Nearly
half of all NSW emissions in 2011/12 were from the stationary energy sector, primarily from
electricity production. Despite a reduction in this sector (2% decline since 2009), the burning of fossil
fuels still amounts for 99% of the NSW energy sector emissions. Of the 154.7 Mt CO2 emissions in
NSW, coal fired power generation accounts for 36% (62 Mt CO2 ).
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Chapter 6
NSW Greenhouse Gas Emissions
4% 2%
Stationary Energy
7% Transport
Mining
11%
Agriculture
47%
Industry
12%
Land Change
Waste
17%
154.7 Mt CO2
Figure 6-5 NSW Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector

Source: (NSW Government Environment & Heritage, 2012)
Although the niche application of SF6 gas in high voltage switchgear would appear in a different
league to the large CO2 emission of the state’s other sectors, the case study’s almost three kilo
tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions is none the less significant. With case study emissions based
purely on static equipment leakage and handling activities, it is here that attention must be drawn to
relative size of Chapter Four’s case study area in regards to the state of NSW as a whole.
 The case study area accommodates 3.25% (237k) of the NSW population of (7.3
million)
 9.05% (1449.2 MW) of NSW’s generation capacity (16,000 MW)
 4.88% (600 MW) of the state’s power usage (12,300 MW)
 15.8% (235) of the Transgird circuit breakers (1483)
 9.1% (14) of the state’s transmission substations (154)
 6.2% (41) of the state’s distribution zone substations (665)
Regardless of size and annual leakage amounts the case study area’s 10,216 kg of stored SF6 gas
cannot be ignored. Its SF6 filled circuit breaker equipment has a static emissions potential of 244 kilo
tonnes of CO2 equivalent (10.216 × 23900).
If the case study’s SF6 circuit breaker infrastructure percentage was estimated at 12% of the state’s
total, the NSW static emissions potential could be estimated at 2.03 Mt CO2 equivalent. (Equating
244 kt to 12%)
Additionally the state’s average leakage and handling losses could be estimated at 24.21 kilo tonnes
CO2 equivalent per year. (Equating 2.905 kt CO2 equivalent from section 3.10 to 12%)
87
6.3 SF6 Equipment Emissions life cycle
6.3.1 Manufacturing of Equipment

Australia currently imports 10 to 20 tonnes of SF6 annually, of which over 80% is estimated to be
used for the filling of high voltage electrical equipment. Australia’s SF6 usage responsibility is not
limited to purely its import inventory however. Consideration must also be given to the
manufacturing process required to produce the HV SF6 filled equipment servicing the Australian
network whether it be manufactured locally or internationally.
Manufacturing wise, Australia accommodates very few large scale HV circuit breaker manufacturing
companies. One of possible note is the Nu-Lec Industries manufacturing facility near Brisbane
Airport which manufactures the SF6 containing N-series Re-closer, however recent trends have seen
their U-series solid-dielectric model become more popular. Typically the majority of HV circuit
breaker equipment servicing the Australian electrical grid has been manufactured in either Europe
or Japan.
“Various symposiums have reported that the emissions during the manufacturing of SF6 equipment
represent an average of 4.5% of the SF6 used in the apparatus. This amount is aiming to be reduced
by all manufacturers and may reach 1% in the future years.”(Bessede, et al., 2006)
Smaller metal enclosure, dead-tank type circuit breaker models are often laser welded and then
tight tested with helium. They are later filled with SF6 and the filling mass recorded. Larger live-tank
type circuit breakers require chamber insulators made of porcelain or composite. Elastomer sealing,
made of ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), are commonly used for the sealing of the
breaker vessels. Of the final three pole design, individual pole columns are filled with rated SF6
service pressure and tested in turn for service ability in a semi-automated process. After the test,
filling gas from the insulator pole column is evacuated, stored and then reused for the next test.
Note: Emissions due to the synthesisation of 𝑆𝐹6 gas initially- have not been included in this
emissions life cycle analysis.
6.3.2 Transportation of Equipment

Newly manufactured equipment is the filled with either nitrogen or a reduced volume of SF6 at a
pressure slightly above atmospheric to eliminate moisture ingression during shipping or storage. The
filling medium is either replaced or topped with SF6 to the operational required amount and
pressure once the circuit breaker is positioned in its installation location. Within the transportation
process SF6 emissions are most prevalent during gas handling tasks such as the multiple filling and
reclaiming activities during the assembly and delivery stages. Gas can leak from fittings or hoses and
is typically a result of poor practices or faulty connection hardware.
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Chapter 6
6.3.3 In-service Equipment

The primary purpose of SF6 gas in HV circuit breakers is to extinguish quickly - extremely high
temperature electrical arcs. Although SF6 gas is one of the most reliable substances for arc
extinguishment, decomposition will eventually occur and the gas purity will be compromised. Most
utility companies test HV circuit breaker SF6 gas for purity every four years (depending on individual
company policy). This is achieved by the connection of a special gas analyser to the filling valve of
the circuit breaker. Analysis requires a portion of the internal gas to be withdrawn, analysed, and
replaced. Gas changes can be endorsed if purity is of concern.
Certain maintenance activities require the entirety of the equipment’s SF6 gas to be reclaimed by an
appropriate gas recovery unit to allow for internal inspection. After the internal work is completed
the equipment is placed on a vacuum for several hours and then re-filled with either new SF6 gas or
the previous SF6 gas if deemed suitable. Emissions from equipment during their in-service life are
primarily as a result of slow, long term leakage or poor gas handling activities. Leakage rates are
advised at 0.89% of capacity annually and handling activities are suggested at between 2% and 0.4%
of capacity each activity which occurs at a minimum every four years (handling losses taken as 1.2%
per 4 yrs or 0.3% annually as average). Over a 40 year in-service life this equates to 35.6% of original
capacity in leakage and 12% for handling activities.
6.3.4 Equipment Decommissioning

