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What an ergative verb is

An ergative verb has the following features:

it has two patterns

only one of these patterns has a noun group
following the verb
the person or thing indicated by that noun
group may also be indicated by the Subject of
the other pattern

For example, the verb break has two patterns, V

and V n. Only one of these patterns, V n, has a
noun group following the verb. An example of the
pattern V n is John broke the vase. The noun group
following the verb, the vase, may also be the
Subject of the verb: The vase broke.

Combinations of patterns with ergative verbs

Some ergative verbs have symmetrical

combinations of patterns. For example, the verb
break has a combination of two patterns, V and V
n. This combination is symmetrical because the
only difference between the two patterns is that one
has a noun group following the verb and the other
does not. You say
The stick broke.
and She broke the stick.

Some ergative verbs have combinations of patterns

that are asymmetrical, that is, the patterns are
different in more ways than the presence or
absence of a noun group. For example, the verb
puff has the pattern V n but not the pattern V.
Instead, it has the pattern V prep/adv. Therefore,
you say
The chimney puffed smoke
and Smoke puffed out of the chimney
but you do not say Smoke puffed.

What the patterns indicate

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When you use an ergative verb, you have a choice

between two (or more) patterns. These patterns
allow you to talk about the world in very different
ways. For example, you can choose to indicate that
something just happens, perhaps as a natural
occurrence, without indicating that someone or
something is responsible for it. Or you can indicate
that someone or something is the cause of what
happens and so is responsible for it. Compare the
examples below. (Unlike the other examples in this
book, these and the following examples in this
Introduction have been invented to illustrate the
differences in meaning between the patterns.)

The vase broke. John broke the vase.

The volume often varies. The technician can vary
the volume.
Many factories closed. The government's policies
closed many factories.

In the first example in each pair there is only one

noun group. This noun group indicates something
that does something or has something happen to it:
the vase breaks, the volume varies, and the 475
factories close. We can call the vase, the volume,
and the factories the `doer'. In these examples with
only a `doer', you are not told what the cause of the
action is. In fact, you may understand that the
action has no cause. You may think, for example,
that the vase broke by itself. Or you may
understand that there is a cause but that the
speaker or writer has chosen not to mention it. You
may think, for example, that someone caused the
vase to break but that the speaker or writer is
deliberately hiding that information.

In the second example in each pair there are two

noun groups. One of them is the `doer' and the
other indicates the person or thing that causes the
action: John causes the vase to break, the
technician causes the volume to vary, and the
government's policies cause the factories to close.
We can call John, the technician, and the
government's policies the `causer'. In these
examples with both a `doer' and a `causer', you can
understand the clause in only one way: that
someone or something caused something to
happen.

How the `doer' and the `causer' relate to the action

depends on who or what they are. Here are some
more examples:

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(i) `Doer' and `causer' are both animate

Where the `doer' and the `causer' are both animate

and the action is something that is under the
control of the `doer', the exact roles of the `doer'
and the `causer' vary according to the verb.

The `causer' may be someone in authority who

encourages or orders the `doer' to do the action.

The horse galloped down the hill. The rider

galloped his horse down the hill.
The squad marched down the hill. The sergeant
marched the squad down the hill.

The `causer' may provide conditions that allow the

`doer' to do the action.

The cows grazed in the water meadows. The

farmer grazed the cows in the water meadows.

The `doer' and the `causer' may both be involved in

the action, with different responsibilities.

She auditioned on Tuesday. I auditioned her

on Tuesday.
He enrolled on a two-year course. The tutor
enrolled him on a two-year course.

(ii) `Doer' is inanimate, `causer' is animate

Where the `doer' is inanimate, or is animate but

the action is not under their control, and the
`causer' is animate, the exact roles of the `doer'
and `causer' vary according to the verb.

The `causer' may hold ultimate responsibility for

the action, even though he or she does not intend to
cause the action.

The vase broke when it fell on the floor. He broke

the vase when he dropped it on the floor.
The car crashed. He crashed his car.

The `causer' may provide the conditions in which a

natural process takes place.

Raspberries freeze well. She froze some

raspberries.

The `causer' may not cause the action at all, but

may be affected by the action, for example by
suffering an injury.

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His leg fractured. He fractured his leg. 476

The `doer' may not do anything, but may be

affected by the action.

The bucket filled in two minutes. He filled the

bucket in two minutes.

(iii) `Doer' may be animate or inanimate

depending on the verb, `causer' is inanimate

When the `causer' is inanimate, it may be the

immediate cause of the action.

The vase broke. The impact broke the vase.

Alternatively, the `causer' may be an indirect cause

of the action.

Her spirits lifted as if by magic. The party lifted

her spirits as if by magic.

Patterns with reflexive pronouns

With many ergative verbs, the noun group

following the verb is sometimes a reflexive
pronoun. When this is the case, the `doer' and the
`causer' are the same person or thing. Sometimes
this means that there is little difference in meaning
between this pattern and the pattern which
mentions only the `doer'. For example, the first two
examples below mean almost the same thing,
although they have different patterns, but the third
example has a different meaning.

The symptoms of the illness manifested ten days

later. The symptoms of the illness manifested
themselves ten days later. She manifested all
the symptoms of the illness.

Sometimes, however, the pattern with a reflexive

pronoun emphasizes that the Subject of that
pattern is the cause of an event and also the person
or thing that is affected by it. This is true
particularly when the verb involved indicates that a
person suffers harm. For example, the first example
below suggests that the drowning was an accident,
the second example suggests that it was suicide,
and the third example suggests that it was murder.

He drowned in the river. He drowned himself

in the river. She drowned him in the river.

The following ergative verbs often have a reflexive

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pronoun following the verb.

acclimatize assimilate attach beach disengage drown

hang manifest overstretch plunge resolve

Ergative verbs and the passive

In patterns where there is a noun group (the

Object) following the verb, the `causer' is indicated
by the Subject and the `doer' is indicated by the
Object. If that structure is made passive, however,
the `doer' becomes the Subject and the `causer'
may not be mentioned. Compare the following
examples:

The vase broke. John broke the vase. The vase

was broken.

The third example is the passive of the second

example. We said above that in the first example,
you may understand that the vase broke by itself or
that someone caused the vase to break, whilst in
the second example, you must understand that
John caused the vase to break. In the third
example, you understand that the vase did not
break by itself, but do not know who caused the
breakage. The Subjects of the first and the third
examples are the same, but the meanings are
different.

Actual and potential events 477

Most ergative verbs can be used to indicate events

that have taken place (actual events), or events that
might take place (potential events). An example of
an actual event is:

The glass broke.

Examples of potential events are:

This kind of glass tends to break in cold weather.

This kind of glass breaks easily.

Some ergative verbs, in the pattern with the `doer'

as Subject, are usually used only to indicate
potential events. The pattern with the `causer' as
Subject can be used to indicate both actual and
potential events.

This cream smells clean and fresh, and applies

easily. After you have stepped from a warm bath,
apply the cream evenly over your body.
These eye shadows won't fade or crease and

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contain herbal extracts to soften the skin.

Ultraviolet light will fade the colours in
organic materials.

These verbs are indicated in the meaning groups

described below.

Ergative link verbs

There are a few verbs which are ergative and which

in one of their patterns only are link verbs (see
also Chapter 5). For example, the verb turn, in the
pattern V colour, is a link verb. It also has the
pattern V n colour, in which it is not a link verb.

The feet start to burn, feel hot to the touch, and

turn bright red. She experienced a tremendous
flush, turning her bright red.

The following verbs are ergative link verbs.

form keep rank rate turn

About this chapter

In this chapter you will find information about all

the combinations of patterns that occur with
ergative verbs. As in the other chapters,
information about clause structure is given here.
This information is less detailed than in the other
chapters, however. For example, we do not here
show the patterns or structures of passives, or of
phrasal verbs, although we do include examples of
passives and phrasal verbs.

If you want to find out more about the patterns and

structures described in this chapter, look in the
relevant sections in Chapters 1-4.

There are six symmetrical combinations of

patterns.

Pattern combination 1: V; V n
The vase broke. John broke the vase.
Pattern combination 2: V prep/adv; V n
prep/adv
The boat sailed up the river. We sailed the
boat up the river.
Pattern combination 3: V adj; V n adj 478
The door slammed shut. She slammed the
door shut.

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Pattern combination 4: V as adj; V n as adj

That score counts as successful. We count
that score as successful.
Pattern combination 5: V to-inf; V n to-inf
She trained to compete. They trained her to
compete.
Pattern combination 6: V ord prep; V n ord
prep
They rank sixth in the world. Most people
rank them sixth in the world.

There are four asymmetrical combinations.

Pattern combination 7: V prep/adv; V n; V n

prep/adv
Light reflects on the water. The mirror
reflects light. The glass reflected light onto
the wall.
Pattern combination 8: V prep/adv; V n
Smoke puffed out of the chimney. The
chimney puffed smoke.
Pattern combination 9: V adv; V n
This carpet cleans easily. We cleaned the
carpet.
Pattern combination 10: V adj; V n
The chair folds flat. He folded the chair.

