C8

Generator and
Generator-Transformer Protection
Network Protection & Automation Guide
Network Protection & Automation Guide

Chapter

Generator and
C8
Generator-Transformer Protection
1. Introduction 315

2. Generator earthing 316

3. Generator differential protection 317

4. Differential protection of generator-transformers 319

5. Inter-turn protection 319

6. Overcurrent protection 323

7. Stator earthfault protection 325

8. Stator earthfault protection for entire stator winding 329

9. Overvoltage protection 331

10. Undervoltage protection 331

11. Low forward power/reverse power protection 332

12. Unbalanced loading 333

13. Protection against inadvertent energisation 335

14. Under/overfrequency/overfluxing protection 335

15. Rotor faults 336

16. Loss of excitation protection 338

17. Pole slipping protection 341

18. Stator overheating faults 344

19. Complete generator protection schemes 344

20. Distributed generation 347

21. Examples of generator protection settings 350

22. References 357

 Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

C8 1. Introduction

The core of an electric power system is the generation. With governed by economic considerations, taking into account
the exception of emerging fuel cell and solar-cell technology the value of the machine, and the value of its output to the
for power systems, the conversion of the fundamental energy plant owner.
into its electrical equivalent normally requires a ‘prime mover’
The following problems require consideration when applying
to develop mechanical power as an intermediate stage.
the protection system:
The nature of this machine depends upon the source of
a. stator electrical faults
energy and in turn this has some bearing on the design of
the generator. Generators based on steam, gas, water or wind b. overvoltage
turbines, and reciprocating combustion engines are all in use.
c. low power / reverse power
Electrical ratings extend from a few hundred kVA (or even
less) for reciprocating engine and renewable energy sets, up d. overload / unbalanced loading
to steam turbine sets exceeding 1200MVA. e. overfrequency / underfrequency
Small and medium sized sets may be directly connected to f. inadvertent energisation
a power distribution system. A larger set may be associated
with an individual transformer, through which it is coupled to g. rotor electrical faults
the EHV primary transmission system. h. overfluxing
Switchgear may or may not be provided between the generator i. loss of excitation
and transformer. In some cases, operational and economic
advantages can be attained by providing a generator circuit j. loss of synchronism
breaker in addition to a high voltage circuit breaker, but special
demands will be placed on the generator circuit breaker for
interruption of generator fault current waveforms that do not
have an early zero crossing. Generator Main transformer
A unit transformer may be tapped off the interconnection
between generator and transformer for the supply of power
to auxiliary plant, as shown in Figure C8.1. The unit transformer
could be of the order of 10% of the unit rating for a large
HV busbars
fossil-fuelled steam set with additional flue-gas desulphurisation
plant, but it may only be of the order of 1% of unit rating for Unit transformer
a hydro set.
A modern generating unit is a complex system comprising
the generator stator winding, associated transformer and unit Auxiliary
transformer (if present), the rotor with its field winding and supplies switchboard
excitation system, and the prime mover with its associated
auxiliaries. Faults of many kinds can occur within this system
for which diverse forms of electrical and mechanical protection
Figure C8.1:
are required. The amount of protection applied will be Generator-transformer unit

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Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

2. Generator earthing C8

The single-phase earthfault of the stator winding is the most

common fault of a generator. In order to reduce the damage
to generators and other electric equipment under single-phase
earthfaults, different generator grounding methods are applied
in the different application scenarios. The main purposes are
to restrain the fault currents, the transient overvoltage and to
improve the sensitivity of the earthfault protection. The Ungrounded
grounding methods widely used are as follows:
Ungrounded: This ungrounded method is common for the
smaller generators especially when the machine's capacity
is less than 10MW. For the ungrounded machine, the single-
phase earthfault current is the sum of the capacitive currents.
When the fault current is less than 5A, it will not damage the
iron. When the machine's capacity increases, the capacitive
currents increase. This is especially true for the hydro-turbine
generator. The higher fault current causes electric arcs and Resonant ground
transient overvoltage. So for larger generators other grounding
methods are applied.
Resonant ground with a ground fault neutraliser: This
grounding method illustrates the ground fault neutraliser
(GFN) arrangement. In this grounding method, a distribution
transformer is used with a secondary reactor. The ohmic value
of this secondary reactor is carefully selected to compensate
for the capacitive reactance. This type of grounding limits the
single phase to ground fault current to values that will not
sustain an electric arc. It is applicable only where the zero
sequence capacitive reactance of the circuit does not change
significantly for different system conditions. In general, the High resistance ground
resonant grounding method suppresses a phase to ground
fault current in less than 1 A primary current. The majority of
existing generators having resonant grounding methods are
not tripped immediately, but an alarm is raised and an orderly
shutdown is started. This grounding method has the risk of
LC resonant overvoltage under some special scenarios. So
care is needed when applying this grounding method on
large HV generators.
High resistance ground with a distribution transformer
(equivalent to high resistance grounding): This grounding
method utilises a distribution transformer that provides high Solidly ground Low resistance ground
resistance in the primary circuit with a small resistance in the
secondary of the distribution transformer. The equivalent
primary resistance shall be no greater than the capacitive
reactance of the subsystem from generator to the LV windings Figure C8.2:
Methods of generator earthing
of the step-up transformer. It limits the maximum single phase
to ground fault current to a value in the range of approximately
3 A to 25 A, which is not of sufficient magnitude to operate
standard generator differential relays. Although this grounding In industrial applications which are mainly feeding local loads
method cannot block the electric arc effectively, it can restrain many generators are connected directly to the system bus
the transient overvoltage and trigger the sensitive earthfault without any interposing step-up transformers. In general,
protection relay. This grounding method is common for these may be relatively small generators and they will be
generators larger than 300MVA. connected to a solid or low impedance grounded system
[Ref C8.1: IEEE Guide for Generator Ground Protection].

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 Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

C8 3. Generator differential protection

Failure of the stator windings or connection insulation can saturation effect of the generator CTs, but the bias current
result in severe damage to the windings and stator core. The will increase the relay setting, such that the differential spill
extent of the damage will depend on the magnitude and current is insufficient to operate the relay.
duration of the fault current. To respond quickly to a phase
In normal conditions, there is very small differential current
fault, sensitive and high-speed differential protection is
caused by the unbalance current between two CTs. The
normally applied to generators rated in excess of 1MVA.
threshold of the differential current Is1 shall avoid the mal-
If CTs are connected as shown in Figure C8.3, it can be seen operation under this normal unbalance current. The threshold
that current flowing through the zone of protection will cause setting Is1 can be set as low as 5% of rated generator current
current to circulate around the secondary wiring. If the CTs to provide protection for as much of the winding as possible.
are of the same ratio and have identical magnetising The bias slope break-point threshold setting Is2 would typically
characteristics they will produce identical secondary currents be set to a value (such as 120%) above generator rated
and so zero current will flow through the relay. If a fault exists current, to achieve external fault stability in the event of
within the zone of protection there will be a difference between transient asymmetric CT saturation. Bias slope setting K1
the outputs from these two CTs. This difference flowing through would typically be set at 0 to ensure high sensitivity for internal
the relay causes it to operate. faults while K2 would typically be set at 150% to provide
stability for external faults.

Stator
A
B
C

(a): Relay connections for biased differential protection

Figure C8.3:
Stator differential protection

Operate
Heavy through current, arising from an external fault condition
can cause one CT to saturate more than the other, resulting
in a difference between the secondary current produced by
Restrain
each CT. It is essential to stabilise the protection for these
conditions. Two methods are commonly used. One is biasing
technique, where the relay setting is raised as the through
current increases. Another is a high impedance technique,
where the relay impedance is such that under maximum (b) Biased differential operating characteristic
through fault conditions, the current in the differential element
is insufficient for the relay to operate.
3.1 Biased differential protection Figure C8.4:
Typical generator biased differential protection
The relay connections for this form of protection are shown
in Figure C8.4(a) and a typical bias characteristic is shown
in Figure C8.4(b). The differential current is the vector sum 3.2 High impedance differential protection
of the terminal currents I1 and I2. The bias current is half of
The principle of the high-impedance protection application
the scalar sum of the terminal currents. Normally a dual slope
is illustrated in Figure C8.5, together with a summary of the
percentage bias characteristic is implemented. The lower
calculations required to determine the value of external
slope provides sensitivity for internal faults, whereas the higher
stabilising resistance.
slope provides stability under through-fault conditions, during
which there may be transient differential currents due to the

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3. Generator differential protection C8

Ie = CT magnetising current at Vs
Healthy CT Saturated CT Is1 is typically set to 5% of generator rated secondary current.
Protected zone
It can be seen from the above that the calculations for the
application of high impedance differential protection are more
complex than for biased differential protection. However, the
protection scheme is actually quite simple and it offers a high
Rst level of stability for through-faults and external switching
events.
With the advent of multi-function numerical relays and with a
Voltage across relay circuit
desire to dispense with external components, high impedance
differential protection is not as popular as biased differential
Vs = KI f (RCT + 2RL) - where K = 1.5
protection in modern relaying practice.
Stabilising resistor, RST, limits spill current to I s (relay setting)
Vs
RST = -R
Is R

I F = Maximum secondary through-fault current

Where RR = Relay burden
RCT = Current transformer secondary winding resistance
RL = Resistance of a single lead from the relay to the
current transformer

NLR NLR NLR

Figure C8.5:
Principle of high impedance differential protection

If the relay circuit is considered to be very high impedance,

= Stabilising resistor
the secondary current produced by the healthy CT will flow = Non-linear resistance
through the saturated CT. If the magnetising impedance of (Metrosil)
the saturated CT is considered to be negligible, the maximum
voltage across the relay ( V S ) circuit will be equal to the
secondary fault current multiplied by the connected impedance
Figure C8.6:
(RL3 + RL4 + RCT2).
Relay connections for high impedance differential protection
The relay can be made stable for this maximum applied voltage
by increasing the overall impedance of the relay circuit, such
that the resulting current through the relay is less than its
3.3 CT requirements
current setting. As the impedance of the relay input alone is
relatively low, a series connected external resistor is required. The CT requirements for differential protection will vary
The value of this resistor, RST, is calculated by the formula according to the relay used. Modern numerical relays may
shown in Figure C8.5. An additional non-linear resistor, Metrosil, not require CTs specifically designed for differential protection
may be required to limit the peak secondary circuit voltage to IEC 60044-1 class PX (or BS 3938 class X). However,
during internal fault conditions, as shown in Figure C8.6. But requirements in respect of CT knee-point voltage will still have
this is not commonly a requirement for generator differential to be checked for the specific relays used. High impedance
applications unless very high impedance relays are applied. differential protection may be more onerous in this respect
than biased differential protection. Normally to ensure the
To calculate the primary operating current, the following
high impedance differential protection will operate quickly
expression is used:
during an internal fault the CTs used to operate the protection
Iop = N x ( Is1 + nIe ) must have a knee-point voltage of at least 2 x Vs. Many factors
affect this, including the other protection functions fed by the
Where:
CTs and the knee-point requirements of the particular relay
Iop = primary operating current concerned. Relay manufacturers are able to provide detailed
guidance on this matter.
N = CT ratio
Is1 = relay setting
n = number of CTs in parallel with relay element

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C8 4. Differential protection of generator-transformers

A common connection arrangement for large generators is Since a power transformer is included within the zone of
to operate the generator and associated step-up transformer protection, biased transformer differential protection, with
as a unit without any intervening circuit breaker. The unit magnetising inrush restraint should be applied, as discussed
transformer supplying the generator auxiliaries is tapped off in Chapter [C7: Transformer and Transformer-Feeder Protection,
the connection between generator and step-up transformer. Section 8.5]. Transient overfluxing of the generator transformer
Differential protection can be arranged as follows. may arise due to overvoltage following generator load rejection.
In some applications, this may threaten the stability of the
4.1 Generator/step-up transformer differential
differential protection. In such cases, consideration should
protection
be given to applying protection with transient overfluxing
The generator stator and step-up transformer can be protected restraint/blocking (e.g. based on a 5th harmonic differential
by a single zone of overall differential protection (Figure C8.7). current threshold). Protection against sustained overfluxing
This will be in addition to differential protection applied to the is covered in Section 14.
generator only.
4.2 Unit transformer differential protection
The current transformers should be located in the generator
The current taken by the unit transformer must be allowed by
neutral connections and in the transformer HV connections.
arranging the generator differential protection as a three-
Alternatively, CTs within the HV switchyard may be employed
ended scheme as shown in Figure C8.1. Unit transformer
if the distance is not technically prohibitive. Even where there
current transformers are usually applied to balance the
is a generator circuit breaker, overall differential protection
generator differential protection and prevent the unit
can still be provided if desired.
transformer through current being seen as differential current.
An exception might be where the unit transformer rating is
extremely low in relation to the generator rating, e.g. for some
Main hydro applications. The location of the third set of current
Generator transformer
transformers is normally on the primary side of the unit
transformer. One advantage is that unit transformer faults
Protected zone
would be within the zone of protection of the generator.
HV However, the sensitivity of the generator protection to unit
busbars
transformer phase faults would be considered inadequate,
due to the relatively low rating of the transformer in relation
to that of the generator. Thus, the unit transformer should have
its own differential protection scheme. Protection for the unit
transformer is covered in Chapter [C7: Transformer and
Transformer-Feeder Protection], including methods for
stabilising the protection against magnetising inrush conditions.
Figure C8.7:
Overall generator-transformer differential protection

5. Inter-turn protection

5.1 Inter-turn protection bars on each slot of the stator core so it is possible that two
stator bars of the same phase or even the same branch are
For the large generator, there are usually several parallel-
on the same slot of stator core. These two stator bars on the
connected branches of the stator winding for each phase. The
same slot are fully insulated under the normal conditions.
parallel-connected branches are good for the heat dissipation
However due to the complicated structure of the stator winding
and reduce the internal electromagnetic force. On large steam
and the stress damage during the operation, it is possible that
generators, the stator winding usually has two parallel-connected
inter-turn faults happen between two stator bars on the same
branches on each phase. The stator winding of a large hydro-
slot as shown in Figure C8.8. Furthermore, if the stator bar has
generator can have 4 branches, 6 branches, or more on each
multi turns, it has small insulation between each turn. A fault
phase.
between turns in a multi turn bar can be catastrophic. Inter-turn
The stator windings are normally formed into double-layer faults can happen between the branches of the same phase
structure except in very small generators. There are two stator or within the coils of the same branch, as shown in Figure C8.9.