Once the equipment has eventually served its purpose decommissioning is required. During
decommissioning, SF6 emissions are again most prevalent during handling activities. Such handling
activities include reclaiming gas, stock piling the gas at storage facilities and the recycling of the gas.
The recycling stage itself can involve multiple gas movements to often clean and filter the old gas
ready for re-use. A conservative estimate for emissions during entire recycling period is about 2% of
recoverable SF6 . Deux, 2008, suggests modern facilities with state of the art process are advertising
ambitions of less than 0.5% emissions of recoverable SF6 .
Figure 6-6 HV Circuit Breaker SF6 Emissions Life Cycle (% CB Capacity)
Life cycle emissions of a 13.7 kg SF6 Siemens Dead-tank equate to 56.5% of its original capacity,
producing 7.74 kg of SF6 emissions or 185 tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions.
89
6.4 SF6 Usage if Nothing Changes
In a future where climate change is ignored, or simply where the percentage of SF6 emissions as a
result of high voltage electrical equipment is considered to be a limited contributor, a projected
outcomes based on this dissertations findings can be examined.
Currently the case study area’s SF6 holdings for in-service HV circuit breaker equipment have been
evaluated at approximately 10 tonnes. The Central Western NSW Region evaluated plays a vital part
in connecting northern and southern NSW as well as linking across the Blue Mountains into western
Sydney. This positioning increases its electrical infrastructure requirements of the region slightly,
particularly in the transmission spectrum. With this is mind the case study area percentage of NSW
SF6 electrical infrastructure has been estimated at 12% despite its low population and zone
substation numbers. This figure aligns more closely with the percentage of transmission level
substations (9.1%) and Transgrid circuit breaker numbers (15.8%) considering that the majority of
SF6 equipment is in the high voltage ranges. It must be noted that the Sydney Metropolitan Area
utilises numerous Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) for space saving purposes which additionally
increases their SF6 percentage.
Without change the 2.905 kilo tonnes (CO2 equivalent) of case study annual SF6 equipment
emissions will continue to affect the atmosphere unhindered. This corresponds to approximately
24,200 tonnes of NSW CO2 equivalent emissions annually. The NSW electricity consumption for
2012/13 was 74,373 GW, which was 30% of Australia’s 249,075 GW of consumption for that period
(Australian Government Bereau of Resources and Energy Economics, 2013). Using demand as a
rough basis for infrastructure, Australia’s National SF6 circuit breaker equipment emissions could be
estimated at 80,700 tonnes of equivalent CO2 emissions annually.
Without change current emissions will grow. Electrical infrastructure growth will continue to utilise
SF6 gas insulated circuit breakers as oil and air blast replacement technology as well as in new
installations in future years. The case study area presented a total of 61 small oil volume circuit
breakers in the 66-132 kV range that have been identified for replacement in the next five years. The
37 circuit breakers in the 66 kV category will most like be replaced with a popular 13 kg filled SF6
dead-tank. Likewise the 24 circuit breakers in the 132 kV range would expect a 27 kg filled SF6 dead-
tank as their replacement. This equates to a 1,126 kg rise in SF6 gas insulation in the case study area
in the next five years (11% increases) or 2.2% increase annually.
Transgrid circuit breaker age profile reporting (see section 4.6 or Appendix D) suggests that 29% of
its circuit breaker inventory is due for replacement in the next 10 years. Approximately 300 units (or
21%) of Transgrid’s inventory are obsolete oil filled circuit breakers that fall within this replacement
age profile. Under a pro-SF6 scenario these 300 units would most likely be replaced with SF6 filled
equipment. This 20% increase over the next 10 years equates to a similar 2% annual increase in SF6
circuit breaker infrastructure and associated emissions.
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Chapter 6
Based on aging profiles, beyond 2025 the states entire HV oil circuit breaker inventor will have been
(most likely) replaced with SF6 filled equipment. From here, SF6 amounts of in-service equipment
would typically be expected to be reduced as older SF6 equipment is replaced with more compact
modern designs. However, current design trends suggest that the future replacement of aging SF6
live-tank circuit breakers (66-132kV range) installed in the 80’s and 90’s will be replaced with dead-
tank type designs for the advantageous integration of their favourable bushing CTs. Dead-tank
designs incorporate three times the SF6 insulation of the live-tank versions they seek to replace.
With approximately one third of circuit breakers in the 66-132 kV range falling into this category the
overall SF6 increase can be projected at 28% for the period of 2025-2045.
Hence any reductions seen by modern designs in the higher voltages where dead-tanks are
unappropriated or the reduced need for external SF6 CTs would be more then countered by the
dead-tank volume increase in the 66-132 kV range. It is noted that a small reduction would also been
seen in the replacement of aging SF6 equipment in the sub 66kV range with more maintenance
friendly vacuum designs preferred. Considering reductions due to modernising equipment but also
increases due to the preference of dead-tank designs, the 2025-2045 SF6 mass in HV circuit breakers
due to aging equipment is estimated at still in increasing 1% pa.
Apart from the increases due to aging equipment replacements, increases are also expected from
infrastructure expansions. Currently the drop in national electricity demand and rise in consumer
prices has seen reductions in state infrastructure expenditure. However in an aim to diversities
Australia’s generation mix to 20% renewable by 2020, NSW is currently committed to seven new
renewable power stations. Each station will require connection to the state grid and subsequently
some form of substation and associated HV line and equipment protection circuit breakers. If an
average of 200 kg SF6 was utilised in each of the new generation site’s circuit breaker equipment a
further 0.3% pa state increase in the is expected over the next 5 years to 2020.
One of the big state infrastructure prospects for NSW is the extension of the 500 kV network to
allow for greater state power transmission and also assist inter-regional electrical power transfer.
Currently the Bannaby to Sydney South 500 kV line is in the consultation process. 500 kV circuit
breakers and associated CT equipment is at this stage exclusively SF6 insulated and requires large
amounts of the gas (+200 kg for a 500 kV CB and associated CTs). Any eventual extension in the 500
kV network, wether just in NSW or along the entire east coast would significantly increase SF6 usage
in circuit breakers.
One topic this dissertation hasn’t previously explored to any real extent is that of Gas Insulated
Substations (GIS). This concept of entire bus and associated circuit breaker networks and cables
being completely insulated with SF6 for space saving circumstances is fast gaining popularity. Hay
Market underground 330 kV Substation in Sydney CBD is entirely SF6 insulated (even the
transformers). Bathurst has a new outdoor GIS at its Russel St Substation that was not included in
the scope of the case study. GIS preference is another SF6 increasing factor that needs to be
considered in a pro-SF6 future as it will become more and more utilised. The 66 kV Siemens GIS at
Ashmont Zone Substation in Wagg Wagga NSW replaced a possible five 13.7 kg SF6 dead-tank
design (68.5 kg total) with a 270 kg SF6 five circuit breaker GIS installation.
91
Furthermore to the foreseeable SF6 circuit breaker increases due to either infrastructure changes or
ageing equipment replacements, infrastructure increases are expected to rise proportionally to
electricity demand. The currently declining to steady demand is expected to begin to rise again post
2020 slightly less than pre 2008 levels (1-2% pa)
Maintenance and staffing wise with no altercation to current trends, utilities will still maintain SF6
circuit breakers via a detailed inspection every four years, minor service every twelve years and a
major service every 25,000 operations. The case study maintenance teams will still attend to their 45
leakage monitoring alarms every year increasing by the same percentage of in-service equipment
numbers for subsequent years to follow. Oil maintenance will no longer be required by 2025 and
maintenance staff particularly in the transmission ranges will deal exclusively with the OH&S
concerning SF6 more and more regularly.
Distributed Mass Growth of SF6 in Electrical