Pattern combination 1: V; V n

In the pattern V, the verb can be used on its own,

without anything following it. In the pattern V n,
the verb is followed by a noun group. This pattern
combination is symmetrical.

This combination of patterns has one combination

of structures:

Verb; Verb with Object

The window broke. They broke the window.

Verb group

Subject Verb Adjunct (optional)

The pattern altered.

The foghorn blasted.
My spirits lifted.
That meeting will reconvene in two weeks.

479
Vn

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Verb
noun group
group

Adjunct
Subject Verb Object
(optional)

All their own

alter a little.
creatures environment
Some
blast their horns in support.
motorists
Sunlight can lift the spirits.
will
Ministers their meeting today.
reconvene

Verbs with this combination of patterns belong to

the following meaning groups:

Groups of verbs concerned with change

1.6 THE
1.1 THE `CHANGE' `IMPROVE' AND 1.11 THE `DIVIDE'
GROUP `WORSEN' GROUP
GROUP

1.12 THE `QUICKEN'

1.2 THE `BREAK' 1.7 THE
AND `SLOW DOWN'
GROUP `BLISTER' GROUP
GROUP

1.3 THE
1.8 THE 1.13 THE `OPEN' AND
`DISSOLVE' AND
`BLEACH' GROUP `CLOSE' GROUP
`SOLIDIFY' GROUP
1.4 THE `COOK' 1.9 THE `CLOG 1.14 THE `CALM
GROUP UP' GROUP DOWN' GROUP

1.5 THE `EXPAND' 1.15 THE `WEAKEN'

1.10 THE `BLUR'
AND `COMPRESS' AND `STRENGTHEN'
GROUP
GROUP GROUP

Groups of verbs concerned with movement and

action

1.16 THE
1.18 THE `SPURT 1.20 THE `ASSEMBLE'
`DETACH'
OUT' GROUP AND `DISBAND' GROUP
GROUP

1.17 THE 1.19 THE

1.21 THE `OVERWORK'
`REVERSE' `CLENCH' AND
GROUP
GROUP `RELAX' GROUP

Groups of verbs concerned with starting something

1.23 THE `START' 1.24 THE 1.25 THE

AND `STOP' GROUP `DEVELOP' GROUP `AWAKEN' GROUP

1.1 The `change' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

something changing. In the pattern V n, they are

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concerned with someone or something bringing

about a change. The verbs in this group have
general meanings. More specific kinds of change
are dealt with in other meaning groups below.

As society has changed in Java, the ways in which

dancers are taught have also changed. Those who
wish to change society have to create an active,
political community.
alter change metamorphose vary
480
1.2 The `break' group

These verbs are concerned with something

breaking or being damaged. They may be divided
into two groups:

(i) In the pattern V, these verbs indicate that

something breaks or shows damage of some kind.
In the pattern V n, they indicate that someone or
something breaks or damages something or
someone. The Subject in the pattern V n is the
person or thing that causes the damage.

He slammed the door with such force that a

window broke. They threw stones and broke the
windows of buses.
While children can swallow many small objects
without ill effect, batteries can cause severe damage
if they corrode inside the body. It is claimed that
chewing gum helps prevent tooth decay by
stimulating saliva, which neutralises the acids that
can corrode teeth.
In due time, Carey would go free while his
accomplices hanged. The convicted men were due
to be hanged this week, having lost their appeal
recently.
With some of these verbs, the pattern V is usually
used to indicate that something often happens (a
potential event), rather than to indicate an actual
event.

Men tend to bruise far more than women,

because of the way their fat is arranged on
the body.

These verbs are often followed by an adverb such as

easily. This pattern is V adv (see also page xxx).
Ch2 Sec2

I keep a jar of comfrey ointment which clears

up bruises fast. I bruise very easily and
the ointment is brilliant.

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break bruise buckle burn burst chip choke corrode crack

crumble deform derail drown erode flake fray fuse hang
jam mark puncture rip rupture scorch scuff shatter short-
circuit snap split suffocate tear warp
blow up burn down burn up wear away wear down wear
out

(ii) In the pattern V, these verbs indicate that

something breaks or shows damage of some kind.
In the pattern V n, they indicate that something is
broken or damaged. The Subject of the pattern V n
may be someone or something that suffers damage
to a part of themselves, as in I fractured my skull,
or it may be someone who is responsible for the
thing at the time that it is damaged, as in I crashed
my car.

A couple of fuses had blown, so I had to trot over

the road to Halfords. When I tried to factor in the
extra odds, my computer blew a fuse.
When Julie was a baby they had to literally wrap
her up in cotton wool to make sure no bones
broke. Suzanne ran anxiously down the path
assuming he'd broken a leg.
blow (a fuse or tyre) break (a bone) burn crash crash-
land fracture overstretch rupture tear
481
1.3 The `dissolve' and `solidify' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

something changing in some physical way. In the
pattern V n, they are concerned with someone or
something causing a physical change in something.
The Subject in the pattern V n may be a person who
makes a process happen, or provides conditions for
a process to happen, as in The scientist condensed
the vapor, or something that takes part in the
process, as in The cold atmosphere condensed the
vapor. In the case of some verbs, such as ripen,
ripple, and rot, the second kind of Subject is more
frequent.

Stir the mixture with a metal spoon until the sugar

has dissolved. Dissolve the sugar in the warm
water and add the dried yeast.
The seed will only germinate when the weather is
warm and damp. First, the researchers
germinated the plantain seeds.
The engineers filled the glasses with water and
gunned the engine to 157 miles per hour. The water
in the glasses didn't even ripple. The surface of
the water was rippled by a sudden wind.
Silicon solidifies as it cools. The latest snowfall

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was soft, but the bitter cold had solidified the

layers beneath it.
After a few minutes, the clumps of trees started to
thin out, and Nancy realized she was heading
uphill. The trees had been thinned out for
cooking fires. They were able to move fast.
burn (fuel) chill coarsen condense cool crystallize curdle
decompose deepen (a sound) defrost (a freezer) digest
dilute dissipate dissolve drain dry dull empty emulsify
evaporate fatten ferment fill flood fossilize freeze
germinate harden hatch heal improve incubate liquefy
loosen melt mutate naturalize overheat oxidize perish
regenerate ripen ripple root rot shrivel singe soften
solidify spoil stabilize steady tarnish thaw thicken thin
tighten toughen turn vaporize weather
boil away cool down cool off dry off dry out dry up even
out fill up firm up grow out (a hairstyle) light up liven up
thaw out thin out warm up

1.4 The `cook' group

In the pattern V, these verbs indicate that food

cooks. In the pattern V n, they are concerned with
someone cooking food. The Subject of the pattern V
n is usually the person who cooks the food, but it is
sometimes the fuel or cooking equipment that is
used.

While the water boiled, I picked up the shopping

and put it away. Milwaukee residents have been
advised to boil their tap water or drink bottled
water.
Buffalo meat cooks faster than beef. I have to have
cakes and pastries in my life; fortunately my wife
cooks them brilliantly. The heat from the coals
cooks the food.
Stir until the soup is just simmering. Simmer
the vegetables in the lemon juice and stock for 10
minutes.
In the case of boil 2, the Subject of the V pattern
and the Object of the V n pattern is the container of
the food or liquid. 482
Ann and Mrs Kelly were standing awkwardly in the
kitchen waiting for the kettle to boil. You will
almost certainly want to boil a kettle within
minutes of arrival.
In the case of freeze, the pattern V is used to
indicate that a particular food does not come to
harm when it is frozen.

The Iced Apricot and Almond Cream and

Iced Maple and Pistachio Cream will
freeze.

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The verb is often followed by the adverb easily or

well. This pattern is V adv (see meaning group 9.1
below for other verbs with this pattern and use).

Marrows don't freeze well, but they can be

stored by hanging in nets.

bake boil brown char cook crisp defrost dissolve freeze

infuse macerate marinade marinate mature melt
percolate reduce (a liquid) simmer steam thaw
boil away thaw out warm up

1.5 The `expand' and `compress' group

In the pattern V, most of these verbs are concerned

with the size, degree, shape, or configuration of
something changing. The verbs bend, curl, curve,
kink, and taper 1 indicate what shape something is,
rather than how a shape changes. In the pattern V
n, these verbs are concerned with someone or
something changing the size, degree, shape, or
configuration of something.

When we breathe in, the lymphatic vessels in the

abdomen compress. The implosion would
compress any metal at its core.
I tried to concentrate on the qualities I admired in
him: his confidence, his charm, the way his hair
curled at the nape of his neck. He spent hours on
end curling a strand of his hair with his
fingertips and looking stupid.
The hot weather has caused the track to expand
slightly. This old-fashioned wooden Shoe Stretcher
has special attachments that expand the leather
in the specific spots where your foot needs more
room.
With the use of random drug testing, the chance of
being caught has increased. Just one severe
sunburn in childhood can increase the chances
of developing skin cancer.
Fighting has also intensified in other cities
throughout the republic. In recent weeks, the
guerrillas have intensified their attacks.
Relax your muscles and feel your spine straighten
out. Osteopathy is gentle - straightening out the
pelvis and lower back to improve movement
and breathing.
In the case of compress, crease, tangle, tie, unzip,
and zip up, the patterns V and V P are usually used
to indicate that something may happen or often
happens, rather than to describe an actual
occurrence.