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5. Inter-turn protection C8

B2 X2
A B C
C2
Z1 26
27 28 29 30

24
25 C 31
32 U1 U5 V1 V5 W1 W5
(32) (33) 33
23 (31) 14 15
22 13 16 (34)
Y 34
Y2 F1 F2
(30) 12 17 (35) 35
21
A2 20
X (29) 11 18 (36) 36 U2 U6 V2 V6 W2 W6
19 (28) 10 1 (19) 1

18 (27) 9 2 (20)
A 2
A1
17 (26) 8 3 (21) 3

Y1 16 B (25) 7
6
4
5 (22)
4 Double Y connection
15 (24) (23) 5
14
13 Z 7
6

12
11 10 9 8 Z2
Figure C8.9
C1 Inter-turn faults indication

X1 B1
Inter-turn fault

Figure C8.8:
a1
Inter-turn fault in double-layer winding
i a1
The severity of the inter-turn fault is related with the turns in
the short circuit. Under the inter-turn fault, there are short i’ d id
circuit rings and additional circulation currents within the
winding, which could burn the winding and even stator core,
as shown in Figure C8.10. However the variations of the
currents on the generator terminal or the generator neutral
are slight, especially when the inter-turn fault is on the same
branch and involves only limited turns. The conventional Figure C8.10:
current differential protection compares the currents incoming Illustration of inter-turn fault on one branch
and outgoing, it cannot detect any inter-turn faults regardless
of the number of turns involved.
schemes, the parallel-connected branches in each phase of
For the large hydro-generator with several parallel-connected
the stator winding are split into two groups, as shown in Figure
branches, normally the line terminals of the parallel-connected
C8.11. If the numbers of the parallel-connected branches
branches are available on the generator neutral, so it can
are not the same in these two groups, a scale conversion is
apply the split-phase transverse current differential protection,
necessary before the calculation of the differential current.
or incomplete longitudinal differential protection or zero
The ratio of the CT should be selected carefully to ensure the
sequence current differential protection. These current based
unbalanced current is at the minimum when under normal
protections, described in later sections, can detect all the
conditions.
stator winding internal faults.
Except for the different CT connections, the implementation
For the large steam machine, normally there are only three
of transverse biased current differential protection is the same
line terminals on the generator neutral. Without enough line
as conventional biased current differential protection (refer
terminals, it is impossible to install the current based
to section 3). It can provide both better sensitivity and better
protections in the same way as for a hydro-generator. However,
stability but it requires one specific relay with two CT inputs,
it can apply the zero sequence overvoltage protection to
which is used only for inter-turn protection. An additional relay
detect the inter-turn faults and also internal phase-phase
is necessary for other protection purposes.
faults. This is described later in this section.
The philosophy of the setting calculation for transverse biased
5.2 Split phase transverse current differential protection
current differential protection is the same as conventional
In split phase transverse current differential protection biased current differential protection. The threshold of the

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C8 5. Inter-turn protection

differential current and restraint factor shall avoid maloperation

due to the maximum unbalanced currents on both normal
condition and external fault condition. Normally, the threshold
of the differential current for transverse biased current
differential protection and the restraint factor are all a little
higher than the conventional biased current differential
protection, as the unbalanced current is likely to be greater.
A setting of 10% of rated current of the machine is generally
considered to be adequate. Inter-turn
fault
87G

Inter-turn
fault
87G

Figure C8.12:
Incomplete longitudinal current differential protection

5.4 Transverse zero sequence current differential

protection
Another method that could be used for inter-turn protection
is to use the zero sequence overcurrent protection function
using an additional single CT as shown in Figure C8.13. Ideally,
Figure C8.11:
Transverse biased current differential protection for in the normal condition with balanced burden, there is no
inter-turn fault current flowing between these two neutral points. However
due to the complicated machine structure, there are usually
unbalanced current components between neutral points,
especially the third harmonic current. For better performance
5.3 Incomplete longitudinal current differential of this application, it is essential to filter out the third harmonic
protection current with a high attenuation such as 40db to avoid
Another scheme that could be used on this type of hydro- maloperation due to the large third harmonic content. Choosing
generator is shown in Figure C8.12. This arrangement is an a suitable ratio of the single CT for this application can improve
attempt to get the benefits of the biased differential scheme the sensitivity. With the same current threshold, the smaller
for inter-turn protection with a saving in CTs and relays. ratio can obtain higher measurements of the fault current and
However, this arrangement is not as sensitive as the scheme then be more sensitive to the faults. However it has to ensure
using separate inter-turn relays or differential relays, due to CT saturation will not occur for the maximum fault currents
the relatively higher operation threshold and relatively lower and the maximum unbalance current shall also be less than
fault currents flowing in the CTs. If the inter-turn fault is only the CT primary rated current.
on one branch and the neutral end CT does not collect the To ensure stability under an external fault the current threshold
current from that branch with the fault, the current flowing in for the transverse zero sequence current differential protection
the CT normally is less than the threshold and this protection shall be greater than maximum unbalanced current under an
will not operate. Normally, this scheme requires the neutral external fault condition. This is typically set to 20% of the
end CTs having half the turns ratio of the terminal end CTs generator rated current.
and collecting the currents from half the parallel-connected
branches. The typical threshold of differential current is about An alternative to achieve both sensitivity and stability is to
10%-15% of rated current of the machine. apply an adaptive current threshold. Whilst the maximum
generator terminal current is less than the generator rated

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5. Inter-turn protection C8

set of VTs is connected to the generator terminal, with the

start point of the primary winding connected to the generator
neutral as shown in Figure C8.14. The cable between these
two star points must be rated to full line volts to cope with
neutral displacement faults. The zero sequence voltage can
be measured directly from the voltage transformer broken
delta winding or derived from the three phase to neutral
voltages. In addition, one specific filter is necessary to remove
Fault
the 3rd harmonics, to ensure the stability of this protection
scheme. It is preferable that the attenuation of the 3rd
harmonics is greater than 40db.

51N

Direction of NPS current

for internal fault

Figure C8.13:
Transverse zero-sequence current differential protection

current, the current threshold is only greater than the maximum

unbalanced current under normal conditions. The default
sensitivity setting can be 5% of the generator rated current.
When the maximum generator terminal current is larger than VN
the generator rated current, the current threshold shall
increase linearly until the maximum unbalanced current under
external faults is reached. It is not easy to calculate the exact
maximum unbalanced currents under different operating
conditions. Normally it relies on the measurement data from
field tests.
5.5 Longitudinal zero sequence overvoltage protection
For a typical steam generator without enough line terminals Figure C8.14:
on the generator neutral, it can apply the longitudinal zero Longitudinal zero sequence overvoltage protection
sequence overvoltage protection to detect the inter-turn faults
and internal phase to phase faults. On the large steam Under the normal condition, the unbalanced voltage from the
generator, the branches and turns of the stator winding are VT broken delta winding is very small. So a smaller setting is
limited. Even if the inter-turn fault involves only very limited acceptable, which can ensure this protection scheme has a
turns, there will be obvious longitudinal zero sequence voltage. high sensitivity to detect an inter-turn fault with only a few turns
However on the large hydro-generator, normally there are involved. Under external faults, the unbalanced electric and
several branches and many turns, therefore the minor inter- magnetic parameters during the complicated transient states
turn faults will not cause enough zero sequence voltage. So of the generator can cause some zero sequence voltages.
the longitudinal zero sequence overvoltage protection has From the practical engineering measurements [Ref C8.1: IEEE
higher sensitivity on the steam generator. Normally it is not Guide for Generator Ground Protection], there are some zero
applied on hydro-generators. sequence voltages under the external fault, which could be
An inter-turn fault on one phase will reduce its voltage output, larger than the setting for inter-turn protection, as shown in
creating zero sequence voltage components. So the inter-turn Figure C8.15 [Ref C8.2: Problems in Voltage-Type Longitudinal
faults in a generator can be detected by observing the zero Zero-Sequence Inter-Turn Protection for Generators]. So, to
sequence voltage across the machine between the generator prevent this inter-turn protection element from maloperation for
terminal and generator neutral. Normally one set of VTs is the external faults, the element can be interlocked with a
installed specifically for inter-turn protection applications. This directional NPS overcurrent element. Only when the direction

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C8 5. Inter-turn protection

of the NPS current is looking away from the machine, the inter-
turn protection can issue a trip signal. The directional NPS 15
overcurrent element shall be based on the CT at the generator
terminal side. A short time delay is usually used to ensure the

U/V
correct block from both directional NPS overcurrent and VTS. 0
The inter-turn protection by zero sequence overvoltage
protection avoids the maloperation due to the maximum
unbalanced voltage under normal conditions. Normally the -15
maximum unbalanced voltage can be measured during the 40 80 120
generator field test before normal operation. The default t/ms
setting is 2% of the generator rated voltage. A typical time
setting would be 0.1 s - 0.2 s. A long time delay increases
Figure C8.15: Zero sequence voltage across the generator
the risk of damage to the stator core. under external transformer HV earthfault
5.6 Summary
This section introduces four inter-turn protection solutions. Normally for the large hydro-generator inter-turn protection,
The split phase transverse current differential protection has two protection solutions are needed. Often, one solution is
high sensitivity and stability but more CTs and addition split phase transverse current differential protection and
protection relay are necessary. Transverse zero sequence another is transverse zero sequence current differential
current differential protection also has good sensitivity and protection. Longitudinal zero sequence overvoltage protection
application scheme is more simple. Incomplete longitudinal is normally for the inter-turn faults on a large steam generator.
current differential protection has a wider protection range It has high sensitivity but a short time delay is necessary for
including the generator terminal lines, but it may not detect good stability with direction NPS overcurrent blocking and
the inter-turn faults only on one branch and the current flowing VTS blocking.
in the faulted branch is not collected in this solution.

6. Overcurrent protection

Overcurrent protection of generators may take two forms. Plain energise the overcurrent protection, to allow a response to winding
overcurrent protection may be used as the principle form of fault conditions. Relay characteristics should be selected to take
protection for small generators, and back-up protection for larger into account the fault current decrement behaviour of the generator,
ones where differential protection is used as the primary method with allowance for the performance of the excitation system and
of generator stator winding protection. Voltage dependent its field-forcing capability. Without the provision of fault current
overcurrent protection may be applied where differential protection compounding from generator CTs, an excitation system that is
is not justified on larger generators, or where problems are met in powered from an excitation transformer at the generator terminals
applying plain overcurrent protection. will exhibit a pronounced fault current decrement for a terminal
fault. With failure to consider this effect, the potential exists for the
6.1 Plain overcurrent protection
initial high fault current to decay to a value below the overcurrent
It is usual to apply time-delayed plain overcurrent protection to protection pick-up setting before a relay element can operate,
generators. For generators rated less than 1 MVA, this will form unless a low current setting and/or time setting is applied. The
the principal stator winding protection for phase faults. For larger protection would then fail to trip the generator. The settings chosen
generators, overcurrent protection can be applied as remote must be the best compromise between assured operation in the
back-up protection, to disconnect the unit from any uncleared foregoing circumstances and discrimination with the system
external fault. Where there is only one set of differential main protection and passage of normal load current, but this can be
protection, for a smaller generator, the overcurrent protection will impossible with plain overcurrent protection.
also provide local back-up protection for the protected plant, in
In the more usual case of a generator that operates in parallel with
the event that the main protection fails to operate. The general
others and which forms part of an extensive interconnected system,
principles of setting overcurrent relays are given in Chapter [C1:
back-up phase fault protection for a generator and its transformer
Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earthfaults].
will be provided by HV overcurrent protection. This will respond
In the case of a single generator feeding an isolated system, to the higher-level backfeed from the power system to a unit fault.
current transformers at the neutral end of the machine should Other generators in parallel would supply this current and, being

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stabilised by the system impedance; it will not suffer a major

decrement. This protection is usually a requirement of the power
Current pick-up level
system operator. Settings must be chosen to prevent operation for
external faults fed by the generator. It is common for the HV
overcurrent protection relay to provide both time-delayed and
instantaneous high-set elements.
The time-delayed elements should be set to ensure that the
protected items of plant cannot pass levels of through fault current
in excess of their short-time withstand limits.
The instantaneous elements should be set above the maximum
possible fault current that the generator can supply, but less than
the system-supplied fault current in the event of a generator winding
fault. This back-up protection will minimise plant damage in the
event of main protection failure for a generating plant fault and
Voltage level
instantaneous tripping for an HV-side fault will aid the recovery of
the power system and parallel generation.
6.2 Voltage-dependent overcurrent protection
Figure C8.16:
The plain overcurrent protection setting difficulty referred to in the Voltage controlled relay characteristics
previous section arises because allowance has to be made both
for the decrement of the generator fault current with time and for
the passage of full load current. To overcome the difficulty of 6.2.2 Voltage restrained overcurrent protection
discrimination, the generator terminal voltage can be measured
The alternative technique is to continuously vary the relay element
and used to dynamically modify the basic relay current/time
pickup setting with generator voltage variation between upper and
overcurrent characteristic for faults close to the generating plant.
lower limits. The voltage is said to restrain the operation of the
There are two basic alternatives for the application of voltage-
current element.
dependent overcurrent protection, which are discussed in the
following sections. The choice depends upon the power system The effect is to provide a dynamic I.D.M.T. protection characteristic,
characteristics and level of protection to be provided. Voltage- according to the voltage at the machine terminals. Alternatively,
dependent overcurrent relays are often found applied to generators the relay element may be regarded as an impedance type with a
used on industrial systems as an alternative to full differential long dependent time delay. In consequence, for a given fault
protection. condition, the relay continues to operate more or less independently
of current decrement in the machine. A typical characteristic is
6.2.1 Voltage controlled overcurrent protection
shown in Figure C8.17.
Voltage controlled overcurrent protection has two time/current
characteristics which are selected according to the status of a
generator terminal voltage measuring element. The voltage
threshold setting for the switching element is chosen according
to the following criteria. Current pick-up level