Newtork Circuit Breakers
200,000
180,000
160,000
140,000
Mass of SF6 (kg)
120,000
100,000 SF6 Mass NSW (kg)
80,000 SF6 Mass Cse Study Area (kg)
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
Figure 6-7 Theoretical Distributed Mass Growth of SF6 in Electrical Network Circuit Breakers
The case study area in 2035 could potentially accommodate a 923 HV circuit breakers (an increase of
264 units) and approximately 16,800 kg of in-service SF6 (an increase of 6,600 kg)
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Chapter 6
6.5 SF6 Usage if SF6 is Banned Tomorrow
In contrast to a zero change future reality, analysis of an alternative future where the use of SF6 in
HV switchgear is banned tomorrow is worthy of assessment. Europe has already seen calls for the
banning of SF6 in medium voltage applications and with an increasingly environmentally concerned
global community SF6 bans are not entirely fictional concepts.
A complete banning of the use of SF6 in HV electrical equipment would almost be unthinkable at this
stage. Over the past 30 years our electrical supply networks have become heavily invested, reliant
and ultimately committed to SF6 technology. Over 70% of our transmission network’s circuit
breakers utilise SF6 gas for insulation. The infrastructure investment required to replace the banned
equipment would be astronomical and could not possibly occur overnight or even within a decade.
With respect to the sheer magnitude of the proposal it is practical to break down the alternative into
to sub-alternative plausible scenarios;
1. A European influenced banning of SF6 in MV equipment

2. Phased replacement of all SF6 insulated circuit breakers similar to that of oil and air-blast
equipment replacements over the past 30 years.
6.5.1 Banning of 𝐒𝐅𝟔 in MV equipment

If the case study’s results are in any way representative of the nation as a whole, a nationwide ban
on SF6 in MV switch gear would actually be somewhat achievable in a reasonable time frame. Only
23% of substation circuit breakers less than 66 kV utilised SF6 gas. These 72 SF6 units could be
combined with the 26 bulk oil units that will be needed to be replaced anyway. Vacuum alternatives
in this range boast just as adequate functioning capabilities and less maintenance intensive
practices. Vacuum breakers do require slightly more frequent maintenance but this maintenance is
less intrusive and less time consuming as a whole. Vacuum breakers are also not as susceptible to
gas leakage callouts or circuit breaker lockouts.
A ten year proposal aligning with the replacement of MV oil technology would require a 400%
increase in investment to extend the scope of the operation to include SF6 circuit breaker
replacements also. Further savings could be made in this field in situations where manufacturing
companies offer solid-dielectric/vacuum interchangeable tanks with their current SF6 in-service
designs. The Nu-Lec, N-series Re-closer falls into this category with 17 units (23%) of the required
SF6 units to be replaced in the case study area interchangeable with U-series solid-dielectric tanks.
Reyrolle also offer a vacuum carriage replacement tank for their obsolete oil breaker rack-able
carriage designs also.
Additional savings could also be made in situations where multiple outdoor MV SF6 insulated circuit
breakers could be replaced with indoor modular vacuum circuit breaker/bus designs. Such modular
buildings can often be manufacture off site and supplied only requiring HV cable terminations and
auxiliary power connection.
A non-SF6 MV future would see reductions in maintenance call outs, gas handling activities, SF6
filling replacement costs and equivalent CO2 emissions.
93
6.5.2 Phased Replacement of all 𝐒𝐅𝟔 Insulated Circuit Breakers

If a phased replacement of all SF6 insulated switchgear was initiated the major cost component
would be in the development of suitable replacements for the high voltage circuit breakers.
Currently there is no mass produced non-SF6 option for Circuit Breakers over 330 kV.
A phased replacement would see the relative immediate stop in purchasing of SF6 circuit breakers
for new and replacement installations. Much like the replacement of the oil and air-blast circuit
breakers over the last 40 years, existing SF6 equipment would see out its service life and then be
replaced with a non-SF6 alternative. This strategy initially would be quite challenging as there may
not exist suitable non-SF6 replacements for some circuit breakers in the high end voltages. This may
result in specific equipment requiring staying in-service past its recommended life expectancy,
increasing associated maintenance costs. Another consequence could be that new transmission
developments are run at reduced voltages where reliable non-SF6 circuit breaker designs do exist.
Duplicate 132 kV transmission lines could be used instead of 330 kV lines for example while non-SF6
technology in the +330 kV is developed. Large oil insulated or air blast designs could see a re-
emergence to fill the void in the high voltage spectrum but they would need to be significantly re-
designed to keep maintenance and reliability competitive.
Luckily the 500 kV network in NSW is relatively new and its circuit breakers still have a 30 plus year
life expectancy allowing a larger window for technology developments in this area. Despite what
strategies are employed the higher voltage spectrum is definitely the most vulnerable to SF6
banning. Developments are undoubtedly needed in this area.
Sub 330 kV circuit breakers could be replaced as needed with the increasingly improving compressed
dry-air/vacuum circuit breakers. If anything the increased investment in the technology could see it
satisfy a larger proportion of the required replacement market. Perhaps using multiple vacuum
interrupters in series could be an option in the higher end of the voltage spectrum. Gas insulated
Substations would need to be re-thought, most probably resulting in relocating back into more space
exhausting traditional sized outdoor sites.
Whatever the replacement strategy, it is quite evident that a total ban on SF6 in switchgear would
be extremely expensive and require extensive infrastructure altercations. Unfortunately this cost
would also most like be passed down to electricity consumers, i.e. the general public. The reasons
that SF6 insulated switch gear has become the dominate technology in HV applications is no secret.
Its cost effectiveness, minimal maintenance requirements, reliability and compact installation sizes
were unrivalled and are all extremely hard to replicate and replace.
The staged banning of SF6 is not such a fictional reality. Staying one step ahead is definitely
recommended. By exploring and investing in environmentally and OH&S friendly alternatives to SF6
where possible, utilities can reduce their vulnerability to SF6 .
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Chapter 7
Chapter 7: The Proposal
The following proposals comprises of a mixture of recommendations based on this dissertations

research and findings whilst also taking into consideration economic and organisational objectives of
modern Australian electrical network authorities.
The environmental and OH&S concerning attributes of SF6 are evident. However, given recent
electricity commodity price rises, future reduction or elimination strategies must be both reliable
and cost effective as to not increase network operating costs.
The following proposals attempt to provide reasonable utility operating and infrastructure
investment strategies that will both reduce SF6 emission and personnel handling requirements
whilst simultaneously being practical and affordable. SF6 insulation still has a vital role to play in
higher end voltage applications. To propose an all out SF6 ban and across the board equipment
replacements would be unrealistic. This dissertation’s proposals seek to provide feasible, phased,
achievable strategies that will position utilities in less consequential futures given the concerns
associated with SF6 .
Another concerning trend with SF6 insulated switchgear is the fast approaching market monopoly of
the substance in applications 66 kV and above. Utilities could consequently be placing themselves in
a vulnerable situation at the mercy of any harshly imposed SF6 regulations or price rises. It makes
sense to try and diversify the market where appropriate to avoid any such market ambush.
The following realistic proactive actions and trial initiatives are recommended with project cost and
environmental benefits for utility consideration:
Primary Proposals: Proactive Actions
1. Medium Voltage (MV) SF6 Switchgear Purchasing Suspension