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I don't use Styls lines because they tend to

tangle in the wind.

bend coil compress concertina contract crease crumple

curl curve decrease deepen deflate diminish double ease
elongate enlarge erode escalate expand flatten grow
halve increase inflate intensify kink lengthen lessen
moderate multiply narrow quadruple redouble (efforts)
shorten shrink slacken snag straighten stretch swell
swivel tangle taper 483 tie treble triple uncoil unfold
unfurl unravel unroll unwind unzip widen wrinkle
build up bulk up crumple up ease off fan out flatten out
fold up ratchet up ruck up slim down (a company)
straighten out zip up

1.6 The `improve' and `worsen' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

something changing in some abstract way. In the
pattern V n, they are concerned with someone or
something causing an abstract change in
something.

In South Asia, the region most usually associated

with mass poverty, the situation is now
improving quite rapidly. We are convinced that
he could improve the political situation.
As our economy strengthens, our government
will be able to recreate the caring services and the
decent standards to which I believe a civilised
society rightly aspires. Optimists believe that this
will strengthen the companies' revenue.
In 1991 the Oklahoma plant began to wind down.
The recession went on and on, and I slowly wound
down the business.
In addition to the problem of poverty of the old,
there is concern over the problem of family poverty,
which continues to worsen. The Pope said that
war would be a disaster for all of humanity and
would only worsen the problems of the
region.
bounce (a cheque) brighten broaden clear (a cheque)
depreciate (a currency) develop dim (hope) dissolve drop
dull float (a currency) fossilize (an idea) globalize heal (a
situation) improve industrialize loosen normalize ossify
overheat (an economy) petrify relax (a rule) reunite
revive sharpen (a disagreement) soften solidify sour (a
relationship) strengthen thaw (relations) tighten (its
grip) unravel weaken worsen
bog down brighten up broaden out calm down clear up
ease off even out firm up liven up move along open up
perk up rev up (a situation) sharpen up turn
around/round wind down (a business)

1.7 The `blister' group

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In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

someone experiencing something physically. In the
pattern V n, they are concerned with something
having a physical effect on someone. The Subject in
the pattern V n is often inanimate. The Object in
that pattern, and the Subject in the pattern V, is a
part of the body.

My left hand is dead to sensation. I could

accidentally pick up scalding cups of coffee and not
feel a thing although my hand would blister.
Some persons are able to endure fire, for example,
handle, walk on, or roll in hot coals without being
blistered.
Coughing and hacking, her eyes stinging, she
backed out of Joe's room. Sand stung his eyes.
age blister blur chafe churn cloud constrict convulse 484
crease dehydrate dilate dim distend knot mend sharpen
stiffen sting wrinkle
stiffen up

1.8 The `bleach' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with a

colour or degree of brightness changing. In the
pattern V n, they are concerned with someone or
something making a colour or degree of brightness
change.

The verbs in this group, when used in the pattern V,

often indicate that something may change colour or
has a tendency to change colour (a potential event),
rather than that a colour has actually changed.

It is forbidden to cut indigo, make charcoal, or put

cloth out to bleach in the sun. We make our own
yarn, we weave it, we bleach it, we cut and sew.
Don't worry if the bananas discolour slightly -
even when sliced at the last minute, they tend to
turn brown. This furniture should be stored
indoors, because rust will discolour the metal
and the fabrics.
blacken bleach brighten darken deepen dim discolour
fade lighten redden whiten

1.9 The `clog up' group

In the pattern V P, these verbs are concerned with

something such as a pipe becoming blocked. In the
patterns V n P and V P n (not pron), they are
concerned with something blocking something
such as a pipe.

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I could stop worrying about my arteries clogging

up so quickly again. Too much butter will start to
clog up the arteries and lead to excess body fat.
block up clog up freeze up fur up silt up

1.10 The `blur' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with a

glass or image becoming cloudy or distorted. In the
pattern V n, they are concerned with something
making a glass or image cloudy or distorted. In the
pattern V n, the Subject indicates the cause of the
cloudiness or distortion.

Alex frowned at the white figure; it was beginning

to blur. This creates a spectrum of colours at the
edges of objects which blurs the image.
blur cloud distort fog mist
fog up
485
1.11 The `divide' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with a

thing, organization, or group of people dividing
into two or more parts. In the pattern V n, they are
concerned with someone or something dividing a
thing, organization, or group of people in this way.

The gene causes a problem in the way cells divide.

The suggestion that I proposed to divide the city
is absolute nonsense.
This inbred world is dividing and polarising. He
has to polarize the electorate.
When the Soviet Union split up, Sahlins lost touch
with the theater completely. One of the largest
commuter airlines in the country may be split up.
degrade demerge divide fracture fragment polarize split
break down break up split up

1.12 The `quicken' and `slow down' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

something happening more quickly or more slowly.
In the pattern V n, they are concerned with
someone or something making something happen
more quickly or more slowly.

The pace of unification began to quicken at the

beginning of this year. The crisis has at least
indirectly forced the President to quicken the
pace of change.
The car never slowed down. Its tires squealed as

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it sped round the corner and out of sight. The idea

was dreamed up to slow down traffic and protect
cyclists in built-up areas.
accelerate quicken slow
slow down slow up speed up

1.13 The `open' and `close' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

something opening or closing. In the pattern V n,
they are concerned with someone or something
opening or closing something.

Rumbelows said 200 of its 500 shops may close

within two years. Business was so bad Lynn
McCourtney got a job out of town and is closing
the shop.
The door opened and Mrs MacMahon, carrying a
tray, entered. Before anyone realised what was
happening he opened the door and jumped onto
the track.
close open reopen shut
close down close up open up shut down

1.14 The `calm down' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

someone starting to have a feeling or emotion. In
the pattern V n, they are concerned with someone
or something making someone feel an emotion.

Just calm down and tell me what's happened.

Frannie spent two hours on the phone with Dede,
trying to calm her down.
All the passengers in the aircraft got up and sort of
ran to the front of the plane as the stewardesses
were yelling, `Don't panic!' Cats could easily 486
panic the birds and cause the eggs to be broken.
(not) budge freak heal mellow panic relax suffocate tire
worry
calm down cheer up cool down crease up perk up warm
up

1.15 The `weaken' and `strengthen' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

someone experiencing something mentally. In the
pattern V n, they are concerned with something
affecting someone's mind or attitudes. The Subject
in the pattern V n is often inanimate. The Object in
that pattern, and the Subject in the pattern V, is an

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aspect of the mind, thoughts, or emotions.

But later, the acid returns to Ryder's tongue, he

hunches over the table, and his mood appears to
darken once more. Nothing was going to
darken his mood today.
Nationalist feeling has strengthened. Economic
blockades may strengthen nationalist feeling.
When other men asked me out, the healthy part of
me accepted, but as the day wore on, resolve
would weaken. No act of defiance will weaken
our resolve or shake our determination.
boggle build (confidence) cool (an emotion) crystallize
(opinion) darken dim (memory) fray harden (attitudes)
heighten (a feeling) jangle lift lighten melt sharpen stiffen
stir (memory) strengthen weaken
build up (confidence) wear out (a welcome)

1.16 The `detach' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

someone or something moving, but not under their
own control. In the pattern V n, they are concerned
with someone or something moving someone or
something, or putting someone or something
somewhere. We include here accrue and
accumulate, where the movement is sometimes
metaphorical.

Many of these verbs also have patterns with

adverbs or prepositional phrases (see meaning
group 2.8 below), and for most of them those
patterns are more frequent.

Her six-monthly statements would have revealed

how little interest was accruing. It has promised
that the bank's customers will not lose their money,
which will continue to accrue interest.
A cable connects the seat to the aircraft. When this
is pulled tight, it detaches and ignites the rocket
pack below the seat. One night we unscrew every
screw and unplug every plug and detach every
wire and then that night we put in new systems.
Dark, dusty alleys separated the buildings, and
lines of brightly colored clothes flapped like flags
on clotheslines stretched across the rooftops. Icy
wind flapped his overcoat and he turned his
back to escape its knife-like pain on his face.
The first stone fitted exactly over the other stone,
and then they would both revolve. Karlov picked
up a round ruler like a baton and revolved it
slowly between his long fingers.
In the case of recline, the pattern V is used to

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indicate that something such as a chair has a

particular quality which can be made use of rather
than to indicate an actual occurrence.
Air France first-class seats recline almost like
beds. Charles had reclined his seat and was 487
lying back smoking.
accrue accumulate balance bounce (not) budge circulate
collect detach disengage disperse engage (a mechanism)
entwine flap flutter fly ground jar jolt jumble land move
overturn part recline refract (light) revolve rewind rock
rotate settle shake shift slop slosh spin submerge swirl tilt
turn twirl unscrew unstick vibrate waggle whirl wiggle
break off double up get away hang up jumble up pile up
pour in rain down shear off tip over tip up turn
around/round turn over

1.17 The `reverse' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with a

vehicle moving. In the pattern V n, they are
concerned with someone driving or operating a
vehicle. We include here capsize, refuel, and sink.