1. during overloads, when the system voltage is sustained

near normal, the overcurrent protection should have a
current setting above full load current and an operating
time characteristic that will prevent the generating plant
from passing current to a remote external fault for a period
in excess of the plant short-time withstand limits
2. under close-up fault conditions, the busbar voltage must
fall below the voltage threshold so that the second protection
characteristic will be selected. This characteristic should
be set to allow relay operation with fault current decrement
for a close-up fault at the generator terminals or at the HV Voltage level
busbars. The protection should also time-grade with
external circuit protection. There may be additional infeeds
to an external circuit fault that will assist with grading.
Figure C8.17:
Typical characteristics are shown in Figure C8.16. Voltage restrained relay characteristics

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 Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

C8 7. Stator earthfault protection

The most probable mode of insulation failure is phase to earth. characteristic or a wattmetric technique (Chapter [C1:
An earthfault involving the stator core results in damage to Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earthfaults, Section 19])
the iron at the point of fault and welds laminations together. can also be used.
The damaged area can sometimes be repaired, but if severe
For direct-connected generators operating in parallel,
damage has occurred, a partial core rebuild will be necessary.
directional sensitive earthfault protection may be necessary.
Earthfault protection must be applied where impedance
This is to ensure that a faulted generator will be tripped before
earthing is employed that limits the earthfault current to less
there is any possibility of the neutral overcurrent protection
than the pick-up threshold of the overcurrent and/or differential
tripping a parallel healthy generator. When being driven by
protection for a fault located down to the bottom 5% of the
residually-connected phase CTs, the protection must be
stator winding from the star-point. The type of protection
stabilised against incorrect tripping with transient spill current
required will depend on the method of earthing and connection
in the event of asymmetric CT saturation when phase fault or
of the generator to the power system.
magnetising inrush current is being passed. Stabilising
7.1 Direct-connected generators techniques include the addition of relay circuit impedance
and/or the application of a time delay. Where the required
A single direct-connected generator operating on an isolated
setting of the protection is very low in comparison to the rated
system will normally be directly earthed. However, if several
current of the phase CTs, it would be necessary to employ a
direct-connected generators are operated in parallel, only
single Core Balance CT for the earthfault protection to ensure
one generator is normally earthed at a time. For the unearthed
transient stability.
generators, a simple measurement of the neutral current is
not possible, and other methods of protection must be used. Since any generator in the paralleled group may be earthed,
The following sections describe the methods available. all generators will require to be fitted with both neutral
overcurrent protection and sensitive directional earthfault
7.1.1 Neutral overcurrent protection
protection.
With this form of protection, a current transformer in the
The setting of the sensitive directional earthfault protection
neutral- earth connection energises an overcurrent relay
is chosen to co-ordinate with generator differential protection
element. This provides unrestricted earth-fault protection and
and/or neutral voltage displacement protection to ensure that
so it must be graded with feeder protection. The relay element
95% of the stator winding is protected. Figure C8.18 illustrates
will therefore have a time-delayed operating characteristic.
the complete scheme, including optional blocking signals
Grading must be carried out in accordance with the principles
where difficulties in co-ordinating the generator and
detailed in Chapter [C1: Overcurrent Protection for Phase
downstream feeder earthfault protection occur.
and Earthfaults]. The setting should not be more than 33%
of the maximum earthfault current of the generator, and a
lower setting would be preferable, depending on grading
considerations. Feeder
* Optional interlocked
earthfault protection
7.1.2 Sensitive earthfault protection > >> if grading problems exist

This method is used in the following situations:

a. direct-connected generators operating in parallel
b. generators with high-impedance neutral earthing, the earth
fault current being limited to a few tens of amps
> > >
c. installations where the resistance of the ground fault path Block* Block*
is very high, due to the nature of the ground In these cases, > >
conventional earthfault protection as described in Section
7.1.1 is of little use.
Open
The principles of sensitive earthfault protection are described
in Chapter [C1: Overcurrent Protection for Phase and
Earthfaults, Section 17.1, 18 and 19]. The earthfault (residual)
current can be obtained from residual connection of line CTs,
a line-connected Core Balance CT, or a CT in the generator Minimum earthfault level = =
neutral. The latter is not possible if directional protection is
used. The polarising voltage is usually the neutral voltage
displacement input to the relay, or the residual of the three Figure C8.18:
phase voltages, so a suitable VT must be used. For Petersen Comprehensive earthfault protection scheme for
Coil earthing, directional sensitive earthfault based on Icos direct-connected generators operating in parallel

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7. Stator earthfault protection C8

For cases (b) and (c) above, it is not necessary to use a

directional facility. Care must be taken to use the correct RCA
setting – for instance if the earthing impedance is mainly
resistive, this should be 0°. On insulated or very high
impedance earthed systems, an RCA of -90° would be used,
as the earthfault current is predominately capacitive.
2
Directional sensitive earthfault protection can also be used
for detecting winding earthfaults in an unearthed generator.
In the application case where several generators operate in 3 1
parallel and there is only one earthed generator, the relay
element is applied to the terminals of the generator and the
directional sensitive earthfault protection responds to faults
only within the unearthed machine windings. While there are
earthfaults on the external system, the zero sequence current 1 Derived from phase neutral voltages
cannot flow through the relay and hence the relay does not 2 Measured from earth impedance
operate. It will also not operate on the winding earthfault of 3 Measured from broken delta VT
the only earthed generator without the circulation path for the
zero sequence current, so that other types of earthfault
protection must also be applied. As any of the generators Figure C8.19:
could operate as the earthed machine each will require the Neutral voltage displacement protection
same protection.
7.1.3 Neutral voltage displacement protection
7.2.1 High resistance earthing – neutral overcurrent
In a balanced network, the addition of the three phase-neutral protection
voltages produces a nominally zero residual voltage, since
there would be little zero sequence voltage present. Any A current transformer mounted on the neutral-earth conductor
earthfault will set up a zero sequence system voltage, which can drive an instantaneous and/or time delayed overcurrent
will give rise to a non-zero residual voltage. This can be relay element, as shown in Figure C8.20. It is impossible to
measured by a suitable relay element. The voltage signal provide protection for the whole of the winding, and Figure
must be derived from a VT that is suitable – i.e. it must be C8.20 also details how the percentage of winding covered
capable of transforming zero-sequence voltage, so 3-limb can be calculated. For a relay element with an instantaneous
types and those without a primary earth connection are not setting, protection is typically limited to 90% of the winding.
suitable. This unbalance voltage provides a means of detecting This is to ensure that the protection will not maloperate with
earthfaults. The relay element must be insensitive to third zero sequence current during operation of a primary fuse for
harmonic voltages that may be present in the system voltage a VT earthfault or with any transient surge currents that could
waveforms, as these will sum residually. flow through the interwinding capacitance of the step-up
transformer for an HV system earthfault.
As the protection is still unrestricted, the voltage setting of
the relay must be greater than the effective setting of any A time-delayed relay is more secure in this respect, and it
downstream earthfault protection. It must also be time-delayed may have a setting to cover 95% of the stator winding. Since
to co-ordinate with such protection. Sometimes, a second the generating units under consideration are usually large,
high-set element with short time delay is used to provide instantaneous and time delayed relay elements are often
fast-acting protection against major winding earthfaults. Figure applied, with settings of 10% and 5% of maximum earthfault
C8.19 illustrates the possible connections that may be used. current respectively; this is the optimum compromise in
performance. The portion of the winding left unprotected for
7.2 Indirectly-connected generators an earthfault is at the neutral end. Since the voltage to earth
A directly-earthed generator-transformer unit cannot at this end of the winding is low, the probability of an earthfault
interchange zero-sequence current with the remainder of the occurring is also low. Hence additional protection is often not
network, and hence an earthfault protection grading problem applied.
does not exist. The following sections detail the protection 7.2.2 Distribution transformer earthing using a current
methods for the various forms of impedance earthing of element
generators.
In this arrangement, shown in Figure C8.21(a), the generator
is earthed via the primary winding of a distribution transformer.
The secondary winding is fitted with a loading resistor to limit
the earthfault current.

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 Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

C8 7. Stator earthfault protection

and the voltage protection still functions in the event of an

open-circuited resistor. However, neither scheme will operate
in the event of a flashover on the primary terminals of the
transformer or of the neutral cable between the generator
and the transformer during an earthfault. A CT could be added
in the neutral connection close to the generator, to energise
a high-set overcurrent element to detect such a fault, but the
a fault current would probably be high enough to operate the
phase differential protection.

Loading
resistor
Generator stator winding using a current element

Figure C8.20:
Earthfault protection of high-resistance earthed generator
stator winding using a current element
(a) Protection using a current element

An overcurrent relay element energised from a current

transformer connected in the resistor circuit is used to measure
secondary earthfault current. The relay should have an
effective setting equivalent to 5% of the maximum earthfault
current at rated generator voltage, in order to protect 95% of Loading >
resistor
the stator winding. The relay element response to third
harmonic current should be limited to prevent incorrect
operation when a sensitive setting is applied. (b) Protection using a voltage element

As discussed in Section 7.2.1 for neutral overcurrent protection,

the protection should be time delayed when a sensitive setting
is applied, in order to prevent maloperation under transient
conditions. It also must grade with generator VT primary Figure C8.21:
Generator winding earthfault protection - distribution
protection (for a VT primary earthfault). An operation time in
transformer earthing
the range 0.5 s - 3 s is usual. Less sensitive instantaneous
protection can also be applied to provide fast tripping for a
heavier earthfault condition.
7.2.4 Neutral voltage displacement protection
7.2.3 Distribution transformer earthing using a
voltage element This can be applied in the same manner as for direct-
connected generators (Section 7.1.3). The only difference is
Earthfault protection can also be provided using a voltage- that there are no grading problems as the protection is
measuring element in the secondary circuit instead. The inherently restricted.
setting considerations would be similar to those for the current
operated protection, but transposed to voltage. The circuit A sensitive setting can therefore be used, enabling cover of
diagram is shown in Figure C8.21(b). up to 95% of the stator winding to be achieved.

Application of both voltage and current operated elements 7.3 Restricted earthfault protection
to a generator with distribution transformer earthing provides This technique can be used on small generators not fitted
some advantages. The current operated function will continue with differential protection to provide fast acting earthfault
to operate in the event of a short-circuited loading resistor protection within a defined zone that encompasses the

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7. Stator earthfault protection C8

generator. It is cheaper than full differential protection but The initial bias slope is commonly set to 0% to provide
only provides protection against earthfaults. The principle is maximum sensitivity, and applied up to the rated current of
that used for transformer REF protection, as detailed in Chapter the generator. It may be increased to counter the effects of
[C7: Transformer and Transformer-Feeder Protection, Section CT mismatch. The bias slope above generator rated current
7]. However, in contrast to transformer REF protection, both is typically set to 150% of rated value. The initial current setting
biased low-impedance and high-impedance techniques can is typically 5% of the minimum earthfault current for a fault at
be used. the machine terminals.
7.3.1 Low-impedance biased REF protection 7.3.2 High impedance REF protection
This is shown in Figure C8.22. The main advantage is that the The principle of high impedance differential protection is
neutral CT can also be used in a modern relay to provide given in Chapter [C2: Line Differential Protection] and also
conventional earthfault protection and no external resistors described further in Section 3.2. The same technique can be
are used. Relay bias is required, as described in Chapter used for earthfault protection of a generator, using three
[C2: Line Differential Protection, Section 4.2], but the formula residually connected phase CTs balanced against a similar
for calculating the bias is slightly different and also shown in single CT in the neutral connection, as shown in Figure C8.23.
Figure C8.22. Settings of the order of 5% of maximum earthfault current at
the generator terminals are typical. The usual requirements
in respect of stabilising resistor and non-linear resistance to
guard against excessive voltage across the relay must be
Phase CT ratio 1000/1
Phase A taken, where necessary.
Phase B
Phase C

Neutral CT ratio
200/1

RST = Stabilising resistor

NLR = Non-linear resistance
(Metrosil)

NLR
RST
Relay
(highest of )+( x scaling factor)
2 ISEF

neutral CT ratio 200

where scaling factor = = = 0.2
phase CT ratio 1000

+ (scaling factor x )
Figure C8.23:
High impedance REF protection

Figure C8.22:
Low impedance biased REF protection of a generator

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 Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