2. Dry-air to SF6 50% market Share (66 kV) by 2035
3. Regional Leakage Detection Cameras
Technology Trial Initiatives
4. Optical Current sensors Trials

5. Octafluorocyclobutane Trial
95
7.1 Primary Proposal: Proactive Actions
Based on these dissertation’s findings the following proactive proposals are presented for utility
considerations.
7.1.1 Medium Voltage (MV) SF6 Switchgear Purchasing Suspension

This proposal is pretty much a win win initiative for utilities. A self imposed or regulated, indefinite
suspension of medium voltage SF6 insulated switchgear purchasing demonstrates environmental
responsibility to the general public with no real reliability loss or dramatic cost increases. In fact this
is actually a cheaper option for utilities. Ample manufacturing companies produce more than
adequate vacuum and solid-dielectric/vacuum MV circuit breakers that cater for all applications less
than 40 kV. The technology is reliable, cost effective, requires less intensive maintenance and is the
trending medium of choice in the MV range anyway. Existing SF6 insulated equipment in this range
could remain with intentions to be replaced with an alternative mediums when due.
A move such as this by utilities would not only attract environmental accolades but also eventually
reduce maintenance costs, SF6 stockpile requirements, employee call outs, employee OH&S
concerns, installation footprints and most importantly SF6 leakage emissions. With most utilities
seeming to be moving in this direction anyway, a company regulation and public announcement
would give purchasing offices zero choice. The result would drive investment into the already stable
solid-dielectric /vacuum industry which may consequently produce developments in the high voltage
ranges.
With recent calls in Europe for a regulated ban of SF6 in MV switchgear it makes sense to position
Australia one step ahead. Especially within a market that the case study of this dissertation suggests
is only 23% catered for by SF6 equipment. Self imposed suspended purchasing by utilities would
position themselves in profitable circumstances given any eventual government regulated
suspension.
Building from this concept, phased replacement of existing MV SF6 insulated circuit breakers five to
ten years ahead of life expectancy would totally eradicate SF6 in the MV equipment by 2035. The
eradication of MV SF6 equipment would drastically reduce the SF6 maintenance and monitoring
equipment amounts required by distribution authorities. Such authorities would subsequently only
require such equipment for their 66 kV and above zone substation in-coming feeder circuit breakers
Currently solid-dielectric/vacuum circuit breakers are typically $1000-$2000 cheaper than SF6
models, projecting installation cost savings of between five and ten percent. The reduced call out
and required maintenance activities in an MV SF6 free future in the case study area is estimated at
15% (given that only 23% of circuit breakers in this range are currently SF6 insulated)
As mentioned in earlier chapters many MV circuit breaker manufacturing companies offer new
replacement solid-dielectric/vacuum interruption chamber tanks that can be interchanged with their
previous SF6 insulated models. This initiative reduces change over cost for utilities that can still
utilise the existing control mechanisms whilst maintaining company loyalty to the existing
manufacturer.
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Chapter 7
An interesting point of note is that in the case study area more than half of MV SF6 circuit breaker
designs utilised vacuum interrupters for current interruption and SF6 purely for phase-to-ground
insulation which is now completely unnecessary in this range.
Table 7-1 Case Study Area Proposal Implications: MV SF6 Switchgear Purchasing Suspension
Stage 1 2 3
Timeline 2015 2015-2035 2035
Action Immediate suspension Phased early Last of MV SF6 insulated
of MV SF6 switchgear replacement of MV SF6 switchgear
purchasing switchgear decommissioned
Units Effected Zero initially 267 -
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) 485.4 transitional Zero
𝐂𝐎𝟐 emissions 103.2 transitional Zero
(tonnes)
Installation Cost - 5-10% cheaper then SF6 -
($) alternatives
Ongoing - transitional 15% overall operating
Maintenance cost reduction
Cost ($)
97
7.1.2 Dry-air to SF6 50% Market Share (66 kV) by 2035

Initially a recommendation of dry-air insulated circuit breaker technology in the 66 kV range was
intended to be a trial initiative. However, installations of two Sumotomo 66 kV dry-air insulated
circuit breakers have been in service within Essential Energy’s network in Junee since 2011. These
installations’ issue free applications and reduced costs have seen Essential Energy invest further in
the technology with up to 12 subsequent units intended for Albury and other regional sites.
The dry-air/vacuum technology which is examined in detail in section 5.3 utilises compressed dry air
as the insulation medium and vacuum interrupters for current breaking. The now proven reliable
designs are available in the popular dead-tank types with integrated LV bushing current transformers
and utilise zero SF6 . They have been designed in such a way that their installation footprints mimic
that of current SF6 insulated dead-tanks in the 66 kV range.
A wider up-take of the SF6 eliminating design is recommended as a proactive strategy in reducing
network reliance on SF6 as well as offering other substantial benefits. A notable benefit is obviously
the reduction of future in-service SF6 amounts and their associated potent leakage emissions, but
the technology also offers much needed diversification in the industry and is actually lower in price.
Currently all obsolete oil circuit breakers approaching the end of their in-service lives are being
replaced exclusively with SF6 designs. With the last of the oil insulated breakers in this range
installed pre 1985, within 10 years the replacement scheme will render the 66 kV range exclusively
SF6 insulated. Diversification in this range would be extremely advantageous considering the
concerns associated with SF6 and calls internationally for its banning in the lower voltage spectrums.
Besides diversify the 66 kV range, dry-air/vacuum circuit breakers offer no real disadvantage when
compared to SF6 . Maintenance wise vacuum circuit breakers presently require similar regimes to
SF6 but just utilise different terminology. The four yearly “detailed inspection” for SF6 circuit
breakers comprises of a similar amount of activities required for a four yearly minor maintenance on
a vacuum circuit breaker. Additionally, leakage from a dry-air insulated circuit breaker would require
a similar staff call out activity but is of substantially less environmental consequence. Installations
sizes of the two designs are similar and offer all the same functions. Currently, Japanese company
dry-air/vacuum designs are leading their European competitors and their units are typically $30,000
cheaper than the established European SF6 dead-tank alternatives.
Alstom and other companies are also now offering live-tank style dry-air/vacuum designs. Currently
both obsolete oil insulated and aging SF6 insulated live-tanks and their associated CTs are expected
be replaced with SF6 insulated dead-tanks. Modern dead-tanks are preferred as they offer an
all-in-one circuit breaker and CT installation. In a continual budget restricting future replacing old
live-tanks with new live-tanks and utilising the existing post CTs could be a cheaper option.
Installations of new CTs require additional CT accuracy, polarity and saturation commissioning
checks to be conducted where as a straight live-tank swap over does not. However, in situations
where the existing post CTs are SF6 insulated it may be more environmentally friendly to replace
both the circuit breaker and CTs with a dry-air dead-tank.
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In any case it is evident that considerations of new 66 kV circuit breaker installations should include
either dry-air insulated dead-tanks or live-tanks in low to medium fault level installations. In
extremely high fault level installations such as large power transformer breakers, it may still be
appropriate to utilise the high current breaking strength of SF6 insulations. However, there is no
reason why the now proven dry-air technology can’t occupy an expanding share of the industries
feeder and medium level substation 66 kV circuit breaker range.
A 20 year expanding uptake of dry-air/vaccum circuit breakers in new 66 kV applications is