The authorities in Japan said the ship would not be

allowed to dock. Carpenter docked his ship and
turned over his command.
The van came to a halt, reversed, halted again. A
gunman opened fire as PC Whitehouse reversed
the car in a desperate attempt to escape.
Then my engine stalled, and had to be restarted.
She stalled the engine, and restarted it.
In the case of capsize, halt, and sink, the Subject in
the pattern V n may be inanimate.

Two anglers died when a wave capsized

their 17ft boat off Cresswell,
Northumberland.

Most of these verbs have another V pattern in

which the Subject indicates the person driving or
operating the vehicle.

When she got out, the driver reversed,

crushing her against the patrol car.

anchor back beach capsize ditch dock halt land navigate

refuel rev reverse sail sink stall start stop swerve tack
rev up start up warm up

1.18 The `spurt out' group

These verbs are concerned with liquids, gases, or

flames coming out of a container. In the pattern V,
the Subject indicates the liquid, gas, or flame. In

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the pattern V n, the Subject indicates the container.

Bake the lemon in the oven at a moderate heat until

it begins to crack open and the juice starts to
exude. The dandelion is composed of a tapering
root and green serrated leaves, both of which
exude a milky juice when cut.
The point of the blade slipped further in and a few
drops of blood spurted out. So now when the
washing machine spurts out water at least we
can mop it up.
exude leak spurt 488
spurt out

1.19 The `clench' and `relax' group

These verbs are concerned with movements of part

of the body, or changes in behaviour. In the pattern
V, the Subject indicates the part of the body or
aspect of behaviour. In the pattern V n, the Subject
indicates the person whose body or behaviour is
involved.

He got suddenly angry. His fists clenched. She

clenched her fists. She stared at him fiercely.
Your ears prick up when you hear discouraging or
nasty remarks. The dog pricked up its ears,
wagged its tail, and scrambled into the back of the
truck.
The tensed muscles of the animal slowly relaxed.
These tapes will help you to relax each muscle
in your body.
Her speech was slurring. She was tired and said
she was dying. I was slurring my words a bit.
Jill's voice softened, and her eyes were normal
again. She was unable to soften her voice.
In the case of loosen up, tense up, and twitch, in
the patterns V and V P, the Subject may indicate a
part of the body or a person.
His face tensed up a bit once more. Baxter
tensed up.
adjust arch beat bend clench close coarsen contort crinkle
curl deepen drop flail flap flare focus furrow jut loosen
lower narrow open pucker relax retract roll ruffle shut
slacken slur soften tan tauten thrash tighten twitch work
wrinkle
ball up loosen up prick up screw up tense up

1.20 The `assemble' and `disband' group

These verbs are concerned with a group of people

moving or doing something together. This includes:

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forming a group e.g. assemble, organize

splitting a group up e.g. demobilize, disband
going somewhere as a group e.g. pull out,
relocate
behaving in a particular way as a group e.g.
bunch up, rotate

In the pattern V, the Subject indicates the group of

people. In the pattern V n, the Subject indicates
someone who organizes the group or something
that motivates the group to do something.

Monks should assemble at the full and new

moons for a form of private mutual confession.
While in his twenties he had bought a boat,
assembled a crew, and sailed round the world.
On November 17th the group voted quietly to
disband. At the end of 1780 Washington had to
disband part of his army for lack of clothing.
We're going to unite and we're going to win the
next general election. Opposition to the
government unites soldiers and civilians.
In the case of rotate, the Subject of the pattern V 489
and the Object of the pattern V n is sometimes
inanimate.
If there is a leader will the leadership rotate
among the members? The new party rules rotate
the leadership.
assemble demobilize disband disperse mass mobilize
muster organize (workers) reassemble redeploy regroup
relocate reorganize resettle reunite rotate scatter settle
unite withdraw
bunch up hold together line up pull back pull out split up
turn back

1.21 The `overwork' group

These verbs are concerned with a person or animal

going somewhere or doing something, under their
own control. In the pattern V, the Subject indicates
the person or animal who moves or does
something. In the pattern V n, the Subject indicates
the person or group of people who:

makes the person or animal move or do

something
encourages the person or animal to move or
do something
provides conditions that allow the person or
animal to move or do something

A jolly baby may feed eagerly, but after the first

three or four months may keep breaking off to have

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a little `chat' or a giggle with you. The simplest

thing to do is to feed your baby.
I push myself too hard. I overwork a lot. He
blamed his heart attack on his employer for
overworking him.
If only I had taken better care of him, if only I had
insisted he slow down, or eat more sensibly.
Meanwhile, Maria refused to let pregnancy slow
her down.
As the distribution started the crowd stampeded
and many were crushed or trampled underfoot. The
next moment Joe yelled, `They're stampeding
the herd!'
assimilate feed graze hatch (a bird) hush integrate nurse
overwork quiet quieten rearm reform retrain run (a
horse) stampede train
dry out hold back liven up move along pull up quiet down
quieten down shut up slow down sober up trip up

1.22 The `leak' group

These verbs are concerned with something moving

metaphorically. In the pattern V, the Subject
indicates the thing that `moves'. In the pattern V n,
the Subject indicates someone or something that
makes the thing `move'.

NBC Radio was afraid that the news would leak.

It would help calm the furious row if details of the
trip were leaked.
Perhaps, after ten years in office, it is inevitable
that problems pile up. We sometimes waste our
energy piling up and dwelling on years of
worries.
leak shift spread
pile up spill out
490
1.23 The `start' and `stop' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with an

activity starting or stopping. In the pattern V n,
they are concerned with someone or something
starting or stopping an activity.

At one stage during the day there was every chance

that the meeting might break up without any
resolution being passed at all. The meeting was
broken up and was called again at six o'clock this
morning.
The blaze started in the kitchens of the thirty-six
floor hotel. The following year she started a blaze
at her husband's parents' home.

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For now, the fighting has stopped, but the guns

haven't. We're doing what must be done if we're
going to stop the fighting.
adjourn begin commence continue convene end halt
recommence reconvene restart resume stall start still (a
sound) stop terminate
break up kick off strike up (a tune) taper off

1.24 The `develop' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

something coming into existence or becoming
noticeable. In the pattern V n, they are concerned
with someone or something making something
come into existence, making it noticeable, or
noticing it.

In the pattern V n, the Subject may indicate:

someone who brings something into being, as

in The children formed a circle
someone or something that is the
unconscious source or cause of something, as
in She manifests self-confidence
someone who is affected by what is brought
into being, as in He developed measles

Concepts develop in parallel and even the greatest

thinkers see their initial thoughts developed by
others. He has developed the concept of a
teaching programme for unborn children.
Fear about my blindness didn't register, as I was
in such a state with the pain. She had quickly
registered the difference between Archie's
run-down residence and the opulent garage,
but said nothing.
A pair of pliers turned up in the pocket of a
borrowed jacket. He turned up a frightening
arsenal of licensed and unlicensed guns.
develop (an illness) develop (an idea) evolve form form (a
relationship) manifest obtrude premiere re-form register
run (Newspaper...a story) show
brew up (a situation) get across (an idea) open up
(opportunities) show up turn up

1.25 The `awaken' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

someone waking up. In the pattern V n, they are
concerned with someone or something making
someone wake up.

The tea dishes must be done before the old woman

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awakened. The sound of the door opening

awakened her.
One woman fans her with a magazine, another gets
some water, and she finally revives. Alan tried to
give Natalie the kiss of life but failed to revive her.
We have to wake up early. Imagine being 491
woken up by the smell of burning coming from
downstairs.
awake awaken revive rouse wake waken
wake up waken up

1.26 The `hoot' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with

something making a noise. In the pattern V n, they
are concerned with someone or something doing
something that makes a noise, either deliberately or
by accident.

The coal dust crunched with gritty familiarity

under his feet. She ran for her car, crunching old
branches underfoot and making far too much
noise.
Somewhere in the distance a siren hooted. As he
drove away he hooted his horn.
The horses wheeled together again, stirrup irons
jingling under the riders' black boots as the police
regrouped for another charge. If your baby seems
fascinated by a mobile, do you jingle it even
more?
bang beat beep blare blast blow chink clack click crack
crunch honk hoot jangle jingle ratchet rattle ring rustle
slam sound tinkle toll toot twang
blare out blast out boom out

1.27 The `detonate' and `play' group

In the pattern V, these verbs are concerned with a

machine or device working or a natural process
happening. In the pattern V n, they are concerned
with someone or something operating the machine
or device or providing conditions that allow the
natural process to happen.