C8 8. Earthfault protection for entire stator winding

All of the methods for earthfault protection detailed in Section A problem encountered is that the level of third harmonic
7 leave part of the winding unprotected. In most cases, this voltage generated is related to the output of the generator.
is of no consequence as the probability of a fault occurring The voltage is low when generator output is low. In order to
in the 5% of the winding nearest the neutral connection is avoid maloperation when operating at low power output, the
very low, due to the reduced phase to earth voltage. However, third harmonic neutral undervoltage element can be inhibited
a fault can occur anywhere along the stator windings in the by a power element (kW, kVar or kVA). It can also be inhibited
event of insulation failure due to localised heating from a core when all the phase-phase voltages at the generator terminal
fault. In cases where protection for the entire winding is are below the threshold.
required, perhaps for alarm only, there are various methods
For effective application of this form of protection, there should
available.
be at least 1% Vn third harmonic voltage across the generator
8.1 Protection based on third harmonic voltage neutral earthing impedance under all normal operating
conditions. The third harmonic undervoltage threshold must
Most generators will produce third harmonic voltages to some
be set below the level of third harmonic voltage present under
degree due to non-linearity in the magnetic circuits of the
normal conditions. A typical value for this threshold could be
generator design. Under normal operating conditions the
0.5% Vn. The third harmonic overvoltage threshold must be
distribution of the third harmonic voltage along the stator
set above the level of third harmonic voltage present under
windings corresponds to Figure C8.24(a). The maxima occur
normal conditions. A typical value for this threshold could be
at the star point N and the terminal T. The values increase
1% Vn. A time delay for these elements can be set to ensure
with generator load, as shown in Figure C8.24(a). U’TE is the
the stability.
third harmonic voltage when the generator is off load and
U’’TE is the third harmonic voltage when the generator is fully As the fault location moves progressively away from the neutral
loaded. When a fault occurs in the part of the stator winding end, the drop in third harmonic voltage becomes less, so that
nearest the neutral end, the third harmonic voltage at the star at around 20-30% of the winding distance, it no longer
point N drops to near zero but the third harmonic voltage at becomes possible to discriminate between a healthy and a
the terminal T increases significantly, as shown in Figure faulty winding. Hence, a conventional earthfault scheme should
C8.24(b). Hence a relay element that responds to third be used in conjunction with a third harmonic scheme, to
harmonic voltage can be used to detect the fault near the provide overlapping cover of the entire stator winding. The
neutral end. If the third harmonic voltage is measured at the 3rd harmonic technique has to be blocked or is not operational
generator star point, an undervoltage characteristic is used. when the machine is stopped and when the machine is running
An overvoltage characteristic is used if the measurement is up and down. Also, some machines only produce a low level
taken from the generator line VT. The measurement of third of 3rd harmonic voltage (<1% Vn) and for these machines
harmonic voltage can be taken either from a star-point VT or the 3rd harmonic method of 100% stator earthfault protection
the generator line VT. In the latter case, the VT must be capable cannot be used.
of carrying residual flux, and this prevents the use of 3-limb
One alternative is to compare the third harmonic voltage at
types.
the neutral end UNE with the third harmonic voltage at the
terminal UTE. The operation setting is the ratio between these
two third harmonic voltages (UNE/UTE). When there is earthfault
U”TE near the neutral end, the third harmonic voltage at the neutral
G U’TE end decreases while the third harmonic voltage at the terminal
N 0 increases. So the ratio will be less than the setting. For this
N T T
solution there is no need to inhibit the operation when the
50% 100%
power output is low. The setting shall be greater than the
U’NE m
maximum ratio UNE/UTE under normal conditions.
U”NE
8.2 Protection based on low frequency injection
a) normal operation
G U” TE Another method for protecting the entire stator winding of a
U’TE generator is to deploy signal injection equipment to inject a
N T low frequency voltage into the star point or the terminals of
N0 T
the machine as shown in Figure C8.25. Typical injection
50% 100%
frequencies are 12.5 Hz or 20 Hz with 20 Hz being the most
m
b) stator earth fault at the star point popular. Under normal healthy conditions only a very small
m = relative number of turns
current flows via the stator earth capacitance due to the high
impedance of this path at low frequencies (Xc=1/2πfc, where
f is the low frequency injected signal and c is earth
Figure C8.24 Distribution of the 3rd harmonic component capacitance). In the event of an earthfault the measured
along the stator winding of a large generator

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8. Earthfault protection for entire stator winding C8

current increases due to the smaller impedance of the The voltage to be injected into the generator neutral depends
earthfault path. From the injected voltage and the fault current on the driving low frequency voltage (voltage divider, load
the relay can determine the fault resistance. The protection resistor and bandpass filter) and on the transformation ratio
can also detect earthfaults at the generator terminals including of the neutral or earthing transformer. To prevent the secondary
connected components such as voltage transformers. This load resistance from becoming too small and ensure better
form of protection can provide earthfault protection when the measurement accuracy, a high secondary voltage, such as
generator is at standstill, prior to run-up. It is also an appropriate 500 V, should be chosen for the neutral or earthing transformer.
method to apply to variable speed synchronous machines. The low frequency voltage is fed to the relay via a voltage
Such machines may be employed for variable speed motoring divider which is applied when the secondary rated voltage
in pumped-storage generation schemes or for starting a large of the distribution transformer is higher than relay maximum
gas turbine prime mover. voltage input. The low frequency measuring current is fed via
a miniature current transformer. All interference deviating from
the nominal low frequency signal is filtered out. The fault
resistance can be derived by the low frequency voltage and
current fed to the relay.
Normally two stages of under-resistance element with definite
time delay are applied. The higher setting stage is to issue
Residually
connected the alarm signal. Typically the value for the primary fault
3-phase 20 Hz frequency generator resistance alarm setting is 3-8 k Ohms with typically 1-5 s
transformer
delay. The lower setting stage is to issue the trip signal.
Typically the value for the primary fault resistance trip setting
is 1-2 k Ohms with typically 0.3-1 s delay.
Band pass
filter

Distribution
transformer
Miniature RL V 64 S
CT

I 64 S

Figure C8.25: Circuit diagram of the 100% stator earthfault

protection with earthing (broken delta) transformer or neutral
transformer

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 Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

C8 9. Overvoltage protection

Overvoltages on a generator may occur due to transient generator supplies little or no load. The terminal voltage will
surges on the network, or prolonged power frequency increase substantially, and in severe cases it would be limited
overvoltages may arise from a variety of conditions. Surge only by the saturation characteristic of the generator. A rise
arrestors may be required to protect against transient in speed simply compounds the problem. If load that is
overvoltages, but relay protection may be used to protect sensitive to overvoltages remains connected, the consequences
against power frequency overvoltages. in terms of equipment damage and lost revenue can be
severe. Prolonged overvoltages may also occur on isolated
A sustained overvoltage condition should not occur for a
networks, or ones with weak interconnections, due to the fault
machine with a healthy voltage regulator, but it may be caused
conditions listed earlier.
by the following contingencies:
For these reasons, it is prudent to provide power frequency
a. defective operation of the automatic voltage regulator
overvoltage protection, in the form of a time-delayed element,
when the machine is in isolated operation
either IDMT or definite time. The overvoltage threshold should
b. operation under manual control with the voltage regulator typically be set to 100% - 120% of the nominal phase-phase
out of service. A sudden variation of the load, in particular voltage seen by the relay. The time delay should be long
the reactive power component, will give rise to a substantial enough to prevent operation during normal regulator action,
change in voltage because of the large voltage regulation and therefore should take account of the type of AVR fitted
inherent in a typical alternator and its transient response. The typical delay to be applied
would be 1 s - 3 s, with a longer delay being applied for lower
c. sudden loss of load (due to tripping of outgoing feeders,
voltage threshold settings.
leaving the set isolated or feeding a very small load) may
cause a sudden rise in terminal voltage due to the trapped Sometimes a high-set element is provided as well, with a very
field flux and/ or overspeed short definite-time delay or instantaneous setting to provide
a rapid trip in extreme circumstances. The typical threshold
Sudden loss of load should only cause a transient overvoltage
setting to be applied would be 130 - 150% of the nominal
while the voltage regulator and governor act to correct the
phase-phase voltage, depending on generator manufacturers’
situation. A maladjusted voltage regulator may trip to manual,
advice.
maintaining excitation at the value prior to load loss while the

10. Undervoltage protection

Undervoltage protection is rarely fitted to generators. It is overloading or failure of the AVR. In some cases, the
sometimes used as an interlock element for another protection performance of generator auxiliary plant fed via a unit
function or scheme, such as field failure protection or transformer from the generator terminals could be adversely
inadvertent energisation protection, where the abnormality affected by prolonged undervoltage.
to be detected leads directly or indirectly to an undervoltage
Where undervoltage protection is required, it should comprise
condition.
an undervoltage element and an associated time delay. Settings
A transmission system undervoltage condition may arise when must be chosen to avoid maloperation during the inevitable
there is insufficient reactive power generation to maintain the voltage dips during power system fault clearance or associated
system voltage profile and the condition must be addressed with motor starting. Transient reductions in voltage down to
to avoid the possible phenomenon of system voltage collapse. 80% or less may be encountered during motor starting. The
time delay should be set to coordinate with downstream
However, it should be addressed by the deployment of ’system
protection and the System Back-up protection of the relay. The
protection’ schemes. The generation should not be tripped.
time delay would typically be in excess of 3 s - 5 s.
The greatest case for undervoltage protection being required
would be for a generator supplying an isolated power system,
where undervoltage may occur for several reasons, typically

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11. Low forward power / reverse power protection C8

Low forward power or reverse power protection may be The power threshold setting of the reverse power protection
required for some generators to protect the prime mover. Parts shall be set according to Table C8.1 and depends on the
of the prime mover may not be designed to experience reverse application. A definite time delay on operation is necessary
torque or they may become damaged through continued to prevent spurious operation with transient power swings
rotation after the prime mover has suffered some form of that may arise following synchronization or in the event of a
failure. power transmission system disturbance.
11.1 Low forward power protection Reverse power protection may also be used to interlock the
opening of the generator set circuit breaker for ‘non-urgent’
Low forward power protection is often used as an interlocking
tripping, as discussed in the above section.
function to enable opening of the main circuit breaker for
non-urgent trips – e.g. for a stator earthfault on a high- As shown in Table C8.1, the motoring power of the generator
impedance earthed generator, or when a normal shutdown set would be as small as 0.2% rated power. For applications
of a set is taking place. This is to minimise the risk of plant where a protection sensitivity of better than 3% is required,
overspeeding when the electrical load is removed from a a metering class CT should be employed to avoid incorrect
high-speed cylindrical rotor generator. The rotor of this type protection behaviour due to CT phase angle errors when the
of generator is highly stressed mechanically and cannot generator supplies a significant level of reactive power at
tolerate much overspeed. While the governor should control close to zero power factor. Besides, the angle compensation
overspeed conditions, it is not good practice to open the main setting can compensate for the angle error introduced by the
circuit breaker simultaneously with tripping of the prime mover system CT and VT.
for non-urgent trips. For a steam turbine, for example, there
is a risk of overspeeding due to energy storage in the trapped
steam, after steam valve tripping, or in the event that the steam Motoring power
Prime mover Possible damage
valve(s) do not fully close for some reason. For urgent trip (% of rated)
conditions, such as stator differential protection operation, Fire/explosion due to
the risk involved in simultaneous prime mover and 0.5 - 6 unburnt fuel
Diesel engine 5% - 25%
generator breaker tripping must be accepted. Mechanical damage
to gearbox/shafts
When required for interlocking of non-urgent tripping applications,
Motoring level depends on compression ratio and cylinder bore
the threshold setting of the low forward power protection function
stiffness. Rapid disconnection is required to limit power loss and
should be less than 50% of the power level that could result in risk of damage.
a dangerous overspeed transient on loss of electrical loading. 10-15
Some delay is desirable to avoid maloperation in the event of (split shaft)
power fluctuations arising from sudden steam valve/throttle Gas turbine gearbox damage
> 50%
closure. A typical time delay is 2 s. (single shaft)

Another typical application of low forward power protection Compressor load on single shaft machines leads to a high
motoring power compared to split-shaft machines. Rapid
would be for pump storage generators operating in the
disconnection is required to limit power loss or damage.
motoring mode, where there is a need to prevent the machine
0.2%-2% (blades
becoming unprimed (loss of load protection) which can cause out of water) blade and runner
blade and runner cavitations. It is typically set to 80 - 90% of Hydro
> 2% cavitation
the minimum load. For loss of load applications the pickup (blades in water)
time delay is necessary to avoid the maloperation during
Power is low when blades are above tail-race water level. Hydraulic
machine starting or interlock logic is applied to inhibit low flow detection devices are often the main means of detecting loss
forward power protection for a required time. of drive. Automatic disconnection is recommended for unattended
operation.
To prevent unwanted relay alarms and flags, a low forward
0.5% - 3% Thermal stress
power protection element can be disabled when the circuit (Condensing sets) damage on
breaker is open. Steam turbine
3% - 6% (Non- low-pressure turbine
condensing sets) blades
11.2 Reverse power protection (motoring protection)
Damage may occur rapidly with non-condensing sets or when
Reverse power protection is applied to prevent damage to vacuum is lost with condensing sets. Reverse power protection
mechanical plant items in the event of failure of the prime may be used as a secondary method of detection and might only
mover. Table C8.1 gives details of the potential problems for be used to raise an alarm.
various prime mover types and the typical settings for reverse
power protection. Table C8.1:
Generator reverse power problems

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 Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

C8 12. Unbalanced loading

A three-phase balanced load produces a reaction field that, Maximum I2/In for Maximum (I2/In )2t
to a first approximation, is constant and rotates synchronously Generator type continuous for operation
with the rotor field system. Any unbalanced condition can be operation under faults, Kg
resolved into positive, negative and zero sequence Salient-pole:
components. The positive sequence component is similar to Indirectly cooled 0.08 20
the normal balanced load. The zero sequence component Directly cooled (inner
produces no main armature reaction. cooled stator and/or 0.05 15
field
12.1 Effect of negative sequence current
Cylindrical rotor synchronous:
The negative sequence component is similar to the positive Indirectly cooled rotor
sequence system, except that the resulting reaction field
Air cooled rotor 0.1 15
rotates in the opposite direction to the d.c. field system. Hence,
Directly cooled (inner cooled) rotor
a flux is produced which cuts the rotor at twice the rotational
velocity, thereby inducing double frequency currents in the 350 MVA 0.08 8
350>
900 MVA * **
field system and in the rotor body. The resulting eddy-currents 900>
1250 MVA * 5
are very large and cause severe heating of the rotor. 1250
1600 MVA 0.05 5
So severe is this effect that a single-phase load equal to the ** For these generators, the value of I2/In is calculated as follows:
normal three-phase rated current can quickly heat the rotor
I2 Sn - 350
slot wedges to the softening point. They may then be extruded = 0.8 -
under centrifugal force until they stand above the rotor surface, In 3 x 10
4

when it is possible that they may strike the stator core.