recommended by this dissertation. In replacing both obsolete oil and aging SF6 units in this range a
consideration of dry-air technology is advised, aiming for a 50% dry-air/vacuum to SF6 market share
by the year 2035. Currently the case study area has 188 of 66 kV units, 69 of which are oil insulated
and will be due for replacement in the next 10 years. If a further 25 SF6 insulated live-tanks are due
for replacement by 2035 and new installations increase at a rate of 2% annually up to 120 new 66 kV
circuit breaker installations are expected before 2035. A 50% market share of the of the then 264
total units would reduce a projected case study annual CO2 emissions by up 364.6 tonnes and
installation costs by $4,752,000
Table 7-2 Case Study Area Proposal Implications: Dry-air to SF6 50% Market Share (66 kV) by 2035
Stage 1 2 3
Timeline 2015 2025 2035
Action Intention of 50% market Last of the 66 kV Oil 50% market share dry-air
share dry-air to SF6 by circuit breakers to SF6 achieved
2035 decommissioned
Units in-service 188 226 264
Units Effected Zero 69 oil replacements extra 25 SF6 replacements
38 new installations extra 38 new installations
Market Share 69 Oil transitional 0 Oil
50 SF6 LT 25 SF6 LT
69 SF6 DT 107 SF6 DT
0 Dry-air LT 25 Dry-air LT
0 Dry-air DT 107 Dry-air DT
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) 1121.7 transitional 1466
(3180 if 100% SF6 )
𝐂𝐎𝟐 emissions 238.6 transitional 311.8
(tonnes pa) (676.4 if 100% SF6 )
Installation Zero transitional 13,098,000
Cost ($) (17,850,000 if 100% SF6 )
99
7.1.3 Regional Leakage Detection Cameras

The investment into infra-red leakage detection cameras capable of operating in the micro meter
spectrum required to visualise SF6 gas is considerable, in the order of $130,000. A recommendation
of regionally based equipment in distributed locations is advised on the basis of current
maintenance practice regularity and associated long term benefits of camera acquisitions.
Currently, utilities in NSW typically utilise one or two infra-red camera units based out of
metropolitan Sydney. In numerous instances maintenance staffs rely on proximity detectors for both
leakage detection and repair validation. Considering the current operating costs of individual SF6
leakage identification and repair activities as well as the associated equipment outages, additional
detection cameras may be warranted.
Currently, each equipment gas leakage repair operation is generally considered to cost in well in
excess of $2000 and includes;
1. The initial call out of a singular maintenance technician in response to a “loss of SF6 ” alarm.
Alarms can be raised at any time and need to be attended to immediately to avoid
equipment “lock out”. Of the normal eight hour working day there is a 66% chance that
technician response will be required outside of standard hours. Typical utility pay award
agreements are usually negotiated such that technicians on call receive a minimum four
hours overtime pay for out of hours call out activities ($320 for technician on $40/hr)
2. Gas refilling costs. “Loss of SF6 ”alarms are generally raised when the vessel pressure has
reached less than five bar. An example substance loss is calculated in sections 5.6.1 as up to
2 kg of SF6 . Gas replacement in such a case required upon call out amounts to $110 ($55/kg)
3. Equipment revenue loss. Now that leak existence has been established an equipment outage
is scheduled for closer inspection, leak detection and repair. Depending on the circumstance
the utility is liable to revenue losses from customer supply outages or penalties from the
Australian Energy Market Operator for network redundancy losses.
4. Leakage repair. Typically, for safety reasons, at least two qualified technicians are required
to hold an access authority to work on de-energised HV equipment and in any case repair
the leak. The leaking equipment’s SF6 is evacuated, the leak repaired and then refilled,
within an eight hour working day at a labour cost of $640.
5. Transportation. If the centralised infra-red camera is required for repair assistance then the
transportation cost of the unit to the leakage site could be quite substantial including fuel
and driver labour for multiple hours to reach regional locations.
6. Equipment depreciation. Additionally the deprecating cost of the required maintenance
equipment such as gas evacuation pumps, hoses and cylinders as well as ladders, harnesses,
elevated work platforms and technician vehicles add to the total activity cost.
At a designated leakage rate of 0.89% annually the slightly above 10 tonne case study area leaks
approximately 90 kg of SF6 in losses each year. If a typical leakage loss prior to repair was reasonably
assumed at 2 kg, this equates to 45 leakage repair activities per year. Granted there is both an
environmental and financial case to try and reduce leakage repair activities amounting to $90,000
and 2,100 tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions. Not to mention the reduction of personnel exposure
to the OH&S concerning SF6 insulation gas.
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Chapter 7
Often repair attempts can subsequently fail due to poor validation equipment such as hand held
proximity detectors or “sniffers”. Of the forty odd annual leakage repair activities required, up to
one third can be due to repeat offenders that have been difficult to validate repair effectiveness.
Infra-red detection cameras not only offer real time monitoring and repair validation but could also
significantly reduce repeat repair activities. Currently centralised Sydney based units are only
dispatched to regional locations in the event of multiple repair failings.
If camera acquisition in regional centres could achieve even a 20% reduction in maintenance costs, a
single unit could justify its initial investment in less than eight years. The NSW electrical grid outside
of the Sydney metropolitan area accounts for approximately %50 of the states electrical
infrastructure. This regional grid is typically segmented into Northern, Central West and Southern, of
which the sub-regional centres of Tamworth (north), Orange (central west) and Wagga Wagga
(southern) could substantial benefit from infra-red detection camera placements. Cameras operating
out of these regional centres could easily service their respective areas. Units could possibly be
shared between, or service both the needs of, regional transmission and distribution authorities
(Transgrid and Essential Energy). Leakage reduction initiatives such as these could see the national
leakage estimate of HV SF6 equipment reduced from 0.89% which could ease concerns associated
with SF6 in HV equipment.
Table 7-3 Case Study Area Proposal Implications: Regional Leakage Detection Camera
Stage 1 2
Timeline 2015 2023
Action Purchasing of regional based Camera purchase paid off
infra-red leak detecting cameras
Units Effected 520 603
Annual leakage Repair 45 41
Activities (52 if no camera purchase)
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) 10,216 11,850
𝐂𝐎𝟐 emissions 238.6 252.1
(tonnes pa)
Installation Cost ($) 130,000 -
Maintenance Cost ($) 90,000 82,000
(104,000 if no camera purchase)
101
7.2 Technology Trials Initiatives
7.2.1 Optical Current Sensor Trial