Two days later nine firebombs went off in shops in

Manchester city centre, while four more failed to
detonate. He threatened to detonate an
explosive device, and told the pilot to take the
plane to Taiwan.
The normal clutch is four white eggs which usually
hatch after about 14 days. This pair was for many
years kept in a cage indoors, where they laid eggs

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and even hatched them, but always failed to rear

the young.
A taped message from his mother plays in the
background. At first Livy had played the
records everyone played those days.
detonate explode flash flush hatch (an egg) ignite light
operate play run

1.28 Verbs with other meanings

There are a number of other verbs that have this

combination of patterns.

Is there any reason he can't audition? Casting

directors usually do not audition actors who
themselves have mental disabilities to play
such roles.
Each year we draw up a schedule for opening and 492
closing branches and they normally balance out.
You need to balance out all the costs before
committing yourself to a particular environment.
The winters were long and cold, while roads,
electricity, drainage and schools were largely
lacking. He suggested that while Lithuania was
theoretically self-sufficient in food, in two weeks
time it could lack the means to bring that
food to the shops.
The vet rang to say that the puppy's condition had
miraculously improved, that he just might pull
through after all. We all hoped that proper
treatment would pull him through.
audition enlist enrol graduate interview lack sign
substitute
add up balance out pull through strike out

Pattern combination 2: V prep/adv; V n

prep/adv

In the pattern V prep/adv, the verb is followed by a

prepositional phrase or an adverb group. In the
pattern V n prep/adv, the verb is followed by a
noun group and a prepositional phrase or adverb
group. This pattern combination is symmetrical.

This combination of patterns has four

combinations of structures, depending on whether
there is a prepositional phrase or an adverb group
in the pattern, and on what the preposition is:

Structure combination (i): Verb with

prepositional Complement; Verb with Object
and prepositional Object Complement

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The prince changed into a frog. The

magician changed the prince into a frog.
Structure combination (ii): Verb with
prepositional Object; Verb with Object and
prepositional Object
Beauty equates with goodness. He equated
beauty with goodness.
Structure combination (iii): Verb with
prepositional Object; Verb with Object and
Adjunct
She converted to Christianity. He converted
them to Christianity.
Structure combination (iv): Verb with
Adjunct; Verb with Object and Adjunct
The coach halted in front of the ballroom.
The footman halted the coach in front of the
ballroom.

Structure combination (i): Verb with

prepositional Complement; Verb with Object
and prepositional Object Complement

V prep

Verb
prepositional phrase
group

prepositional
Subject Verb
Complement

These as modern movements in

parade
fashions art.
The stick snapped in half.
You 'll turn into everyone's dogsbody.

493
V n prep

Verb noun prepositional

group group phrase

prep. Object
Subject Verb Object
Complement

He paraded them as stars.

Fierce the
snapped into two parts.
storms tanker
their
Parents can't turn into a fortress.
house

Structure combination (ii): Verb with

prepositional Object; Verb with Object and
prepositional Object

V prep

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Verb group prepositional phrase

Subject Verb prepositional Object

Charity would equate with interference.

This policy didn't square with an accident.

V n prep

Verb noun prepositional

group group phrase

prepositional
Subject Verb Object
Object

They equated disease with vice and sin.

couldn't his
He with reality.
square dreams

Structure combination (iii): Verb with

prepositional Object; Verb with Object and
Adjunct

V prep

Verb
prepositional phrase
group

Subject Verb prepositional Object

A high to science and

attaches
priority technology.
The country plunged into civil war.
They qualify for extra aid.

V n prep

Verb noun prepositional

group group phrase

Subject Verb Object Adjunct

You can attach blame to people.

the
This plunged into turmoil.
country
This qualifies them for aid.

494
Structure combination (iv): Verb with
Adjunct; Verb with Object and Adjunct

V prep/adv

Verb prep. phrase/adverb

group group

Subject Verb Adjunct

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A larger
anchored offshore.
ship
His gun still dangled from his hand.
with a flyby of military
The display ends
aircraft.
You enrol on a full-time course.
across the surface of the
We marched
moon.

V n prep/adv

prep.
Verb noun
phrase/adverb
group group
group

Subject Verb Object Adjunct

We anchored the boat in six feet of water.

the
She dangles from her lips.
cigarette
his
Thomas ended with this statement.
remarks
his
He enrolled in a public school.
daughter
She marched the girls back to school.

Verbs with this combination of patterns belong to

the following meaning groups:

2.1 THE 2.6 THE

2.11 THE `GALLOP'
`CHANGE' `ACCLIMATIZE'
GROUP
GROUP GROUP

2.2 THE 2.7 THE `CENTRE' 2.12 THE `THUMP'

`DIVIDE' GROUP GROUP GROUP

2.3 THE 2.8 THE `DETACH' 2.13 THE `DRAIN'

`COUNT' GROUP GROUP GROUP

2.4 THE
2.9 THE `SAIL' 2.14 THE `BEGIN'
`EQUATE'
GROUP AND `END' GROUP
GROUP

2.5 THE
2.10 THE `DROP' 2.15 VERBS WITH
`AWAKEN'
GROUP OTHER MEANINGS
GROUP

2.1 The `change' group

These verbs are concerned with change. In the

pattern V prep, the Subject indicates the person or
thing that changes. In the pattern V n prep, the
Subject indicates the person or thing that causes
the change. The prepositional phrase indicates the
result of the change. The verb change also has the
patterns V and V n (see meaning group 1.1 above).

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The prepositions most frequently used with the

verbs in this group are into and to. With these
prepositions, the verbs in this meaning group
belong to Structure combination (i). Otherwise,
they belong to Structure combination (iii) or (iv).

In the event, the scandal blew up into a major

political furore. No good purpose would be
served if the unfortunate death of Miss Oates was
blown up into front-page news for the Tory
gutter press.
His skin dried up like leather and his face changed
into a grinning skull. We've got to change
this world into a world of love.
If broken, toughened glass forms into safe 495
pellet-like pieces rather than lethal shards.
O'Brien formed the men into a ragged line.
This Dracula can metamorphose into rats or a
wolf as well as a bat. She jolts upright,
metamorphoses her face into a macabre
parody of her mother and suddenly fills the
hushed room with a terrible blood-curdling cry.
After 30 minutes the powder will swell to its
maximum capacity, forming a transparent gel.
There is a small herb-rich meadow in the wood
which helps to swell the plant list to over 120
species.
change convert evolve form metamorphose mutate swell
transmute turn
blow up

2.2 The `divide' group

In the pattern V prep, these verbs are concerned

with something breaking or dividing. In the pattern
V n prep, they are concerned with someone or
something making something break or divide.
When the verbs in this group are used with into,
they belong to Structure combination (i). When
they are used with other prepositions, they belong
to Structure combination (iii).

If you have lots of children in the car, you might

want to divide into two or three groups and
sing simple songs. Patients are divided into
groups, each group with a primary counselor.
It was decided to separate into two groups. The
police wanted to separate them into smaller
groups, but they insisted on staying together.
I was just explaining that the ornament was of no
great value when I dropped it. It shattered into
tiny pieces. Kelly turned her head to see the truck

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plow through the phone booth, shattering it into

a thousand pieces.
divide fragment polarize resolve separate shatter snap
split tear
break up

2.3 The `count' group

These verbs are concerned with one thing being

thought of or presented as another thing. In the
pattern V prep, the Subject indicates one of the two
things; the other thing is indicated by the
prepositional phrase. In the pattern V n prep, the
Subject in most cases indicates the person or group
of people who thinks of one thing as being another,
or who presents one thing as another. The
preposition most frequently used with the verbs in
this group is as, but boil down is used with to. This
group belongs to Structure combination (i).

A few words scrawled on a piece of paper, or a

simple gesture, could count as art. I count him
as my best friend.
In the case of qualify, the Subject in the pattern V n
prep is something that makes people think the
comparison is valid.
Jeff Campbell sat through the program and was
won over, but still doesn't qualify as a strong
supporter. His loyalty and good works helped
qualify him as a candidate for sainthood in
the Catholic Church.
In the case of translate, the pattern V as n is used
to indicate that a particular translation is possible,
not that it was actually used on a particular
occasion. 496
The Arc valley is better known as the Maurienne, a
name combining the patois words of `mau' and
`riau' which translate as `wicked river'. The
Celtic word `geis' is usually translated as
`taboo', but actually carried connotations not
borne by that word.
count parade qualify rank translate
boil down

2.4 The `equate' group

These verbs are concerned with two things being

thought of or presented as similar or compatible, or
with something being compared with a group of
things. In the pattern V prep, the Subject indicates
one of the two things; the other thing is indicated
by the prepositional phrase. In the pattern V n

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prep, the Subject indicates the person or group of

people who thinks of the two things as being
comparable, or who presents the two things as
comparable. The preposition most frequently used
with the verbs in this group is with. This group
belongs to Structure combination (ii).