Synchronous machines will be able to withstand a certain ** For these generators, the value of (I2/In )2t is calculated as follows:
level of negative phase sequence stator current continuously.
All synchronous machines will be assigned a continuous 2
I2
maximum negative phase sequence current (I2MCR per-unit) t = 8 - 0.00545 (Sn - 350)
In
rating by the manufacturer. For various categories of generator,
minimum negative phase sequence current withstand levels
have been specified by international standards, such as IEC where Sn is the rated power in MVA
60034-1, as shown in Table C8.2.
Table C8.2:
Short time heating is of interest during system fault conditions
IEC 60034-1 Minimum negative sequence current withstand
and it is usual in determining the generator negative sequence levels
withstand capability to assume that the heat dissipation during
such periods is negligible. Using this approximation it is
possible to express the heating by the law: Where:
2
I2 2t= K τ = K g / I 2MCR , the thermal time constant
Where: Kg is the generator’s per-unit thermal capacity constant in
I2 = negative sequence component (per unit of MCR) seconds.

t = time (seconds) I2MCR is the generator’s per-unit maximum continuous I2 rating.

K = constant proportional to the thermal capacity of the The limiting maximum continuous temperature (ӨMCR) would
2
generator rotor be in the form Ө MCR = I 2MCR , as follow:

t
For heating over a period of more than a few seconds, it is 2
Ө MCR = I 2MCR (1-e ,t=∞
τ)
necessary to allow for the heat dissipation, otherwise the
generator maybe cut off incorrectly while the rotor temperature
12.2 Negative phase sequence protection
still remains within the machine's design thermal limits. As
shown in Figure C8.26, the true thermal model is above the This protection is applied to prevent overheating due to
I22t model when the negative sequence current is lower. negative sequence currents. Small salient-pole generators
have a proportionately larger negative sequence capacity
To consider the heat dissipation, the temperature depends
and may not require protection. A true thermal replica
on both the negative sequence component and the thermal
approach which considers the heat dissipation is often applied
time constant, as follows:
in numerical relays.
Ө∧ 2 t
= I 2 (1-e τ)

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12. Unbalanced loading C8

Where:
10000 I2MCR = Generator per unit maximum continuous I2 rating
Kg = Generator thermal capacity constant(s)

1000
Iflc = Generator primary full-load current (A)
Ip = CT primary current rating (A)
The negative sequence protection element will respond to
100 system phase to earth and phase to phase faults. Therefore,
Indirectly cooled (air)
Indirectly cooled (H2)
the element must be set to grade with downstream earth and
350MW direct cooled phase fault protections. To aid grading with downstream
Time (sec)

10 660MW direct cooled devices a definite minimum operating time for the operating
1000MW direct cooled characteristic can be set, as the I2> tMIN setting shown in
Figure C8.27. This definite minimum time setting should be
1 Using I 22 t model set to provide an adequate margin between the operation of
Using true thermal the negative phase sequence thermal protection function and
model
external protection.

0.1 For levels of negative phase sequence current that are only
slightly in excess of the thermal element pick-up setting, there
will be a noticeable deviation between negative phase
sequence thermal protection current-time characteristic and
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 that of the simple I 22 t characteristic. For this reason, a
maximum negative phase sequence protection trip time setting
Negative sequence current (p.u.)
is provided, as the I2> tMAX setting shown in Figure C8.27.
This maximum time setting also limits the tripping time of the
negative phase sequence protection for levels of unbalance
Figure C8.26: where there maybe uncertainty about the machine’s thermal
Typical negative phase sequence current withstand of
withstand.
cylindrical rotor generators

From the above section 12.1, the time for which a level of
t
negative phase sequence current in excess of I2MCR can be
maintained is expressed as follows: I 2>
2 2 t MAX
K  I 2MCR 
t =- ×1n [1-   ]
2
I 2MCR  I2  ...Equation C8.1

The typical negative phase sequence thermal protection

element characteristic takes the form of
2 2
K  I 2set 
t =- ×1n [1-   ]
2
I 2set  I2 
Where K is the thermal capacity setting, I2set is thermal current I 2>
setting per unit. t MIN
To obtain correct thermal protection K and I2set > should be I 2> Current set I2
set as follows:

Set K as I flc 2
( ) ×K g
Ip Figure C8.27:
Negative phase sequence thermal characteristic
I
Set I2set > as I 2MCR ×( flc )
Ip

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C8 13. Protection against inadvertent energisation

Accidental energisation of a generator when it is not running undervoltage element when the generator is operating
may cause severe damage to it. With the generator at standstill, normally. The voltage setting should be low enough to ensure
closing the circuit breaker results in the generator acting as that operation cannot occur for transient faults. A setting of
an induction motor; the field winding (if closed) and the rotor about 50% of rated voltage is typical. VT failure can cause
solid iron/damper circuits acting as rotor circuits. Very high maloperation of the protection, so the element should be
currents are induced in these rotor components, and also inhibited under these conditions.
occur in the stator, with resultant rapid overheating and
The pick-up time delay is necessary. It is to prevent initialisation
damage. Protection against this condition is therefore
of the element during system faults. The typical pick-up time
desirable.
delay is 5 s or it is at least in excess of the protection clearance
A combination of stator undervoltage and overcurrent can time for a close up phase to phase fault. In addition the drop-
be used to detect this condition. An instantaneous overcurrent off time delay is also necessary to ensures that the element
element is used, and gated with a three-phase undervoltage remains initialised following accidental closure of the circuit
element (fed from a VT on the generator side of the circuit breaker when the undervoltage detector could reset. A drop-
breaker) to provide the protection. The overcurrent element off delay of 0.5 s - 1 s will ensure that the element can operate
can have a low setting, as operation is blocked by three-phase when required.

14. Under/overfrequency/overfluxing protection

These conditions are grouped together because these In general, a generator or step-up transformer overfluxing
problems often occur due to a departure from synchronous condition will occur if the V/Hz ratio exceeds 1.05 p.u, such
speed. as a 5% overvoltage condition at rated frequency.
14.1 Overfluxing Besides, it is very important that the VT reference for overfluxing
protection is not the same as that used for the AVR. The
Overfluxing occurs when the ratio of voltage to frequency is
overfluxing protection based on V/Hz ratio shall reference the
too high. Either excessive voltage, or low frequency, or a
phase to phase voltage to avoid the maloperation under the
combination of both can produce high flux densities in the
earthfault condition which could cause the increase of phase
magnetic core of the generator or transformer. This could
voltage.
cause the core of the generator or transformer to saturate
and stray flux to be induced in un-laminated components that
have not been designed to carry flux. Overheating can then
occur, resulting in damage. 1.50
1.45
Both the generator and transformer shall have the capability
to tolerate the transient overfluxing, which may be caused by 1.40
the sudden loss of load. The typical overfluxing withstand 1.35
characteristics of the generator is shown in Figure C8.28. 1.30
n

Sustained overfluxing can arise during the generator running 1.25

up if excitation is applied too early with the AVR in service or
1.20
if the generator is run down with the excitation still applied.
1.15
Other overfluxing instances can occur from the failure of AVR HEC ALSTOM
or the errors in the manual control of the machine field circuit. 1.10
The sustained overfluxing conditions must be detected by a 1.05
DFEM
dedicated protection function that will raise an alarm and 1.00
possibly force an immediate reduction in excitation. 0 50 100 150
t/min
It is usual to provide a definite time-delayed alarm setting and
an instantaneous or inverse time-delayed trip setting, to match
the withstand characteristics of the protected generator and Figure C8.28:
transformer. Reference should be made to manufacturers Generator overfluxing withstand characteristics (three
withstand characteristics before formulating these settings. manufacturers), where n means per unit of V/Hz ratio with
rated values

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14. Under/overfrequency/overfluxing protection C8

14.2 Under/overfrequency compared to load. Such events could be compensated for

by automatic load shedding. In this case, underfrequency
The most common occurrence of overfrequency is after
operation would be a transient condition. In the event of the
substantial loss of load. Severe overfrequency operation of
load shedding being unsuccessful, the generators should be
a high-speed generating set could result in plant damage as
provided with back-up underfrequency protection. For the
a result of the high centrifugal forces that would be imposed
high-speed turbine generators, not running at nominal
on rotating components. The governor fitted to the prime
frequency can cause abnormal blade resonances. If
mover normally provides protection against overfrequency.
prolonged, it could lead to turbine disc component fractures.
When a rise in running speed occurs, the governor should
Such effects can be accumulative and so operation at
quickly respond to reduce the mechanical input power, so
frequencies away from nominal should be limited as much as
that normal running speed is quickly regained. Overfrequency
possible, to avoid the need for early plant overhaul. So the
protection may be required as a back-up protection function
prime movers may have to be protected against excessively
to cater for governor or throttle control failure following loss
low frequency by tripping of the generators concerned. The
of load or during unsynchronized running.
protection function should be set so that declared frequency-
Overfrequency settings should be selected to coordinate with time limits for the generating set are not infringed. Typically,
normal, transient overfrequency excursions following full-load a 10% underfrequency condition should be continuously
rejection. The generator manufacturer should declare the sustainable.
expected transient overfrequency behaviour that should
Where separate load shedding equipment is provided, the
comply with international governor response standards. A
underfrequency protection should coordinate with it. This will
typical overfrequency setting would be 10% above nominal.
ensure that generator tripping will not occur in the event of
Underfrequency may occur as a result of overload of successful load shedding following a system overload.
generators operating on an isolated system, or a serious fault Underfrequency protection could be set-up to coordinate with
on the power system that results in a deficit of generation multi-stage system load shedding.

15. Rotor faults

The field circuit of a generator, comprising the field winding It will be seen from Figure C8.29 that the flux is concentrated
of the generator and the armature of the exciter, together with on one pole but widely dispersed over the other and intervening
any associated field circuit breaker if it exists, is an isolated surfaces. The attracting force is in consequence large on one
d.c. circuit which is not normally earthed. If an earthfault pole but very weak on the opposite one, while flux on the
occurs, there will be no steady-state fault current and the quadrature axis will produce a balancing force on this axis.
need for action will not be evident. The result is an unbalanced force that in a large machine may
be of the order of 50-100 tonnes.
Danger arises if a second earthfault occurs at a separate
point in the field system, to cause the high field current to be A violent vibration is set up that may damage bearing surfaces
diverted, in part at least, from the intervening turns. Serious or even displace the rotor by an amount sufficient to cause it
damage to the conductors and possibly the rotor can occur to foul the stator.
very rapidly under these conditions.
15.1 Rotor earthfault protection
More damage may be caused mechanically. If a large portion
Two methods are available to detect this type of fault. The
of the winding is short-circuited, the flux may adopt a pattern
first method is suitable for generators that incorporate brushes
such as that shown in Figure C8.29. The attracting force at
in the main generator field winding. The second method
the surface of the rotor is given by:
requires at least a slip-ring connection to the field circuit:
B2A a. potentiometer method
F=
8π
b. a.c. injection method
where:
A = area
B = flux density

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C8 15. Rotor faults

Figure C8.31(a). It comprises an injection source that is

Field winding Short circuit
connected between earth and one side of the field circuit,
through capacitive coupling and the measurement circuit.
The field circuit is subjected to an alternating potential at
substantially the same level throughout. An earthfault anywhere
in the field system will give rise to a current that is detected
as an equivalent voltage across the adjustable resistor by the
relay. The capacitive coupling blocks the normal d.c. field
voltage, preventing the discharge of a large direct current
through the protection scheme. The combination of series
capacitor and reactor forms a low-pass tuned circuit, the
intention being to filter higher frequency rotor currents that
may occur for a variety of reasons.
Other schemes are based on power frequency signal injection.
An impedance relay element is used, a field winding earthfault
reducing the impedance seen by the relay. These suffer the
draw back of being susceptible to static excitation system
harmonic currents when there is significant field winding and
excitation system shunt capacitance.
Greater immunity for such systems is offered by capacitively
coupling the protection scheme to both ends of the field winding,
where brush or slip ring access is possible (Figure C8.31(b)).
Figure C8.29:
Flux distribution on rotor with partial winding short circuit

15.1.1 Potentiometer method

This is a scheme that was fitted to older generators, and it is Generator
field Exciter
illustrated in Figure C8.30. An earthfault on the field winding winding
would produce a voltage across the relay, the maximum
voltage occurring for faults at the ends of the winding.
A ‘blind spot’ would exist at the centre of the field winding. L.F. injection
supply
To avoid a fault at this location remaining undetected, the ~ >
~
tapping point on the potentiometer could be varied by a
pushbutton or switch. The relay setting is typically about 5%
of the exciter voltage.
(a) Low frequency a.c. voltage injection - current measurement

Generator
field Exciter
winding
Field
winding > Exciter

Injection
supply
<

Figure C8.30:
Earthfault protection of field circuit by potentiometer method
(b) Power frequency a.c. voltage injection -
impedance measurement

15.1.2 Injection methods

Two methods are in common use. The first is based on low Figure C8.31:
frequency signal injection, with series filtering, as shown in Earthfault protection of field circuit by a.c. injection

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15. Rotor faults C8

The low–frequency injection scheme is also advantageous in 15.3 Rotor shorted turn protection
that the current flow through the field winding shunt capacitance
As detailed in Section 15 a shorted section of field winding
will be lower than for a power frequency scheme. Such current
will result in an unsymmetrical rotor flux pattern and in
would flow through the machine bearings to cause erosion
potentially damaging rotor vibration. Detection of such an
of the bearing surface. For power frequency schemes, a
electrical fault is possible using a probe consisting of a coil
solution is to insulate the bearings and provide an earthing
placed in the airgap. The flux pattern of the positive and
brush for the shaft.
negative poles is measured and any significant difference in
15.2 Rotor earthfault protection for brushless flux pattern between the poles is indicative of a shorted turn
generators or turns. Automated waveform comparison techniques can
be used to provide a protection scheme, or the waveform can
A brushless generator has an excitation system consisting
be inspected visually at regular intervals. An immediate
of:
shutdown is not normally required unless the effects of the
a. a main exciter with rotating armature and stationary field fault are severe. The fault can be kept under observation until
windings a suitable shutdown for repair can be arranged. Repair will
take some time, since it means unthreading the rotor and
b. a rotating rectifier assembly, carried on the main shaft line
dismantling the winding.
out
Since short-circuited turns on the rotor may cause damaging
c. a controlled rectifier producing the d.c. field voltage for
vibration and the detection of field faults for all degrees of
the main exciter field from an a.c. source (often a small
abnormality is difficult, the provision of a vibration detection
‘pilot’ exciter)
scheme is desirable – this forms part of the mechanical
Hence, no brushes are required in the generator field circuit. protection of the generator.
All control is carried out in the field circuit of the main exciter.
Detection of a rotor circuit earthfault is still necessary, but
this must be based on a dedicated rotor-mounted system that
has a telemetry link to provide an alarm/data.