From the case study area results in Chapter Four it is evident that a significant contribution of SF6 in
the region was a result of transmission level live-tank circuit breakers utilising SF6 insulated adjacent
post current transformers. Although oil insulated CTs are slightly cheaper and offer less life-cycle
emissions, their high monitoring and maintenance regimes are deemed less desirable in the current
operating cost driven industry answerable to rising electricity commodity prices. Not only do
maintenance activities cost in terms of personnel and equipment but they also imply reduced
revenue from out of service equipment intended for supplying electrical power to paying customers.
For this reason this dissertation’s proposals seeks modern alternatives with additional benefits. One
such alternative that this dissertation recommends as a trial initiative is that of non-conventional
current transformers, particularly optical current sensors.
Despite their substantially higher initial cost, $40,000 compared to $9,000, HV optical current
sensors offer significant benefits additional to that of SF6 elimination. Although their investment
may not be warranted in the lower voltage applications, higher end HV to EHV applications could
benefit from their space-saving and maintenance reducing attributes.
The Alstom Grid Optical Solutions website informs that individual optical current sensors offer wide
dynamic sensing ranges with each unit capable of replicating numerous CT ratios (altered via
software) which in turn reduces inventory stock requirements. They are light weight (approximately
10% of oil filled transformer) and are capable of flexible installations such as HV bus mounting and
direct circuit breaker terminal attachment. Their usage can reduce the total substation footprint by
as much as 15 to 25%. Transportation of units is far easier and personnel are no longer at risk to
ferro-resonance and dangerous open secondary concerns associated with magnetic transformers.
Furthermore they attribute reduced secondary wiring requirements and next to zero maintenance.
They are extremely accurate, do not suffer the saturation limitations of magnetic transformers and
are either analogue or “smart-grid” IEC 61850 ready.
Modern optical current sensor protection and metering accuracies exceed that of traditional CTs and
it appears their integration into modern HV networks is only a matter of time. The technology has
the potential to reduce the current dependence on both oil and SF6 insulated CT’s. What’s more, its
integrated use on live-tank circuit breakers terminals could replace all benefits attributed to
dead-tank integrated CT designs. A SF6 live-tank requires one third the insulation gas its counterpart
and also boasts a significantly smaller installation footprint (50% reduction). Currently the only set
back of the live-tank design is its large adjacent post CT requirements that could be eliminated by
optical sensor integration. The benefits are even more substantial in higher voltage ranges (500 kV)
where typically all circuit breakers are live-tanks with adjacent SF6 insulated CTs
Given these benefits but also the conservative nature of network utilities possibly concerned with
the associated investment required, it is recommended that a trial of the technology be undertaken.
Initially a feeder bay with existing CT’s could be modified to incorporate a set of optical current
sensors in addition. The outputs of the traditional and modern technologies could be monitored and
compared, with the traditional CTs eventually removed after a given time frame (say 6 months).
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Chapter 7
Building from this, five to ten percent of new feeder bays over the next five years could be designed
utilise optical current sensors. If utilities would prefer to keep the new technology centralised
perhaps a one off new substation ear marked for smart grid demonstrations could be designed to
incorporate the new current sensors.
Table 7-4 Case Study Area Trial Implications: Optical Current Sensors
Stage 1 2 3
Timeline 6 months 5 years Future
Action Trial of optical sensors in Designated feeder Optical current sensors
series with traditional bays or complete replace all post CT
CTs substation applications applications
Units in-service 3 single phase 15-20 138-All enclusive
Redaction of Zero approx. 300 4239
𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg)
𝐂𝐎𝟐 emissions - approx. 902
(tonnes pa)
Installation 120,000 600,000-800,000 +5,440,000
Cost ($)
103
7.2.2 Octafluorocyclobutane Trial

Octafluorocyclebutane (c − C4 F8 ) exhibits about one third of the global warming potential of SF6
and could be a “go to” substance in the event of any sudden SF6 restrictions. Due to carbon content
of c − C4 F8, which can form conductive particles post arc initiated decomposition, it is not
appropriate for current interruption applications. Despite this short fall, the use of c − C4 F8 could
still be beneficial in non-current interrupting dielectric applications such as gas insulated current
transformers and gas insulated VI circuit breakers. In these situations the gas would rarely be subject
to intense electrical current arcs unless in a significant design fault. Even in the rare event of arc
exposure, c − C4 F8 is more than capable of extinguishing the arc but subsequently would require
monitoring or gas changing afterwards.
The significantly reduced GWP rating of c − C4 F8, position the substance as a worthy trial medium in
HV dielectric applications. Although the price of c − C4 F8 is high in comparison, its application would
primarily be in high voltage CTs which exhibit significantly less leakage regularity due to their static
installation nature. Unlike a HV circuit breaker a CT does not have any fast acting, highly forced
operating mechanisms to stress or vibrate the apparatus, emphasizing vessel integrity failures.
The superior dielectric strength of c − C4 F8 compared to SF6 (1.2 times that of SF6 ) indicates that
the substance could be easily interchanged with SF6 in non-current interrupting HV equipment. Such
a dielectric strength also implies that no altercation to vessel sizes would be required. Its gaseous
nature additionally allows the utilisation of existing filling valves and equipment.
Investigations into the in-service capabilities of c − C4 F8 could assist government or private high
voltage network operators aiming to reduce their emissions contributions. In an uncertain future
that could eventually impose harsh penalties on company emissions the substance could be utilised
as an intermediate solution to electrical equipment gas insulation leakage emissions.
A five year trial of c − C4 F8 is recommended in exclusively designated applications such as two to