In relation to several important criteria, hostel

accommodation fails to equate with the
housing preferences of lone migrant
workers. Many people equate conflict with
war and seek peace by designing the `perfect'
society.
equate square
match up tie in

2.5 The `awaken' group

In the pattern V prep, these verbs are concerned

with someone coming to feel or think something. In
the pattern V n prep, they are concerned with
someone or something making someone feel or
think something. The prepositions most frequently
used with the verbs in this group are to and
towards. This group belongs to Structure
combination (iii).

Today many more people are awakening to

deeper issues and taking responsibility. His 1979
film, `Cambodia: The Year Zero', did much to
awaken the world to the horrors of the four
previous years of rule by the Khmer Rouge.
Corti was unable to decide whether Bugno's
troubles lay in his head or his legs, but was
inclining towards the latter. It becomes
important to identify the other factors which
incline us towards the particular beliefs we
hold.
awaken convert incline tilt
wake up

2.6 The `acclimatize' group

In the pattern V prep, these verbs are concerned

with somebody becoming involved in or used to a
place, society, or activity. In the pattern V n prep,
they are concerned with someone or something
making somebody do this or creating the
conditions where they are able to do this. This
group belongs to Structure combination (iii).

The troops and tanks have had time to 497

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acclimatise to the desert, and are ready for

action. The mountaineers advanced from camp to
camp to acclimatise themselves to the
thinning oxygen at higher altitudes.
Don't rush into this decision unless you are in
desperate need of money. Wright is resisting the
temptation to rush her straight into the other
big roles of the repertoire.
acclimatize (to) hook (into) integrate (into/with) plunge
(into) qualify (for) rush (into) train (for)

2.7 The `centre' group

In the pattern V prep, these verbs are concerned

with something focusing on a particular thing. In
the pattern V n prep, they are concerned with
someone or something making something focus on
a particular thing. This group belongs to Structure
combination (iii).

Discussion is expected to centre on expanding

the role of the United Nations. Ortega
centred his farewell speech on a call for all
Nicaraguans to work for the disarmament
of the Contras.
Inevitably attention will focus on the
appearances by Oscar Peterson. The case
focused much international attention on
Brazil.
attach (to) centre (on/around) fasten (on) fix (on) focus
(on) shift switch (to)

2.8 The `detach' group

In the pattern V prep/adv, these verbs are

concerned with someone or something moving
somewhere, but not under their own control. In the
pattern V n prep/adv, they are concerned with
someone or something moving someone or
something, or putting someone or something
somewhere. We include here catch, which indicates
that something becomes entangled in something.
This group belongs to Structure combination (iv),
except for dig, hook, pass, sink, strike, and
transfer, which belong to Structure combination
(iii).

Many of these verbs also have the patterns V and V

n (see meaning group 1.16 above). Some verbs with
similar meanings are found in Pattern combination
7 below.

Dead and dying cells had detached from the

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flask and drifted into the fluid. Pick apples and

pears when they can be detached easily from
the branches.
The wind funnelled down power lines, blew
out windows and damaged several roofs. The
towers are topped by wind catchers that funnel
air into them.
Tree limbs which rub together can cause
weakness through deformation. Nancy rubbed
her palms together and got ready to push again.
It developed into a huge game with water
splashing everywhere. Leaning over the
fountain, Joanna splashed water upon her
face.
In the case of clip, the pattern V prep/adv is
usually used to indicate that something has a
particular quality, that is, it can be clipped
somewhere, rather than that something actually
happens.

When not in use, the blade is protected by a

sheath which clips on to the handle of
the knife.

balance beam bind blow bounce bounce (off) bus catapult 498
catch clip coil curl dangle detach diffuse dig (into)
disengage dribble drip drop flick flip float funnel hang
hook (onto) inch keep leak lock mould move nestle pass
(to) peel (off/from) rain (blows) (on) rest roll rub
(together) screw settle shift shoot shuttle sink (into) slide
slop slosh slot smash snag snap spatter spew spill spin
splash splatter spray spread squeeze squirt stick (in) strike
(against/on) swill (around/about) swing swirl swivel tilt
tip transfer (from/to) trickle twine uncoil waft wash whirl
winter withdraw (from)
pour into rain down (on)

Most of the verbs in this group also have the

patterns V adv prep, V prep prep, V n adv prep,
and V n prep prep.

A friend and I bussed from New York City to

New Jersey without any certainty we'd be able to
see our friend. Many supporters are bussed in
from across the country.

The verbs spatter, splash, splatter, and spray also

have a pattern V n, with the substance that moves
as Subject.

Rain was spattering the windscreen.

2.9 The `sail' group

These verbs are concerned with vehicles moving. In

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the pattern V prep/adv, the Subject indicates the

vehicle. In the pattern V n prep/adv, the Subject
indicates the driver of the vehicle or someone or
something that makes the driver move the vehicle
somewhere. This group belongs to Structure
combination (iv). Some of the verbs in this group
also have the patterns V and V n (see meaning
group 1.17 above).

The plane finally glided down and taxied towards

the terminal. The pilot taxied the plane to the
end of the runway.
Most of these verbs have another V prep/adv
pattern in which the Subject indicates a person
driving or travelling in the vehicle.
On day three we sailed to Poole.
In the case of navigate, the pattern V n prep/adv
sometimes has the vehicle as Subject and a place as
Object.

There was a time when small boats could

navigate the creek all the way to the
point where Newell Road crosses.

anchor back beach crash (into) ditch dock halt land

navigate nose reverse sail slew swerve swing tack taxi

Most of the verbs in this group also have the

patterns V adv prep, V prep prep, V n adv prep,
and V n prep prep.

Nothing prepared us for the sight of Santorini as we 499

sailed into the bay from Crete. The boatman
nosed his launch up against what appeared
to be a thick wall of jungle foliage.

2.10 The `drop' group

These verbs are concerned with part of someone's

body moving. In the pattern V prep/adv, the
Subject indicates the part of the body that moves.
In the pattern V n prep/adv, the Subject indicates
either the person who moves, or someone or
something that causes that movement. This group
belongs to Structure combination (iv).

Freddy's eyes roll up in their sockets and his head

drops into his chest. McGregor slumped,
dropping his open palms onto his legs.
When he's into a song, Jones' jaw juts forth.
Father jutted his jaw toward the people
sitting across the aisle, and I gave a silent nod.
ball curl drop drop jut lash poke sweep tighten twist

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2.11 The `gallop' group

These verbs are concerned with a person, group of

people, or animal going somewhere or doing
something, under their own control. In the pattern
V prep/adv, the Subject indicates the person,
group, or animal who moves or does something. In
the pattern V n prep/adv, the Subject indicates the
person or group of people who:

makes the person, group, or animal move or

do something
encourages the person, group, or animal to
move or do something
provides conditions that allow the person,
group, or animal to move or do something.

Most of these verbs are used with a variety of

prepositions and adverbs. If one or two
prepositions or adverbs only are used with a
particular verb, this is indicated in the list below.
This group belongs to Structure combination (iv).

A riderless horse galloped in panicked circles,

adding immeasurably to the confusion. Staff
officers galloped fine horses down the road's
wide verges.
He parachuted to safety. He was parachuted
in.
The verbs canter, gallop, trot, and walk, which, in
the pattern V n prep/adv, indicate that someone
rides a horse at a particular speed, also have a
pattern V prep/adv with the rider as Subject.

The Duke galloped along the right of his

line.

canter crowd (into) gallop gather group (together) march

parachute pull (out of) settle transfer (from/to) trot unite
walk
beam down beam up

2.12 The `thump' group

These verbs are concerned with someone or

something making a noise while moving. In the
pattern V prep/adv, the Subject indicates the
person or thing that moves and makes the noise. In
the pattern V n prep/adv, the Subject indicates the
person or thing that moves someone or something
somewhere. These verbs are used with a variety of
prepositions and adverbs. This group belongs to
Structure combination (iv).

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A couple of cars swished by, spray hissing up 500

from their tyres. They then swamped the dunes on
horseback in an attempt to scare people away,
swishing their whips through the grass as
they went.
She carried her drink out to the kitchen, her heavy
shoes thumping on the polished floor. She
made a fist and thumped it on the counter as
hard as she could.
rasp rattle scrape swish thump

2.13 The `drain' group

These verbs are concerned with metaphorical

movement. In the pattern V prep/adv, the Subject
indicates the thing that `moves'. In the pattern V n
prep/adv, the Subject indicates the person or thing
that makes it `move'. Most of these verbs are used
with a variety of prepositions and adverbs. If one or
two prepositions or adverbs only are used with a
particular verb, this is indicated in the list below.
This group belongs to Structure combination (iv),
except for get across, which belongs to Structure
combination (iii).

Memory drained out of him in the heat. Relief

drained the strength from his muscles as
Charley Lunn's head appeared round the half-open
kitchen door.
Then a memory stirs in you and you start feeling
anxious. This might stir many emotions in me,
but I am afraid that understanding is not one of
them.
centre drain keep (away/off ) land (in) spread stir (in)
carry over get across (to)

2.14 The `begin' and `end' group

These verbs are concerned with activities or periods

of time beginning or ending in a particular way. In
the pattern V prep/adv, the Subject indicates the
activity or period of time. In the pattern V n
prep/adv, the Subject indicates the person or thing
whose behaviour is indicated in the prepositional
phrase or adverb group. The verbs in this group are
most frequently used with prepositional phrases
beginning with with, in, and on, and with
prepositional phrases consisting of by and an `-ing'
clause. This group belongs to Structure
combination (iv).