16. Loss of excitation protection

Loss of excitation may occur for a variety of reasons. If the 16.1 Protection against loss of excitation
generator was initially operating at only 20%-30% of rated
The protection used varies according to the size of generator
power, it may settle to run super-synchronously as an induction
being protected.
generator, at a low level of slip. In doing so, it will draw reactive
current from the power system for rotor excitation. This form 16.1.1 Small generators
of response is particularly true of salient pole generators. In
On the smaller machines, protection against asynchronous
these circumstances, the generator may be able to run for
running has tended to be optional, but it may now be available
several minutes without requiring to be tripped. There may
by default, where the functionality is available within a modern
be sufficient time for remedial action to restore the excitation,
numerical generator protection package. If fitted, it is arranged
but the reactive power demand of the machine during the
either to provide an alarm or to trip the generator. If the
failure may severely depress the power system voltage to an
generator field current can be measured, a relay element can
unacceptable level. For operation at high initial power output,
be arranged to operate when this drops below a preset value.
the rotor speed may rise to approximately 105% of rated
However, depending on the generator design and size relative
speed, where there would be low power output and where a
to the system, it may well be that the machine would be
high reactive current of up to 2.0p.u. may be drawn from the
required to operate synchronously with little or no excitation
supply. Rapid automatic disconnection is then required to
under certain system conditions.
protect the stator windings from excessive current and to
protect the rotor from damage caused by induced slip The field undercurrent relay must have a setting below the
frequency currents. minimum exciting current, which may be 8% of that
corresponding to the MCR of the machine. Time delay relays

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C8 16. Loss of excitation protection

are used to stabilise the protection against maloperation in where:

response to transient conditions and to ensure that field current
generated
fluctuations due to pole slipping do not cause the protection n = EG = voltage
to reset. ES system
If the generator field current is not measurable, then the Ө = angle by which EG leads ES
technique detailed in the following section is utilised.
If the generator and system voltages are equal, the above
16.1.2 Large generators (>5 MVA) expression becomes:

For generators above about 5 MVA rating, protection against

ZR =
( X G + X T +Z S )(1− j cotθ 2) − X
loss of excitation and pole slipping conditions is normally G
applied.
2
The general case can be represented by a system of circles
Consider a generator connected to network, as shown in
with centres on the line CD; see Figure C8.33. Also shown is
Figure C8.32. On loss of excitation, the terminal voltage will
a typical machine terminal impedance locus during loss of
begin to decrease and the stator current will increase, resulting
excitation conditions.
in a decrease of impedance viewed from the generator
terminals and also a change in power factor.

XG XT ZS
EG ES 1.8

2.0
A
Load point
2.5
+jX
D
5.0 Loss of field
ZS XG+XT+ZS locus
D

EG
=1 XT
ES
q
ZR C
-R +R
A

XG
0.5

0.6

C 0.7

-jX

Figure C8.33:
Swing curves and loss of synchronism locus
Figure C8.32:
Basic interconnected system

The special cases of EG = ES and EG = O result in a straight-

line locus that is the right-angled bisector of CD, and in a
A relay to detect loss of synchronism can be located at point
circular locus that is shrunk to point C, respectively.
A. It can be shown that the impedance presented to the relay
under loss of synchronism conditions (phase swinging or When excitation is removed from a generator operating
pole slipping) is given by: synchronously the flux dies away slowly, during which period
the ratio of EG / ES is decreasing, and the rotor angle of the

ZR =
( X G + X T + Z S ) n (n - cosѲ - jsinѲ ) -X G
machine is increasing. The operating condition plotted on an
impedance diagram therefore travels along a locus that
(n-cosѲ ) 2 + sin 2Ѳ crosses the power swing circles. At the same time, it progresses
...Equation C8.2

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16. Loss of excitation protection C8

in the direction of increasing rotor angle. After passing the corresponds to the maximum practicable rotor angle, taken
anti-phase position, the locus bends round as the internal to be at 120°. The locus of operation can be represented as
e.m.f. collapses, condensing on an impedance value equal a circle on the impedance plane, as shown in Figure C8.34,
to the machine reactance. The locus is illustrated in Figure stable operation conditions lying outside the circle.
C8.33.
On the same diagram the full load impedance locus for one
The relay location is displaced from point C by the generator per unit power can be drawn. Part of this circle represents a
reactance XG. One problem in determining the position of condition that is not feasible, but the point of intersection with
these loci relative to the relay location is that the value of the maximum rotor angle curve can be taken as a limiting
machine impedance varies with the rate of slip. At zero slip operating condition for setting impedance-based loss of
XG is equal to XD, the synchronous reactance, and at 100% excitation protection.
slip XG is equal to X"d, the sub-transient reactance. The
16.2 Impedance-based protection characteristics
impedance in a typical case has been shown to be equal to
X'd, the transient reactance, at 50% slip, and to 2X"d with a Figure C8.33 alludes to the possibility that a protection scheme
slip of 0.33%. The slip likely to be experienced with for loss of excitation could be based on impedance
asynchronous running is low, perhaps 1%, so that for the measurement. The impedance characteristic must be
purpose of assessing the power swing locus it is sufficient appropriately set or shaped to ensure decisive operation for
to take the value XG = 2X"d. loss of excitation whilst permitting stable generator operation
within allowable limits. One or two offset mho under impedance
This consideration has assumed a single value for XG. However,
elements (see Chapter [C3: Distance Protection] for the
the reactance Xq on the quadrature axis differs from the
principles of operation) are ideally suited for providing loss
direct-axis value, the ratio of Xd / Xg being known as the
of excitation protection as long as a generator operating at
saliency factor. This factor varies with the slip speed. The
low power output (20-30% Pn) does not settle down to operate
effect of this factor during asynchronous operation is to cause
as an induction generator. The characteristics of a typical
XG to vary at slip speed. In consequence, the loss of excitation
two-stage loss of excitation protection scheme are illustrated
impedance locus does not settle at a single point, but it
in Figure C8.35. The first stage, consisting of settings Xa1
continues to describe a small orbit about a mean point.
and Xb1 can be applied to provide detection of loss of
A protection scheme for loss of excitation must operate excitation even where a generator initially operating at low
decisively for this condition, but its characteristic must not power output (20-30% Pn) might settle down to operate as
inhibit stable operation of the generator. One limit of operation an induction generator.

Locus of constant MVA X

Normal machine operating impedance

XT Alarm
angle
0.75

Limiting
generation
point

Relay
characteristic Figure C8.35:
Locus of constant load angle
Diameter = Loss of excitation protection characteristics
Trip within circle

Pick-up and drop-off time delays td1 and tdo1 are associated
Figure C8.34: with this impedance element. Timer td1 is used to prevent
Locus of limiting operating conditions of synchronous machine operation during stable power swings that may cause the

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C8 16. Loss of excitation protection

impedance locus of the generator to transiently enter the If a fast excitation system is employed, allowing load angles
locus of operation set by Xb1. However, the value must short of up to 120° to be used, the impedance diameter must be
enough to prevent damage as a result of loss of excitation reduced to take account of the reduced generator impedance
occurring. If pole-slipping protection is not required (see seen under such conditions. The offset also needs revising.
Section 17.2), timer tdo1 can be set to give instantaneous In these circumstances, typical settings would be:
reset. The second field failure element, comprising settings
a. impedance element diameter Xb1 = 0.5Xd
Xa2, Xb2, and associated timers td2 and tdo2 can be used to
give instantaneous tripping following loss of excitation under b. impedance element offset Xa1 = -0.75X'd
full load conditions.
c. time delay on pick-up, td1 = 0.5s - 10s
16.3 Protection settings
d. time delay on drop-off, tdo1 = 0s
The typical setting values for the two elements vary according
The typical impedance settings for the second element, if
to the excitation system and operating regime of the generator
used, are:
concerned, since these affect the generator impedance seen
by the relay under normal and abnormal conditions. For a • impedance element diameter
generator that is never operated at leading power factor, or
kV 2
at load angles in excess of 90° the typical settings are: X b2 =
MVA
a. impedance element diameter Xb1 = Xd
X a2 = − 0.5X'd
b. impedance element offset Xa1 = -0.5X'd
The time delay settings td2 and tdo2 are set to zero to give
c. time delay on pick-up, td1 = 0.5s - 10s instantaneous operation and reset.
d. time delay on drop-off, tdo1 = 0s

17. Pole slipping protection

A generator may pole-slip, or fall out of synchronism with the used for other purposes. However, since the reverse power
power system for a number of reasons. The principal causes conditions are cyclical, the element will reset during the forward
are prolonged clearance of a heavy fault on the power system, power part of the cycle unless either a very short pick-up
when the generator is operating at a high load angle close to time delay and/or a suitable drop-off time delay is used to
the stability limit, or partial or complete loss of excitation. eliminate resetting.
Weak transmission links between the generator and the bulk
The main advantage of this method is that a reverse power
of the power system aggravate the situation. It can also occur
element is often already present, so no additional relay
with embedded generators running in parallel with a strong
elements are required. The main disadvantages are the time
Utility network if the time for a fault clearance on the Utility
taken for tripping and the inability to control the system angle
network slow, perhaps because only IDMT relays are provided.
at which the generator breaker trip command would be issued,
Pole slipping is characterised by large and rapid oscillations
if it is a requirement to limit the breaker current interruption
in active and reactive power. Rapid disconnection of the
duty. There is also the difficulty of determining suitable settings.
generator from the network is required to ensure that damage
Determination of settings in the field, from a deliberate pole-
to the generator is avoided and that loads supplied by the
slipping test, is not possible and analytical studies may not
network are not affected for very long.
discover all conditions under which pole-slipping will occur.
Protection can be provided using several methods. The choice
17.2 Protection using an under impedance element
of method will depend on the probability of pole slipping
occurring and on the consequences should it occur. With reference to Figure C8.33, a loss of excitation under
impedance characteristic may also be capable of detecting
17.1 Protection using reverse power element
loss of synchronism, in applications where the electrical centre
During pole-slipping, there will be periods where the direction of the power system and the generator lies ‘behind’ the relaying
of active power flow will be in the reverse direction, so a point. This would typically be the case for a relatively small
reverse power relay element can be used to detect this, if not generator that is connected to a power transmission system

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Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

17. Pole slipping protection C8

XG >> (XT + XS). With reference to Figure C8.35; if pole- traversed so that tripping will not be initiated. The security of
slipping protection response is required, the time delay on this type of protection scheme is normally enhanced by the
drop-off tdo1 of the large diameter impedance measuring addition of a plain underimpedance control element (circle
element should be set to prevent its reset in each slip cycle, about the origin of the impedance diagram) that is set to
until the trip time delay on pick-up td1 has expired. prevent tripping for impedance trajectories for remote power
system faults.
As with reverse power protection, this would be an elementary
form of pole-slipping protection. It may not be suitable for Setting of the ohm elements is such that they lie parallel to
large machines where rapid tripping is required during the the total system impedance vector, and enclose it, as shown
first slip cycle and where some control is required for the in Figure C8.36.
system angle at which the generator circuit breaker trip
command is given. Where protection against pole-slipping
must be guaranteed, a more sophisticated method of
protection should be used. A typical reset timer delay for
pole-slipping protection might be 0.6s. For generator
transformer units, the additional impedance in front of the
relaying point may take the system impedance outside the
Relaying point
under impedance relay characteristic required for loss of
excitation protection. Therefore, the acceptability of this pole-
slipping protection scheme will be dependent on the
application. Slip locus

17.3 Dedicated pole-slipping protection

Large generator-transformer units directly connected to grid
systems often require a dedicated pole-slipping protection
scheme to ensure rapid tripping and with system angle control.
Pole-slipping protection can be directly based on the internal
phase angle between the generator terminal voltage and
electromotive force. If the internal phase angle exceeds the
configured angle for a definite period the pole-slipping element
can trip out. Pole-slipping protection can also be based on
the detection of the active power inversion within a definite Ohm relay 2
period. Two consecutive active power inversions mean one Ohm relay 1
rotation of the internal angle. When the number of active
power inversions achieves the setting the relay will trip.
Historically, dedicated pole-slipping protection schemes have
Figure C8.36:
usually been based on an ohm-type impedance measurement
Pole slipping detection by ohm relays
characteristic.
17.3.1 Pole slipping protection by impedance
measurement 17.3.2 Use of lenticular characteristic
Although a mho type element for detecting the change in A more sophisticated approach is to measure the impedance
impedance during pole-slipping can be used in some of the generator and use a lenticular impedance characteristic
applications, but with performance limits, a straight line ohm to determine if a pole-slipping condition exists. The lenticular
characteristic is more suitable. The protection principle is that characteristic is shown in Figure C8.37. The characteristic is
of detecting the passage of the generator impedance through divided into two halves by a straight line, called the blinder.
a zone defined by two such impedance characteristics, as
The inclination, Ө, of the lens and blinder is determined by
shown in Figure C8.36.
the angle of the total system impedance. The impedance of
The characteristic is divided into three zones, A, B, and C. the system and generator-transformer determines the forward
Normal operation of the generator lies in zone A. When a reach of the lens, ZA, and the transient reactance of the
pole-slip occurs, the impedance traverses zones B and C, generator determines the reverse reach ZB.
and tripping occurs when the impedance characteristic enters
The width of the lens is set by the angle Ө and the line PP',
zone C.
perpendicular to the axis of the lens, is used to determine if
Tripping only occurs if all zones are traversed sequentially. the centre of the impedance swing during a transient is located
Power system faults should result in the zones not being fully in the generator or power system.