three sets of HV gas insulated post CT’s and MV gas insulated vacuum interrupter circuit breakers.
Medium voltage gas insulated vacuum interrupter circuit breakers that currently use SF6 to insulate
the internal interrupter from the ground (vessel enclosure) would be better replaced entirely with a
solid dielectric model. However a trial of c − C4 F8 in this application with positive results could leave
utilities with the option of replacing the gas in such equipment to obtain a greater service life out of
the existing enclosure and interrupter infrastructure.
Table 7-5 Case Study Area Trial Implications: Octafluorocyclebutane
Stage 2 3
Timeline 5 years Future
Action Trial of c − C4 F8 in gas CTs All remaining SF6 CTs
and SF6 /vac CBs and SF6 /vac CBs
Units in-service 6 CTs 138 CTs
2 SF6 /vac CBs 42 𝐒𝐅𝟔 /vac CBs , 195 Re-closers
Redaction of 𝐒𝐅𝟔 (kg) 124 4662
Reduction 𝐂𝐎𝟐 emiss. 26.4 991.7
(tonnes pa)
Installation Cost ($) 18,000 699,300
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Chapter 7
7.3 Company Strategies
The final proposed recommendations are for overall electrical network authority company
approaches to eliminating or reducing reliance on SF6 insulation in HV circuit breakers and associate
apparatus. The pro-active proposals and trial initiatives recommended in sections 7.1 and 7.2 are
great starts in company SF6 reduction s but further strategies would also be beneficial.
It is vitally important for all network authorities utilising SF6 insulated switchgear to make conscious
efforts to maintain current awareness of developing technologies that could aid SF6 reduction and
their associated benefits and costs. Environmentally friendly, cheaper, and less OH&S concerning
insulation technologies are rapidly been introduced into the HV switchgear market. Additional to
alternative circuit breaker and current transformer designs are also advances in handling equipment,
such as gas evacuation systems, gas analysis devices and recycling methods. In an uncertain future
regarding SF6 regulations staying in tune with alternatives could not only save companies a lot of
money but also better compliment environment and staff well being.
Company instigated professional development and staff training in regards to better SF6 handling
and equipment maintenance practices could also greatly reduce SF6 emissions and dangerous
exposure to personnel. Keeping staff up to date with the latest safe operating methods and gas
handling expectations can reduce gas losses which can subsequently save operating companies
money in SF6 stockpile amounts and also in equipment time revenue losses.
An important company strategy that was brought about due to the introduction of the carbon tax in
2012, due to SF6 rise in price, was that of accurate SF6 gas inventory monitoring. Gas cylinders used
for equipment filling are weighed prior to and after each use and the mass of SF6 utilised is
recorded. Every six months an inventory check is conducted and the obtained mass compared to
that of inventory records. This is a great company imitative and should be continued in any SF6
utilising future.
A final recommended company strategy is the adjustment of “loss of SF6 ” alarms to perhaps include
a lower tolerance level for emission reduction and savings in SF6 mass replacements. Real time data
monitoring of SF6 pressures in HV equipment by SCADA systems is being considered as an
advancement on simple low gas alarm triggering points. Company instigated developments in this
system could lead to more reliable and robust, emission reducing networks.
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Chapter 8
Chapter 8: Conclusion
8.1 Conclusion
Australia is an environmentally concerned developed western nation; however it is also subject to

local high cost of living pressures as well as international competiveness for industry investments
and job creation. Currently, high global warming potential emission reductions from SF6 insulated
switchgear unfortunately does not top Australia’s “to do list”.
Australia’s has a highly innovative nature and is a proficient accepter of new technology which was
sparked from its geographical separation from the western world during its development years.
Australia is also proudly influenced by its indigenous heritage and its 40,000 year strong
sustainability practices. As a united community, Australia is generally concerned for the environment
and our effects on future generations. The modern nation seeks a sustainable mix of industrial and
technological progress, economic security and competiveness, as well as environmental
conservation. It is the combination of Australia’s acceptance of new technology and sustainability
motivations that will drive future change in the field of SF6 insulated HV switchgear.
Australia also does not seem afraid to lead global conversations, implementing progressive decisions
and policies such as the Carbon Tax. The Carbon Tax, despite its short comings sparked major
changes in industry practices. The argument stands that the tax was evidently inappropriate for
Australia at the time; however the dramatic price rise in SF6 (even for a short period) prompted
utilities to reconsider the substance’s previously instinctive application. If SF6 insulation was to gain
an eventually monopoly in the HV range a Carbon Tax like price rise in the order of ten times current
value again would dramatically effect electricity network costs.
Sulphur hexafluoride still has a vital role to play in Australia highest voltage applications. Australia is
a geographically dispersed nation. Efficient EHV inter-regional transmission networks’ connecting
the nation’s major load centres along its eastern seaboard is the future of Australia’s electricity grid.
In 330 kV and above applications SF6 unfortunately has no practical alternative. It is the trending
growth of SF6 in HV applications below 330 kV that is concerning.
The 2,905 tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions from the case study area’s SF6 insulated circuit
breakers each year suggest 24,200 tonnes for NSW and 80,700 tonnes annually for Australia. With
an expected increases at above 2% per year these amounts could more than double in the next half
century.
Reductions or eliminations of SF6 in MV and non-current interrupting HV applications are highly