Sunday will begin with a full breakfast,

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followed by a beauty presentation from Rene

Guinot. Clinton began his week in California, a
state crucial to his electoral success in November.
A meeting between Turkey, Iraq and Syria to
discuss the sharing of waters from the river
Euphrates has ended in disagreement.
Environment ministers from Eastern and Western
Europe have ended a one-day meeting in
Dublin with agreement that protection of
the environment is one of the most urgent
political priorities on the agenda.
begin close end finish open start

2.15 Verbs with other meanings

There are a number of other verbs which have this

combination of patterns. Of these verbs, train
belongs to Structure combination (i), turn belongs
to Structure combination (ii), connect, fill, pull,
open up, and translate belong to Structure
combination (iii), and the other verbs belong to
Structure combination (iv).

The phrase `proceeding gingerly' has nothing to do 501

with the spice but derives from the old French
word `gensour', meaning `daintily' or `with
refinement'. Etak, which derives its name
from the Polynesian word for navigation,
was founded by Stan Honey.
The screen fills with grainy black and white
newsreel footage. On a nice day, fill a bucket
with soapy water outside and let your child scrub
down toys, outdoor furniture, or just the patio.
Britain's ethnic communities have suffered
injustices and degradations which would meet
with outrage if they occurred elsewhere. All new
ideas are met with hesitancy, most will have
teething troubles.
Tables have been constructed so that each life event
can be rated as to how disturbing it would usually
be to a person. Losses by death or divorce, or gains
by marriage or birth always rate highly. I was told
he rated me highly, which is a real compliment.
The roots of this plant can substitute for
potatoes. In no case should you substitute
alcohol for other foods.
His parents wanted him to train as a doctor.
They train the young women as
seamstresses.
If fine words were to translate into deeds, a
massive campaign of Biblical re-education now had
to be mounted among the white population. If this
mood is translated into votes, the Democrats

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must strengthen their grip on Congress.

connect (to) decrease derive (from) enlist (in/as) enrol fill
(with) hold increase meet (with) pull (out of) rank (in)
rate stretch (into) substitute (for) train (as) translate turn
(against) widen
fill up (with) open up (to)

Pattern combination 3: V adj; V n adj

In the pattern V adj, the verb is followed by an

adjective group. In the pattern V n adj, the verb is
followed by a noun group and an adjective group.
This pattern combination is symmetrical.

This combination of patterns has one structure

combination:

Verb with Complement; Verb with Object and

Object Complement
The door slammed shut. She slammed the
door shut.

V adj

Verb group adjective group

Subject Verb Complement

The twigs jerked free.

The door slammed shut.
The lock snapped shut.

502
V n adj

Verb noun
adjective group
group group

Object
Subject Verb Object
Complement

free of Andrew's
The boy jerked himself
grasp.
She slammed the door shut.
The
snapped his box shut.
Major

Verbs with this combination of patterns belong to

the following meaning groups:

3.1 THE `SLAM 3.2 THE `WORK 3.3 VERBS WITH

SHUT' GROUP FREE' GROUP OTHER MEANINGS

3.1 The `slam shut' group

In the pattern V adj, these verbs are concerned

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with something opening or closing, usually noisily

or violently. In the pattern V n adj, they are
concerned with someone or something opening or
closing something, usually noisily or violently. The
adjectives most frequently used with the verbs in
this group are open and shut.

Passengers complained when automatic doors on a

new train jammed open. They just jam the
door open with a brick.
He peered warily up the staircase just as the door
upstairs opened, then slammed shut. He
managed to drag her back inside the vehicle and
slam the door shut.
Her eyes squeezed shut and tears appeared
under the lashes. Hart squeezed his eyes tight
shut, but the tears fell anyway.
bang (shut) blow jam slam (shut) slide snap spring
squeeze (shut) swing tear (open)

3.2 The `work free' group

In the pattern V adj, these verbs are concerned

with someone or something becoming detached
from something. In the pattern V n adj, they are
concerned with someone pulling or shaking
someone or something so that they become
detached. The adjectives most frequently used with
the verbs in this group are free and loose.

He shook his head back and forth, and tried to pull

free. She struggled to pull herself loose.
The chair may topple backwards when sat upon
and the armrests can work loose. He pulled his
key ring from his pocket and worked one key
free of it.
jerk pull shake work wrench

3.3 Verbs with other meanings

There are three other verbs which have this

combination of patterns. The adjective most
frequently used in each case is indicated in the list
below.

Ticket and subscription sales have held steady

and fund-raising is even up slightly. They had
achieved their aim of holding numbers steady.
The woman's eyes opened wide. She opened
her eyes very wide.
freeze (solid/hard) hold (steady) open (wide) 503

Pattern combination 4: V as adj; V n as

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adj

In the pattern V as adj, the verb is followed by a

prepositional phrase which consists of as and an
adjective group. In the pattern V n as adj, the verb
is followed by a noun group and a prepositional
phrase which consists of as and an adjective group.
This pattern combination is symmetrical.

This combination of patterns has one combination

of structures:

Verb with prepositional Complement; Verb

with Object and prepositional Object
Complement
He qualified as unemployed. This qualified
him as unemployed.

V as adj

Verb adjective
as
group group

prepositional
Subject Verb
Complement

Many
count as unemployed.
women
His joy qualifies as genuine.

V n as adj

Verb noun adjective

as
group group group

prep. Object
Subject Verb Object
Complement

old-
I count myself as
fashioned.
young in
This qualified him as
spirit.

In the pattern V as adj, these verbs are all

concerned with something having a particular
attribute. In the pattern V n as adj, they are
concerned with someone considering someone or
something to have a particular attribute, or
something causing someone or something to be
considered in that way.

The events of 16th January must rank as

equivalent to a coronation. The respondents
also ranked their local competition as weak,
moderate, or strong.

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count qualify rank

Pattern combination 5: V to-inf; V n to-

inf

In the pattern V to-inf, the verb is followed by a to-

infinitive clause. In the pattern V n to-inf, the verb
is followed by a noun group and a to-infinitive
clause. This pattern combination is symmetrical.

This combination of patterns has two combinations

of structures:

Structure combination (i): Verbs in phase;

Verb with two Objects
I incline to think he is wrong. This inclined
me to think he was wrong.
Structure combination (ii): Verb with
Adjunct; Verb with two Objects
She qualified to teach children. Her course
qualified her to teach children.

Only one verb, incline, has Structure combination 504

(i). The other verbs have Structure combination
(ii).
It is true that conservationists incline to adopt a
people-centred language. Their political ideas
incline them to romanticise the idea of
working-class solidarity.
The policewomen only qualify to carry arms on
duty when they reach a high standard. Clive has
had an hour's lesson on a dry slope, which
qualifies him to advise the rest of us by
shouting `snowplough!' at the top of his
voice all the time.
incline qualify train

Pattern combination 6: V ord prep; V n

ord prep

In the pattern V ord prep, the verb is followed by

an ordinal number and a prepositional phrase. In
the pattern V n ord prep, the verb is followed by a
noun group, an ordinal number, and a
prepositional phrase. In both patterns, the
prepositional phrase usually begins with among,
in, or out of. This pattern combination is
symmetrical.

There is only one verb with this combination of

patterns. The pattern V ord prep has the structure
Verb with two Adjuncts; the pattern V n ord prep

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has the structure Verb with Object and two

Adjuncts.

The second-best British player, Michael Adams,

already ranks 20th in the world. The junior
team is ranked third in the world.
rank

Pattern combination 7: V prep/adv; V n;

V n prep/adv

In the pattern V prep/adv, the verb is followed by a

prepositional phrase or adverb group. In the
pattern V n, the verb is followed by a noun group.
In the pattern V n prep/adv, the verb is followed by
a noun group and a prepositional phrase or adverb
group.

This combination is asymmetrical because in the

structure without an Object the verb must be
followed by a prepositional phrase or adverb group,
whereas in the structure with an Object the verb
may be followed by a noun group alone.

This combination of patterns has one combination

of structures:

Verb with Adjunct; Verb with Object; Verb

with Object and Adjunct
The boat rocked up and down. Huge waves
rocked the boat. The waves rocked the boat
up and down.

For structure tables, see Pattern combinations 1

and 2.

Verbs with this combination of patterns are

concerned with something moving, or someone or
something making something move.

A court at Peking has sentenced a hijacker to eight

years in prison for forcing a plane to divert to
Japan last December. NASA have offered to
divert the Space Shuttle Columbia on its next
mission to help. Planners fight gridlock by
simplifying traffic patterns as well as by trying to
divert cars away from the problem area.
The light reflected off the ochre stone, creating
a golden glow he found entrancing. The curved
surface of the mirror reflects the sun's rays so
they form a spot of light one centimetre across. The
dish reflects radio waves to an antenna
suspended at its focus 150 metres above.