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C8 17. Pole slipping protection

Operation in the case of a generator is as follows. The

characteristic is divided into 4 zones and 2 regions, as shown
Blinder
in Figure C8.38.
Normal operation is with the measured impedance in zone
R1. If a pole slip develops, the impedance locus will traverse
though zones R2, R3, and R4. When entering zone R4 , a
trip signal is issued, provided the impedance lies below
reactance line PP' and hence the locus of swing lies within
or close to the generator – i.e. the generator is pole slipping
with respect to the rest of the system.
If the impedance locus lies above line PP', the swing lies far
out in the power system – i.e. one part of the power system,
including the protected generator, is swinging against the
rest of the network. Tripping may still occur, but only if swinging
is prolonged – meaning that the power system is in danger
Lens of complete break-up. Further confidence checks are
introduced by requiring that the impedance locus spends a
minimum time within each zone for the pole-slipping condition
to be valid. The trip signal may also be delayed for a number
of slip cycles even if a generator pole-slip occurs – this is to
both provide confirmation of a pole-slipping condition and
allow time for other relays to operate if the cause of the pole
slip lies somewhere in the power system. Should the
Figure C8.37: impedance locus traverse the zones in any other sequence,
Pole-slipping protection using lenticular characteristic and tripping is blocked.
blinder

X
Left-lens Right-lens

Power swing in system

S M
a Ang

Pole slipping
characteristic

Stable power swing

Blinder

Figure C8.38:
Definition of zones for lenticular characteristic

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18. Stator overheating faults C8

Overheating of the stator may result from: ∆t ∆t

T(n) = Tmax × 1-e

τ  + T(n-1) ×e τ
a. overload
b. failure of the cooling system This assumes a thermal equilibrium in the form: Heat developed
c. overfluxing = Heat stored + Heat dissipated.

d. core faults Although current-operated thermal replica protection cannot

take into account the effects of ambient, it is often applied
With a modern protection relay, it is relatively simple to provide as a back-up to direct stator temperature measuring devices
a current-operated thermal replica protection element to (RTD) to prevent overheating due to high stator current. With
estimate the thermal state of the stator windings. The generator some relays, the thermal replica temperature estimate can
is considered to be a homogeneous body, developing heat be made more accurate through the integration of direct
internally at a constant rate and dissipating heat at a rate measuring resistance temperature devices.
directly proportional to its temperature rise, it can be shown
that the temperature at any instant is given by: Irrespective of whether current-operated thermal replica
t protection is applied or not, it is a requirement to monitor the
T = Tmax × (1-e τ) stator temperature of a large generator in order to detect
Where: overheating from whatever cause. Temperature sensitive
elements, usually of the resistance type, are embedded in
Tmax = final steady state temperature with the specific stator the stator winding at hot-spot locations envisaged by the
current I
manufacturer, the number used being sufficient to cover all
t = heating time constant variations. The elements are connected to a temperature
sensing relay element arranged to provide alarm and trip
With the thermal accumulation, the actual temperature in the
outputs. The settings will depend on the type of stator winding
relay execution cycle is given by:
insulation and on its permitted temperature rise.

19. Complete generator protection schemes

From the preceding sections, it is obvious that the protection d. overvoltage protection
scheme for a generator has to take account of many possible
e. undervoltage protection
faults and plant design variations. Determination of the types
of protection used for a particular generator will depend on f. overload/low forward power/ reverse power protection
the nature of the plant and upon economic considerations, (according to prime mover type)
which in turn is affected by set size. Fortunately, modern,
g. unbalanced loading
multi-function, numerical relays are sufficiently versatile to
include all of the commonly required protection functions in h. overheating
a single package, thus simplifying the decisions to be made. i. pole slipping
The following sections provide illustrations of typical protection
schemes for generators connected to a grid network, but not k. loss of excitation
all possibilities are illustrated, due to the wide variation in l. underfrequency
generator sizes and types.
m. inadvertent energisation
19.1 Direct-connected generator
n. overfluxing
A typical protection scheme for a direct-connected generator
is shown in Figure C8.39. It comprises the following protection o. mechanical faults
functions: Figure C8.39 illustrates which trips require an electrical trip
a. stator differential protection and which can be time delayed until electrical power has
been reduced to a low value. The faults that require tripping
b. overcurrent protection – conventional or voltage of the prime mover as well as the generator circuit breaker
dependent are also shown.
c. stator earthfault protection

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C8 19. Complete generator protection schemes

Electrical trip of governor

Governor
trip

Emergency push button

Stator differential (biased/high

impedance)
Stator E/F (or neutral voltage
displacement)
Back-up overcurrent (or voltage
dependent O/C)
Lubricating oil failure
Mechanical faults (urgent)
Reverse/low forward power
Underfrequency
Pole slipping
Overfluxing
Inadvertent energisation

Loss of excitation
Stator winding temperature Excitation
Unbalanced loading circuit
breaker
Under/overvoltage Low power
interlock
Generator
Mechanical faults (non-urgent) circuit
breaker
N.B. Alarms and time delays omitted for simplicity

Figure C8.39:
Typical protection arrangement for a direct-connected generator

19.2 Generator-transformer units

These units are generally of higher output than direct-
connected generators, and hence more comprehensive
protection is warranted. In addition, the generator transformer
also requires protection, for which the protection detailed in
Chapter [C7: Transformer and Transformer-Feeder Protection]
is appropriate.
Overall biased generator/generator transformer differential
protection is commonly applied in addition, or instead of,
differential protection for the transformer alone. A single
protection relay may incorporate all of the required functions,
or the protection of the transformer (including overall generator/
generator transformer differential protection) may utilise a
separate relay.
Figure C8.40 shows a typical overall scheme.

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19. Complete generator protection schemes C8

Electrical trip of governor Governor

trip

Emergency push button

Stator differential (biased/high

impedance)
Stator E/F (or neutral voltage
displacement)
Back-up overcurrent (or voltage
dependent O/C)
Lubricating oil failure
Mechanical faults (urgent)
Reverse/low forward power
Underfrequency
Pole slipping
Overfluxing

Inadvertent energisation

Overall differential (transformer

differential)
Excitation
Buchholz circuit
HV overcurrent breaker

HV restricted E/F
Generator
Transformer winding temperature circuit
breaker
Loss of excitation Low power
Stator winding temperature interlock

Unbalanced loading
Under/overvoltage

Mechanical faults (non-urgent)

N.B. Alarms and time delays omitted for simplicity

Figure C8.40:
Typical tripping arrangements for generator-transformer unit

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C8 20. Distributed generation

The limitation of fossil primary energy sources and the

worldwide growing demand for electrical energy leads to the
need for alternative (renewable) energy source usage. This
trend is also driven by subsidies for renewable energy in
some countries. Especially wind and solar power plants are
built decentralised and distributed into the existing medium
G
and high voltage grid especially in the European countries.
~ =
These new types and small generator sizes are changing the = ~
existing grid and the protection needs.
The main challenges with these DGs are:
Figure C8.42:
a. fluctuation in produced electrical power Wind turbine generator system with DFIG
b. bi-directional load flow: MV grid HV grid
c. reduced rotating mass impact on grid stability
d. reduced short-circuit power
= ↑ =
e. detection of islanded sub-grids
~
f. neutral treatment in islanded sub-grids
g. stable operation of islanded sub-grids
Figure C8.43:
h. voltage control of power electronic converters at the same Solar power plant modeled as current source
speed as digital protection
j. radiation of harmonics impact on power quality
There is no clear definition of the size of distributed generators.
20.1 Generator types In the following small generators units of some 100 kVA up
to a few megawatts are considered.
The generator types used depend mainly on the energy
source. Synchronous machines are often used for small hydro 20.2 Protection aspects
plants, thermal power or (bio)gas plants. Power electronic
Depending on the generator type of the DG, common MV
converters are used for solar power plants, battery storage
protection methods (i. e. non-directional overcurrent protection)
systems and fuel cells. The power ratings of these smaller
are only suitable to a limited extent or cannot be applied.
DGs is in the range of some ten to hundreds of kVA.
20.2.1 Low fault currents
Wind turbine power plants of several MW often use a
synchronous machine in connection with a power electronic The thermal and electrical design of a.c./a.c. or d.c./a.c.
converter of the same rated power (Figure C8.41). Another converters (Figure C8.41 and Figure C8.43) will typically allow
design uses Doubly-Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) as a max. output of 110 … 120 % rated active power for several
asynchronous machine with power electronic converters of seconds. The transient capability will be in the same range due
approximately a third of the rated machine power (Figure to the small thermal time constants of the power electronic
C8.42). Smaller units will be equipped with directly coupled semiconductors. The transient reactive power output of DG
asynchronous machines. – and therefore the fault current contribution – depends on the
converter controllers. Newer converters are able to provide a
reactive current lreac in case of voltage drops ΔV (see Figure
C8.44). The amount of reactive current can be set via a slope
[Ref C8.3: Verordnung zu Systemdienstleistungen durch
Windenergieanlagen (Systemdienstleistungsverordnung)].

G ~ =
= ~
In all cases the fault current contribution of a converter-driven
DGs is in the range of the normal load current (or even lower).
Overcurrent protection is not suitable in such case. Using
distance or differential protection will allow the fault detection
but increases the investment costs.
20.2.2 Tapped lines
Figure C8.41:
Wind turbine generator system using full rated power Smaller (resp. bigger) DGs (e.g. wind or solar power plants)
electronic converters are typically connected to the MV (resp. HV) grid. In rural

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20. Distributed generation C8

20.2.3 Active power dependent underfrequency load

∆ I reac / I r
1 .0 shedding
Underfrequency load shedding (UFLS) is used to prevent an
0.5 setable slope
electrical network from outages (blackouts). If the system
frequency gets below a certain threshold, portions of the
-0.5 -0.3 -0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 DV / V
connected loads are disconnected to prevent further frequency
n
voltage support by decay. The amounts and frequency levels are typically defined
reactive power infeed
(overexcitation) -0.5
in Grid Codes.
Due to increasing DGs in distribution networks it is necessary
-1.0 to distinguish between pure load feeders and feeders with
generation (and loads) connected. It is advantageous not to
disconnect feeders with active power feed to the electrical
Figure C8.44: network in case of underfrequency events. UFLS schemes
Voltage support of newer DGs in case of voltage drops evaluating the direction of active power P are required to
distinguish between load and generation feeders (refer to
Chapter [D4: Frequency and Load Shedding]).
areas this is usually done by tapping an existing OHL nearby. 20.2.4 Reactive power dependent undervoltage
Q-V protection
The protection of the power plant itself will be done by
directional overcurrent (MV) or distance or differential Especially wind power plants of the first generation used
protection (HV) and depends on the low voltage ride trough simple asynchronous machines as generators. In case of
(LVRT) capabilities (Figure C8.45 [Ref C8.5: Grid code voltage drops these machines consume reactive power and
requirements for large wind farms]) of the DG. The impact of therefore further reduce the voltage at the PCC (point of
the line protection will depend on the rated power of the plant. common coupling) – the grid connection. To prevent a voltage
If auto-reclose is applied the DGs power plant must be tripped collapse such DGs need to be tripped in case of faults close
in case of a fault on the line. to the PCC. Newer DGs with full converters are able to provide
reactive power during faults and support the voltage in such
In case the intermediate infeed is of significant power the
a case (Figure C8.46).
following should be considered:
By evaluating the reactive power direction it’s possible to trip
a. intermediate infeed influences the distance measurements
the DGs in case of voltage drops. It is a requirement in some
(see Chapter [C3: Distance Protection])
Grid Codes [Ref C8.7: Transmission Code 2007], Figure
b. distance protection using aided schemes need to be C8.46 and [Ref C8.6: Lastenheft Blindleistungsrichtungs-
extended to multi-ended aided schemes Unterspannungsschutz (Q-U-Schutz)].
c. application of multi-ended differential protection To ensure the correct directional decision a minimum level of
reactive power flow and/or a minimum angle between P and
Q needs to be fulfilled. Q-V protection is typically time delayed
100 by approx. 500 ms before tripping the local DGs.
90

80

70
Q / S nom
60
HV MV 1 .0
P
V (%)

50

40 G
30
Q
20 0.5
10
Trip DG
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
time (s)
-1 .0 -0.5 0.5 1 .0 P / S nom
USA-Ireland-AESO Germany Denmark (<100kV)
UK Nordel Belgium (large voltage dips)
Belgium (small voltage dips) Sweden (<100MW) Sweden (>100MW)
New Zealand Hydro-Quebec Italy G
Spain

Figure C8.45: Figure C8.46:

Required low voltage ride through capabilities of wind power Tripping area in case of voltage drops at the PCC in consumer
plants by different grid codes reference arrow system

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C8 20. Distributed generation

