Signal Generator

5/9/2018
Signal Generator
 An instrument that gives or produces a signal of a

specific frequency and amplitude within a wide
range of values
 Can be used to generate and measure

 Frequency between 0.1 Hz to 20 MHz
 Amplitude between 0.1 mV to 15 V
 Shapes such as sinusoidal, square and triangular waves
Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 3
Signal Generator
 May be classified as
 Low-frequency (LF) sine-wave generators
 Typical frequency of 100 kHz and output voltage range from 0 to 10
V
 Radio-frequency (RF) sine-wave generators
 Function generators
 Like LF instruments that can generate sinusoidal, square and
triangular waveforms
 Pulse generators
 Can be used to control amplitude, frequency and width
 Sweep frequency generators

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Signal Generator: Basic Components
 Oscillator
 A circuit that produces a sinusoidal
output (intrinsic signal) without any
input
 Can be tuned to a certain frequency
 Consists of
 An amplifier
 High gain (up to 200,000)
 A feedback circuit
 RC circuit is used to control the frequency
 Impedance of capacitor is inversely
proportional to frequency of the signal
Signal Generator: Basic Components
 Amplifiers & attenuators

 Used to enhance or reduce the amplitude of the output
signal
 Filters
 Wave shape circuits

 To produce other types of waveforms such as square,
pulse, triangular etc.
 Typical output is sinusoidal

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Signal Generator
 The oscillator generates an output signal of a certain

fixed frequency
 Frequency depends upon the values of R and C in the
circuit
 R and C should be modifiable or adjustable in order to
produce output of different frequencies and amplitudes
 The amplifier circuit is used to select the enhanced

output voltage
 A DC offset (voltage) can be added to the signal

Signal Generator: Wish List
 Features desired in a signal generator

 Output signal should either be noise free or have the
minimum possible noise
 Frequency and amplitude of the output signal should
be stable

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Wein Bridge Oscillator
 Consists of an AC bridge to produce a sine-wave

 Balance is obtained only at a particular frequency
 Gives an output with
good frequency
 Provides amplitude
stability
 Gives low distortion
waveform
Wein Bridge Oscillator
 Balance equations
= +
𝑓=
 If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
𝑅3 = 2𝑅4
𝑓=
 Voltage gain
3 4
𝐴v =
4

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Wein Bridge Oscillator: Example
 A Wein bridge oscillator has the following components: R1 and R2 variable

from 500 Ω to 5 kΩ, and C1 = C2 = 300 nF. Calculate the maximum and
minimum output frequencies of the sinusoidal waveform.
Solution:
Frequency Range Changing
 Resistor and capacitor values must

be adjusted simultaneously to
alter the value of R and C
respectively
 Switching the capacitor values

provides changes in frequency
range
 Variation of resistors facilitates

continuous frequency adjustment
over each range

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Output Controls (Attenuator)
 Amplitude of the oscillator output might be controlled using a

potential divider
 Op-amp is connected as a voltage follower to provide low impedance
from the signal generator
 Switch S1 is used to switch between two amplitude ranges
Example
 A 5V sine wave is fed from a Wein bridge oscillator to the attenuator

circuit in Figure. Calculate the values of R1, R2 and R3 to give output
voltage ranges of 0-0.1 V and 0-1 V. The input bias current to the Op-Amp
is IB = 500nA.