warranted. This dissertation has demonstrated comprehensively that alternative technologies and
strategies do exist and in many instances is actually the more cost effective option.
107
There is realistically no credible reason why SF6 insulation needs to be utilised in medium voltage
switchgear applications anymore. Solid-dielectric/vacuum MV alternatives are far superior on all
criterion including price, maintenance and environment. Dry-air/vacuum circuit breakers are also
implying an increasing lack of relevance of SF6 in 66 kV applications. A major market share swing
away from SF6 in 66 kV circuit breakers is fast approaching with price and environmental compliance
playing a major role. Digital substation control and monitoring is promising to be the next big
innovative revolution in electricity grids. Non-conventional current transformers and other
instrumentation are positioning themselves as the new space saving, maintenance reduced and
environmentally friendly options.
With these design changes establishing a foot hold in modern networks a future where the use SF6
is limited to high end voltage live-tank circuit breakers only is not unrealistic. Disassociating itself
with SF6 in MV and non-current interrupting HV applications is a practical and economical viable
option for Australia. The limited use of SF6 in EHV applications would significantly reduce personnel
contact with the OH&S concerning substance as well see the assumed leakage emission rate of
0.89% possibly fall.
A concerning SF6 trend that is however the gaining popularity is that of Gas Insulated Substations
(GIS) for their space saving benefits. The substantial increase in required SF6 insulation gas of these
installations can be upwards from five times that of a traditional substation yards. A further up take
of space saving non-conventional current transformers and other digital HV instruments could see
GIS applications reconsidered.
The use of sulphur hexafluoride in MV and non-current interrupting HV applications has run its
course. Future harsh SF6 restrictions, regulations and price raises associated with the global
warming potent substance are highly plausible in the modern environmentally concerned world.
Additionally, the OH&S concerns associated with the decomposition by-products of SF6 are
alarming. Given the previous four decade strong hold of SF6 insulated circuit breakers and their
perceived benefits the eventual alternatives needed to be extraordinary to compete, and they are.
The modern alternatives speak for themselves; reduced - costs, reduced safety concerns, reduced
environmental impacts and reduced maintenance requirements.
The time for the consideration of alternatives is over. It is no longer a question of aiming to be one
step ahead by embracing the new SF6 alternatives - but rather being one step behind if you don’t!
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Chapter 8
8.2 Further Work
The following items are noted as desirable further work objectives:
1. Expanding the case study area – Expanding the case study are to that of entire NSW would
give an greater picture of the use of SF6 . Current, estimates based on the rural case study
region alone could be drastically underrating the real usage in greater metropolitan Sydney
2. Real instance leakage recording – A six to twelve month leakage recording according study
of the case study area would be beneficial as a comparison to the prescribed leakage rate or
0.89% of equipment capacity. Obtain data or developing a mechanism for the case study
utilities to record data concerning equipment leakage call out instances and leakage loss
amounts could determine whether the prescribed leakage rate is conservative, accurate or
misleading.
3. Analysis of leakage repair – An analysis a current leakage repair activity could give further
insight into the current methods, equipments used, handling techniques and SF6 loss
amounts. Actual leakage repair success rate with traditional equipment would also be an
interesting data collection in terms of validating infra-red camera technology.
4. Alarm level tolerances – An investigation into any benefits offered from reduced “loss of
SF6 ” alarm tolerances. A detailed look at whether less forgiving alarm levels would produce
an increased cost in call outs compared to environmental and SF6 stock pile savings.
5. Installation trials alternatives – A real installation trial of either optical current sensors or
Octafluorocyclebutane gas replacement suggested in section 7.2 would be produce realistic
data on the benefits of such installations. An interesting trial would be that of a live-tank
circuit breaker with optical current sensors fitted to its terminals in an attempt to compare
the installation with the current benefits of dead-tank circuit breakers.
109
110
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Teyssandier, C., 1995. Cahier Technique No. 170: From Current Transformers to Hybrid Sensors in HV,
s.l.: Merlin Gerin.
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Transgrid, 2009. Managment of SF6 Gas, Sydney: Transgird.
Transgrid, 2011. Network Management Plan 2011-2016, Sydney: Transgrid.
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113
Appendix A
Appendix A: Project Specification
114
Appendix A
115
Appendix B
Appendix B: SF6 MSDS
116
Appendix B
117
Appendix B
118
Appendix B
119
Appendix B
120
Appendix B
121
Appendix B
122
Appendix B
123
Appendix B
124
Appendix C
Appendix C: Transgrid Maintenance Plan Excerpts
125
Appendix C
126
Appendix C
127
Appendix C
128
Appendix C
129
Appendix C
130
Appendix D
Appendix D: Transgrid Management Plan 2011-16 Excerpts
131
Appendix D
132
Appendix D
133
Appendix D
134
Appendix D
135
Appendix D
136
Appendix E
Appendix E: Australian National Greenhouse Gas Accounts Excerpts
137
Appendix E
138
Appendix E
139
Appendix E
140

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Alternatives to SF6 in HV Circuit Breaker Insulation

SF6 is an environmentally potent and OH&S concerning substance, however it

Michael Marland - 0061004355

University of Southern Queensland

This dissertation provides reasonable and practical recommendations of pro-active technology

University of Southern Queensland

Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences

ENG4111/ENG4112 Research Project

University of Southern Queensland

Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences

ENG4111/ENG4112 Research Project

The University of Southern Queensland

For his contributions and insights into distribution level equipment

Miss Danielle Corbett

Limitations of Use ........................................................................................................................ II

Certification of Dissertation ........................................................................................................ III

Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... V

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ X

Glossary of Terms ....................................................................................................................... XI

Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Setting the Scene .................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2: What is Sulphur hexafluoride (𝐒𝐅𝟔) ........................................................................ 3

2.1 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6)..................................................................................................... 4

2.7.3 Pressure Hazards ........................................................................................................... 14

Chapter 3: HV Circuit Breaker Trends and Innovation ............................................................ 19

3.1 High Voltage Circuit Breakers ............................................................................................... 20

Chapter 4: Case Study - The Central Western NSW................................................................. 37

4.1 Central Western NSW ........................................................................................................... 38

5.1 Continual Development of the Vacuum Interrupter (VI) ...................................................... 62

Chapter 6: Environmental, Cost & Life Cycle Analysis ............................................................. 81

6.1 Australian Electricity Demand and Infrastructure Growth ................................................... 82

6.5 SF6 Usage if SF6 is Banned Tomorrow .................................................................................. 93

Chapter 7: The Proposal ........................................................................................................ 95

7.1 Primary Proposal: Proactive Actions ..................................................................................... 96

Chapter 8: Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 107

8.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 107

Appendix A: Project Specification ............................................................................................. 114

Appendix B: SF6 MSDS ............................................................................................................. 116

Appendix C: Transgrid Maintenance Plan Excerpts .................................................................... 125

Appendix D: Transgrid Management Plan 2011-16 Excerpts ...................................................... 131

Appendix E: Australian National Greenhouse Gas Accounts Excerpts ......................................... 137

Figure 2-1 Molecular Model of Sulphur Hexafluoride ............................................................................ 4

Table 2-1 SF6 Properties at 25°C............................................................................................................. 5

Circuit Breaker: electro-mechanical device for Octafluorocyclobutane (𝐜 − 𝐂𝟒 𝐅𝟖 ): Fluorocarbon

Medium Voltage (MV): Industry term for voltage

1.1 Setting the Scene

1.2 This Dissertation

This dissertation seeks to deliver upon the follow five objectives.

2. Determine the actual use of SF6 in existing Australian electrical networks

Chapter 2: What is Sulphur hexafluoride (𝐒𝐅𝟔 )

2.1 Sulphur Hexafluoride (𝐒𝐅𝟔 )

Pure SF6 is odourless, tasteless, non-toxic, non-

“The chemical and thermal properties of SF6 are

Table 2-1 SF6 Properties at 25°C

Property Value Units

2.2 Electrical Properties

2.2.1 Dielectric Strength