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In the case of spout, the Subject in the patterns V n 505

and V n prep/adv is a container holding a liquid or
gas.
An underground labyrinth of corridors leads to a
pool where water spouts from the mouths of
carved lions. He replaced the Rayburn when the
last one began to spout flames. Ickes jotted down
the license plate numbers of cars spouting black
smoke from their exhaust pipes.
In the case of angle, the pattern V prep/adv
indicates the configuration of something, rather
than a movement.
The path angled downhill and northward.
Charles reached out for the driving mirror and
angled it so that he could see back along the track
we'd driven. The lock is the smallest on the river
but, by angling the boat across the width, we
just scraped through.
angle brush divert drain fasten flash jerk pan reflect rock
spill spout swing swivel trail

Pattern combination 8: V prep/adv; V n

In the pattern V prep/adv, the verb is followed by a

prepositional phrase or adverb group. In the
pattern V n, the verb is followed by a noun group.

This combination is asymmetrical because in the

structure without an Object the verb does not occur
alone.

This combination of patterns has three

combinations of structures:

Structure combination (i): Verb with

prepositional Complement; Verb with Object
The glass splintered into pieces. The blow
splintered the glass.
Structure combination (ii): Verb with
prepositional Object; Verb with Object
His heart hardened against her. The years
hardened my heart.
Structure combination (iii): Verb with
Adjunct; Verb with Object
Water gushed out of the hole. The hole
gushed water.

For structure tables, see Pattern combinations 1

and 2.

Verbs with this combination of patterns belong to

the following meaning groups:

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8.1 THE `SMASH' 8.3 THE `BENEFIT' 8.5 THE `BELCH'

GROUP GROUP GROUP

8.2 THE `OBSESS' 8.4 THE `TOPPLE' 8.6 THE `DIFFUSE'

GROUP GROUP GROUP

506
8.1 The `smash' group

These verbs are concerned with damage. In the

pattern V prep/adv, the Subject indicates the
person or thing that is damaged. In the pattern V n,
the Subject indicates the person or thing that
causes the damage. This group belongs to Structure
combination (i).

When you fire at a clay pigeon and it smashes

into lots of little pieces, it's a real thrill. The
bottle smashed the window, but did not go into
the house.
smash splinter

8.2 The `obsess' group

These verbs are concerned with someone feeling an

emotion about something. In the pattern V
prep/adv, the Subject indicates the person who
feels the emotion. In the pattern V n, the Subject
indicates the cause or topic of the emotion. This
group belongs to Structure combination (ii), except
for thrill, which belongs to Structure combination
(iii).

If you obsess about small things, it keeps you

from obsessing about the really big things. As
Rebecca's death grew closer, the lack of a child
started to obsess him.
Coleridge has written a book for those who thrill
to the scene in Citizen Kane where Charles
declares `I think it would be fun to run a
newspaper'. It was a sight that never failed to
thrill her.
bother (about) harden (against) obsess (about/over) thrill
(at/to)

8.3 The `benefit' group

These verbs are concerned with something being an

advantage to someone. In the pattern V prep/adv,
the Subject indicates the person who gains the
advantage. In the pattern V n, the Subject indicates
the thing that is advantageous. This group belongs
to Structure combination (ii).

It is hoped that hundreds of youngsters will

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benefit from the charity. We need to persuade

employers that equal opportunities can benefit
them as well as us.
benefit (from) profit (from/by)

8.4 The `topple' group

In the pattern V prep/adv, these verbs are

concerned with someone or something moving
somewhere. In the pattern V n, they are concerned
with someone or something moving something or
someone in a particular direction. This group
belongs to Structure combination (iii).

I toppled onto the floor. Protestors tried to

topple a bust of Stalin.
spiral splay topple

8.5 The `belch' group

These verbs are concerned with liquids, gases, or

flames coming out of a container. In the pattern V
prep/adv, the Subject indicates the liquid, gas, or
flame. In the pattern V n, the Subject indicates the
container. This group belongs to Structure
combination (iii).

Traffic roared by and smoke belched from the

steelworks in the background. The old van had
slowly become a big polluter, wasting gasoline and
belching black smoke.
The man staggered back, blood spurting from 507
his hand. A gash just above the eye was spurting
so much blood that he was all but blinded.
belch (from/out of) gush haemorrhage (from) ooze puff
spurt
belch out

8.6 The `diffuse' group

These verbs are concerned with something moving

metaphorically. In the pattern V prep/adv, the
Subject indicates the thing that `moves'. In the
pattern V n, the Subject indicates the person or
thing that makes the thing `move'. This group
belongs to Structure combination (iii).

My advice to anyone about to launch a new

technology is to look at how a new innovation
diffuses through the populace. The Society's
declared object was to collect and diffuse
knowledge of the laws which govern the

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universe.
Even the restive military rallied to Mr Clinton
yesterday morning when he chose Fort McNair for
his morning jog. In trying to rally voters, they've
focused on dissatisfaction with the government.
devolve (upon/on) diffuse drain emanate (from) exude
(from) rally (to)

8.7 The `originate' and `conclude' group

These verbs are concerned with something starting,

coming into existence, or concluding. In the pattern
V prep/adv, the Subject indicates the thing that
starts or comes into existence. In the pattern V n,
the Subject indicates the person who makes
something start or conclude, or the source of
something. This group belongs to Structure
combination (iii).

Whales must have originated from a land

mammal which moved around on front and
hind legs. Dr Stevenson did not really originate
this type of test.
conclude originate sprout

8.8 Verbs with other meanings

There are a few other verbs which have this

combination of patterns. The verbs average out
and sign up (as) belong to Structure combination
(i). Sign up (for) belongs to Structure combination
(ii). The verbs climax and put up belong to
Structure combination (iii).

There were reportedly `important differences of

view' between head teacher and governors which
climaxed in the head leaving. The victory
climaxed a perfect season for UCLA, which
won all 30 of its games.
He decided that he would drive back at once
instead of putting up for the night at the hotel.
The company will put you up when you're
between tours.
climax
average out put up sign up (as/for)
508
Pattern combination 9: V adv; V n

In the pattern V adv, the verb is followed by an

adverb group. In the pattern V n, the verb is
followed by a noun group.

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This combination is asymmetrical because in the

structure without an Object the verb must be
followed by an adverb.

This combination of patterns has one combination

of structures:

Verb with Adjunct; Verb with Object

The dress washes easily. She washed the
dress.

For structure tables, see Pattern combinations 1

and 2.

In the pattern V adv, the verb often focuses on a

quality or feature of the person or thing indicated
by the Subject, rather than on something that has
actually happened.

Verbs with this combination of patterns belong to

the following meaning groups:

9.1 THE `CLEAN' 9.2 THE `SCARE' 9.3 THE `FISH'

GROUP GROUP GROUP

9.1 The `clean' group

In the pattern V adv, these verbs indicate that

something has a desirable quality, such as being
easily cleaned, prepared, or moved. In the pattern
V n, they indicate that something is affected in
some way, such as being cleaned, prepared, or
moved.

Most of the pans cleaned easily with hot, soapy

water and a soft cloth. These products are a much
safer bet than caustic soda, although not as
effective in actually cleaning the surface.
I've put the vine in a raised bed that drains freely.
Tulip trees have masses of roots that lie just below
the surface and drain the surrounding soil.
The door was closed but only with a wooden bar
which lifted easily. She lifted the lid.
The knitwear sold well. It's a regular market. I
mean they sell food there, they sell clothing.
apply clean cut display drain fold glue grill lift read sell
wash

9.2 The `scare' group

In the pattern V adv, these verbs indicate that

someone feels an emotion often or easily. In the
pattern V n, they indicate that someone or
something makes someone feel an emotion.

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This use is productive: any verb which has the

pattern V n and indicates that someone is made to
feel an emotion can be used with the pattern V adv.
However, there are only two verbs for which the
pattern V adv is frequent.

Although they are a young team, they do not

scare easily. `Things are starting to scare me,' I
said.
scare spook 509
9.3 The `fish' group

In the pattern V adv, these verbs indicate that a

place used for a sport allows the sport to be
enjoyable. In the pattern V n, they indicate that
someone takes part in that sport at that place.

The beach is a south-west-facing venue that fishes

well when there is a strong breeze blowing directly
onto the beach. Chatting to other anglers who fish
the water can also be a great help.
The cross-country course rode well, although the
water jump caused problems. Ryan rode the 13-
fence show-jumping course at Barcelona as
if he were David Broome.
fish ride

Pattern combination 10: V adj; V n

In the pattern V adj, the verb is followed by an

adjective group. In the pattern V n, the verb is
followed by a noun group. This pattern
combination is asymmetrical.

For structure tables, see Pattern combinations 1

and 4.

There is only one verb with this combination of

patterns.

These easy-to-clean non-stick racks fold flat for

easy storage. Brian rose, picked up his copy of
`Jitterbug Perfume', folded the lawn chair.
fold

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