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Example
Sine-to-Square Wave Conversion

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Clipping
circuit
 Due to very high gain of amplifier, the sine wave is

amplified and then attenuated (clipped) by the
clipper circuit (composed of combination of diodes
and Zener diodes
Vo = ± (VZ + VD)
= ± (6.3 + 0.7) V
=±7V

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Signal Generator: Measuring Output
 A frequency counter can be used to measure the

frequency of the output signal
 Counts the number of pulses per second
 Can be made using binary pulse counters
Function Generators
 Produces sine, square and triangular waveform outputs

 May also be used to generate a ramp waveform
 Output frequency and amplitude are variable
 A DC offset adjustment may also be include
 If we add a way to convert from square wave into

triangular wave, the signal generator (already discussed)
can be employed to work as a function generator

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Function Generators
 Block diagram
Function Generators
 A triangular wave can be generated using an integrator

 A Schmitt trigger circuit can be used to generate a square
wave from the output of the integrator

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Function Generators
 Frequency changing
 Frequency values can
be varied by using a
potentiometer
 Frequency range can

be varied by
connecting to different
capacitors
Function Generators
 Adding Sine-wave Conversion

 Diodes and resistors can be employed along with a
voltage divider to convert the triangular wave into sine
wave
 More diodes and resistors, better sine-wave
approximation

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Function Generators
 Two-level diode loading circuit
Function Generators
 Two-level diode loading circuit

 If R3, R4, D1 and D2 are not present, the circuit only behaves as a
voltage divider
 The output waveform (triangular) is just an attenuated version of
input triangular waveform
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖
 In the presence of D1 and R3, the circuit still
behaves as a voltage divider until VR2 exceeds +V1
 D1 becomes forward-biased  R3 becomes parallel to R2
||
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖
||
 Output levels above +V1 are more attenuated than levels below +V1

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Function Generators
 Six-level diode loading circuit

 Greater approximation to sine-wave can be achieved
Non-Sinusoidal Generators
 Different behavior than sinusoidal generators

 Sudden change or relaxation in signal is desirable
 Also known as relaxation oscillators or multivibrators
 Multivibrators
 Work in either of the two outputs, ON or OFF
 Three types
 Bistable multivibrator
 Astable mulitvibrator
 Monostable multivibrator

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Multivibrators
 Bistable multivibrator
 Flip-flop or latch behavior
 Output is stable in both states
 An input trigger pulse changes the output pulse slot from
one stable state into another
 Absence of trigger pulse means no change in output signal
Multivibrators
 Astable multivibrator
 Output is not stable at all
 Output keeps changing between the two states
periodically
 Used to generator clock pulses
 No trigger input pulse required

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Multivibrators
 Output signal is stable in one state and not stable in the
other state
 A trigger pulse switches the output signal to unstable state
which returns to stable state after some time
 A short input trigger pulse may generate a long output
pulse
Pulse Generators
 Composed of a square-
wave generator, a
monostable multivibrator,
and an attenuator output
stage
 Square-wave generator
controls the frequency
 Monostable multivibrator
adjusts the pulse width
 Attenuator facilitates the
pulse amplitude and DC
offset

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Pulse Generator
 Square-wave generator
 Consists of an op-amp astable multivibrator
 Op-amp with R2 and R3 constitutes an inverting type Schmitt trigger
The frequency of the

square-wave depends
upon the charging and
discharging time of the
capacitor
R1 is continuous
frequency control
which limits the time t
Pulse Generator
Op-Amp switches
between Vo– = –(VEE –
1) and Vo+ = +(VCC – 1)
Pulse width is
controlled by the value
of R2 and C2

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Pulse Generator
 Attenuator
DC shift
control
Direct Digital Signal (DDS) Generators
 A signal generator in which the signal is produced using a

set of digital values already stored in memory with
respect to specific time intervals
 Digital values are stored for some discrete values of time only

5/9/2018
DDS: Basic Mechanism
DDS: Advantages
 Any arbitrary waveform, wave-shape or data

pattern can be generated
 Doesn’t need to be periodic
 A wide range of frequencies can be generated
 A high degree of accuracy can be achieved
 Reliability

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DDS: Important Points
 Sampling rate and frequency
 Quantization levels
 Adequate memory to store different data

patterns
 Multiple output channels are possible which can

be implemented by using a separate part of every
channel
Data Generators
 Also known as pattern generators
 Don’t produce any waveforms
 Generate volumes of binary information
 Generate streams of 1’s and 0’s that can be used for

testing purposes of different components of a
computer system
 Including system buses, microprocessors etc.

5/9/2018
Data Generators
Data Generators: Features
 Sequencing
 Generating different patterns and sequences based on some pre-
defined patterns
 A memory cannot store all the combinations
 Multiple outputs
 May have hundreds of output channels to support numerous data,
address and control lines
 Pattern data sources
 Ability to accept data from a number of systems including logic
analyzers, Digital Storage Oscilloscopes etc.
 Display
 Offer markers, scrolling and other time saving features

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Data Generators
 Block diagram
 DAC is not required
Data Generators
 Pattern generation
from sequencing

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Digital Logic Analyzer
 An instrument that is used to monitor (analyze)

signals in a digital system
 Only logic level voltages (signals) can be monitored

 Displays logic levels of signals as 0 or 1
 Monitored voltages are usually between 0 and 7 V
 The voltage level (threshold value) for logic 1 is

adjustable and can vary between 2 and 7 V
 Can be set by the user
 Typically has 32-48 input channels to capture input

data
 Can be as many as 64 channels as well
 Channels can be grouped together (e.g. 8, 16 or 32)
to represent byte, word or double word
 Usually done to monitor data bus or address bus of a digital
system
 The ability to capture and store (in memory) input
values is one of the main features of a digital logic
analyzer
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 Has memory to store values of signals captured

 Has a sampling speed as well (clock)
 The duration for which input values are captured and
stored depends upon the sampling frequency and
the amount of memory available
 The sampling rate is adjustable within some bound
 The start and stop timing for sampling is called
triggering
 Two modes of display

 Timing mode

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 Two modes of display

 State (table) mode
Digital Logic Analyzer: Features
 Number of input channels (32-64)

 Sampling / clock rate (10 – 500 MHz)
 Internal clock
 External clock
 Default low-high input voltage levels
 Low  0 – 0.9 V
 High  2.5 to 7 V
 Start / Stop capturing signals
 Event triggering

5/9/2018
Digital Logic Analyzer: Block Diagram
Digital Logic Analyzer: Interfacing

5/9/2018
 Problem with sampling rate

Signal Generator

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5/9/2018

 An instrument that gives or produces a signal of a

 Can be used to generate and measure

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 3

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 4

Signal Generator: Basic Components

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 5

Signal Generator: Basic Components

 Amplifiers & attenuators

 Wave shape circuits

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 6

 The oscillator generates an output signal of a certain

 The amplifier circuit is used to select the enhanced

 A DC offset (voltage) can be added to the signal

Signal Generator: Wish List

 Features desired in a signal generator

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 8

Wein Bridge Oscillator

 Consists of an AC bridge to produce a sine-wave

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 9

Wein Bridge Oscillator

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 10

Wein Bridge Oscillator: Example

 A Wein bridge oscillator has the following components: R1 and R2 variable

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 11

Frequency Range Changing

 Resistor and capacitor values must

 Switching the capacitor values

 Variation of resistors facilitates

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 12

Output Controls (Attenuator)

 Amplitude of the oscillator output might be controlled using a

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 13

 A 5V sine wave is fed from a Wein bridge oscillator to the attenuator

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 14

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 15

Sine-to-Square Wave Conversion

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 16

Sine-to-Square Wave Conversion

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 17

Sine-to-Square Wave Conversion

 Due to very high gain of amplifier, the sine wave is

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 18

Signal Generator: Measuring Output

 A frequency counter can be used to measure the

 Counts the number of pulses per second

 Can be made using binary pulse counters

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 19

 Produces sine, square and triangular waveform outputs

 Output frequency and amplitude are variable

 A DC offset adjustment may also be include

 If we add a way to convert from square wave into

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 20

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 21

 A triangular wave can be generated using an integrator

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 22

 Frequency range can

Copyright 2017-18, Naveed Bin Rais (AU) 23