20.3 Islanding detection

In the case of separating a network with distributed generators island detection
an island could be formed (Figure C8.47).
passive methods active methods
If there is a balance between generation and load in the
separated (medium voltage) network a stable operation of voltage at generator
several minutes has been observed in practice. This typically vector shift impedance meas.
is an unwanted situation due to the unknown star point frequency frequency modulation
treatment / earthing conditions. To prevent such operation the ROCOF phase modulation
islanding needs to be detected. This can be done at the line harmonics at network
feeder 1 and/or at the distributed generator 2 . volts + currents
impedance meas.
dP/dt short circuit switching
vector shift

communication
HV loss of comm.
(PLC)
MV transfer trip

ZE
VT
Figure C8.48:
Islanding detection methods
1
20.3.2 Rate of change of frequency relay
islanded network

A ROCOF relay detects the rate of change of frequency in

DG excess of a defined setpoint. The signal is obtained from a
voltage transformer connected close to the Point of Common
2 Coupling (PCC). One method used is to measure the time
period between successive zero-crossings to determine the
average frequency for each half-cycle and hence the rate of
Figure C8.47: change of frequency. The result is usually averaged over a
MV islanded network with DG number of cycles. Another common method used to get the
df/dt value is based on the Discrete Fourier Transformer (DFT).
The difference between the phase angles from two consecutive
Detection methods can be grouped into (Figure C8.48 [Ref DTFs can derive the frequency and the frequency difference
C8.8: Protection of Distributed Systems with Distributed over several cycles can derive the df/dt value.
Energy Resources]):
20.3.3 Setting guidelines
a. passive, based on local voltage (and current) measurements
Should loss of the Utility supply occur, it is extremely unlikely
b. active, interfering the network and/or the DG
that there will be an exact match between the output of the
c. communication based distributed generator(s) and the connected load in the
Most common passive methods using over- and undervoltage, remaining island. A small frequency change or voltage phase
over- and underfrequency, ROCOF and voltage vector shift. angle change will therefore occur, to which can be added any
There will be load flow situations with a local balanced generation changes due to the small natural variations in loading of an
and load resulting in the non-detection of the island. isolated generator with time. Once the rate of change of
frequency exceeds the setting of the ROCOF relay for a set
20.3.1 Voltage vector shift relay time, or once the voltage phase angle drift exceeds the set
A voltage vector shift relay detects the sudden change in angle, tripping occurs to open the connection between the
voltage phase angle beyond a defined setpoint. Again, the in-plant and Utility networks.
voltage signal is obtained from a voltage transformer connected
While it is possible to estimate the rate of change of frequency
close to the Point of Common Coupling (PCC). One method
from knowledge of the generator set inertia and MVA rating,
used is to measure the time period between successive zero-
this is not an accurate method for setting a ROCOF relay
crossings to determine the duration of each half-cycle, and
because the rotational inertia of the complete network being
then to compare the durations with the memorised average
fed by the embedded generation is required. For example,
duration of earlier half-cycles in order to determine the phase
there may be other DG to consider. As a result, it is invariably
angle drift.

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20. Distributed generation C8

the case that the relay settings are determined at site during Nevertheless, because such protection is a common
commissioning. This is to ensure that the Utility requirements requirement of some Utilities, the ‘loss of mains’ protection
are met while reducing the possibility of a spurious trip under may have to be provided and the possibility of spurious trips
the various operating scenarios envisaged. However, it is very will have to be accepted in those cases. Site measurements
difficult to determine whether a given rate of change of over a period of time of the typical rates of frequency change
frequency will be due to a ‘loss of mains’ incident or a load/ occurring may assist in negotiations of the settings with the
frequency change on the public power network, and hence Utility, and with the fine-tuning of the protection that may
spurious trips are impossible to eliminate. Thus the provision already be commissioned.
of Loss of Utility Supply protection to meet power distribution
Utility interface protection requirements may actually conflict
with the interests of the national power system operator. With
the growing contribution of non-dispatched embedded
generation to the aggregate national power demand, the loss
of the embedded generation following a transmission system
incident that may already challenge the security of the system
can only aggravate the problem. [Ref C8.9: Survey of Rate
Of Change of Frequency Relays and Voltage] provides further
details of the operation of ROCOF relays and the problems
that may be encountered.

21. Examples of generator protection settings

This section gives examples of the calculations required for Generator data
generator protection. The first is for a typical small generator Prime
Rated Rated Rated Rated
installed on an industrial system that runs in parallel with the kVA kW PF
voltage current frequency speed
mover
type
Utility supply. The second is for a larger generator-transformer
Steam
unit connected to a grid system. 6250 5000 0.8 11000 328 50 1500
turbine

21.1 Protection settings of a small industrial

generator Generator parameters
Generator type Xd p.u. X'd p.u. CT Ratio VT Ratio
Salient details of the generator, network and protection
required are given in Table C8.3. The example calculations Salient Pole 2.349 0.297 500/1 11000/110

are based on a MiCOM P343 relay in respect of setting ranges,

etc. Network data
Maximum earth Minimum phase fault Maximum downstream
21.1.1 Differential protection Earthing resistor
fault current current phase fault current

Biased differential protection involves the determination of 31.7 Ω 200A 145A 850A

values for four setting values: Is1, Is2, K1 and K2 in Figure

C8.4. Is1 can be set at 5% of the generator rating, in accordance Existing protection
with the recommendations for the relay, and similarly the values Overcurrent settings Earthfault settings
of Is2 (120%) and K2 (150%) of generator rating. It remains Ct Ratio
Charact. Setting TMS Charact. Setting TMS
for the value of K1 to be determined. The recommended value 200/1 SI 144A 0.176 SI 48A 0.15
is generally 0%, but this only applies where CTs that conform
to IEC 60044-1 class PX (or the superseded BS 3938 Class
Table C8.3:
X) are used – i.e. CTs specifically designed for use in differential
Data for small generator protection example

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C8 21. Examples of generator protection settings

protection schemes. In this application, the CTs are conventional subjected to fault or overload current in excess of the stator
class 5P CTs that meet the relay requirements in respect of short-time current limits. A curve should be provided by the
knee-point voltage, etc. manufacturer, but IEC 60034-1 demands that an AC generator
should be able to pass 1.5 times rated current for at least 30
Where neutral tail and terminal CTs can saturate at different
seconds. The operating time of the downstream protection
times due to transiently offset magnetising inrush or motor
for a three-phase fault current of 850 A is 0.682 s, so the
starting current waveforms with an r.m.s. level close to rated
voltage controlled relay element should have a minimum
current and where there is a high L/R time constant for the
operating time of 1.09 s (0.4 s time grading margin is used
offset, the use of a 0% bias slope may give rise to maloperation.
to cooperate with the downstream relay - see table C8.2).
Such waveforms can be encountered when plant of similar
With a current setting of 87.5 A, the operating time of the
rating to the generator is being energised or started.
voltage controlled relay element at a TMS of 1.0 is:
Differences between CT designs or differing remanent flux
levels can lead to asymmetric saturation and the production 0.14
of a differential spill current. Therefore, it is appropriate to 0 .02
= 3.01 s
select a non-zero setting for K1, and a value of 5% is usual
 850 
  −1
in these circumstances.  87.5 
21.1.2 Voltage controlled overcurrent protection Therefore a TMS of:

This protection is applied as remote backup to the downstream 1.09 = 0.362

overcurrent protection in the event of protection or breaker 3.01
failure conditions. This ensures that the generator will not
continue to supply the fault under these conditions. is required. Use 0.375, nearest available setting.

At normal voltage, the current setting must be greater than 21.1.3 Stator earthfault protection
the maximum generator load current of 328 A. A margin must The maximum earthfault current, from Table C8.3, is 200 A.
be allowed for resetting of the relay at this current (reset ratio Protection for 95% of the winding can be provided if the relay
= 95%) and for the measurement tolerances of the relay (5% is set to detect a primary earthfault current of 16.4 A, and
of IS under reference conditions), therefore the current setting this equates to a CT secondary current of 0.033 A. The nearest
is calculated as: relay setting is 0.04 A, providing protection for 90% of the
winding.
I vcset > 328 × 1.05
0.95 The protection must grade with the downstream earthfault
> 362.5 A protection, the settings of which are also given in Table C8.3.
At an earthfault current of 200 A, the downstream protection
The nearest settable value is 365 A, or 0.73 In. has an operation time of 0.73 s. The generator earthfault
protection must therefore have an operation time of not less
The minimum phase-phase voltage for a close-up single-phase
than 1.13 s. At a TMS of 1.0, the generator protection relay
to earthfault is 57%, so the voltage setting VS must be less
operating time will be:
than this. A value of 30% is typically used, giving VS = 33 V.
The current setting multiplying factor K must be chosen such
that KIS is less than 50% of the generator steady-state current  
 0 .14 
contribution to an uncleared remote fault. This information is
 s
( )
0 .02
not available (missing data being common in protection  200 − 1
studies). However, the maximum sustained close-up phase  20 
fault current (neglecting AVR action) is 145 A, so that a setting 1.13 = 0.38
chosen to be significantly below this value will suffice. A value = 2.97 s, so the required TMS is
2.97
of 87.5 A (60% of the close-up sustained phase fault current)
is therefore chosen, and hence K = 0.6. This is considered Use a setting of 0.4, nearest available setting.
to be appropriate based on knowledge of the system circuit 21.1.4 Neutral voltage displacement protection
impedances. The TMS setting is chosen to co-ordinate with
the downstream feeder protection such that: This protection is provided as back-up earthfault protection
for the generator and downstream system (direct-connected
a. for a close-up feeder three-phase fault, that results in almost generator). It must therefore have a setting that grades with
total voltage collapse as seen by the relay the downstream protection. The protection is driven from the
b. for a fault at the next downstream relay location, if the relay generator star- connected VT, while the downstream protection
voltage is less than the switching voltage is current operated.

It should also be chosen so that the generator cannot be

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21. Examples of generator protection settings C8

It is therefore necessary to translate the current setting of the slipping conditions, a drop-off time delay td2 is provided and
downstream setting of the current-operated earthfault set to 0.5 s.
protection into the equivalent voltage for the NVD protection.
21.1.6 Negative phase sequence current protection
The equivalent voltage is found from the formula:

V eff =
( Ipe × Z e ) × 3 This protection is required to guard against excessive heating
from negative phase sequence currents, whatever the cause.
VT ratio The generator is of salient pole design, so from IEC 60034-1,
48 × 31.7 × 3 the continuous withstand is 8% of rating and the I 22 t value is
= 20 s. Using Equation C8.1, the required relay settings can
100
found as
= 45.6 V
where: I2>> = 0.05 and K = 8.6 s.
Veff = effective voltage setting The nearest available values are I2>> = 0.05 and K = 8.6 s.

Ipe = downstream earthfault current setting The relay also has a cooling time constant Kreset that is normally
set equal to the value of K. To co-ordinate with clearance of
Ze = earthing resistance heavy asymmetric system faults, that might otherwise cause
Hence a setting of 48 V is acceptable. Time grading is unnecessary operation of this protection, a minimum operation
required, with a minimum operating time of the NVD protection time tmin should be applied. It is recommended to set this to
of 1.13 s at an earthfault current of 200 A. Using the expression a value of 1. Similarly, a maximum time can be applied to
for the operation time of the NVD element: ensure that the thermal rating of the generator is not exceeded
(as this is uncertain, data not available) and to take account
t = K/(M-1)sec of the fact that the MiCOM P343 characteristic is not identical
where: with that specified in IEC 60034.
 V  The recommended setting for tmax is 600 s.
M=  
 V snvd 
and 21.1.7 Overvoltage protection

V = voltage seen by relay This is required to guard against various failure modes, e.g.
AVR failure, resulting in excessive stator voltage. A two-stage
Vsnvd = relay setting voltage protection is available, the first being a low-set time-delayed
the value of K can be calculated as 3.34. The nearest settable stage that should be set to grade with transient overvoltages
value is 3.5, giving an operation time of 1.18 s. that can be tolerated following load rejection. The second is
a high-set stage used for instantaneous tripping in the event
21.1.5 Loss of excitation protection of an intolerable overvoltage condition arising.
Loss of excitation is detected by a mho impedance relay Generators can normally withstand 105% of rated voltage
element, as detailed in Section 16.2. The standard settings continuously, so the low-set stage should be set higher than
for the MiCOM P340 series relay are: this value. A setting of 117.7 V in secondary quantities
Xa = -0.5 X'd × (CT ratio/VT ratio) (corresponding to 107% of rated stator voltage) is typically
used, with a definite time delay of 10 s to allow for transients
(in secondary quantities) due to load switch-off/rejection, overvoltages on recovery
= -0.5 × 0.297 × 19.36 × 500/100 from faults or motor starting, etc.

= -14.5 Ω The second element provides protection in the event of a

large overvoltage, by tripping excitation and the generator
Xb = Xd × (CT ratio/VT ratio)
circuit breaker (if closed). This must be set below the maximum
= 2.349 Ω × 19.36 × (500/100) stator voltage possible, taking into account saturation. As the
open circuit characteristic of the generator is not available,
= 227 Ω
typical values must be used. Saturation will normally limit the
The nearest settings provided by the relay are maximum overvoltage on this type of generator to 130%, so
a setting of 120% (132 V secondary) is typically used.
Xa = -14.5 Ω Xb = -227 Ω
Instantaneous operation is required. Generator manufacturers
The time delay td1 should be set to avoid relay element are normally able to provide recommendations for the relay
operation on power swings and a typical setting of 3 s is settings. For embedded generators, the requirements of the
used. This value may need to be modified in the light of local Utility may also have to be taken into account. For both
operating experience. To prevent cyclical pick-up of the relay elements, a variety of voltage measurement modes are
element without tripping, such as might occur during pole- available to take account of possible VT connections (single

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 Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

C8 21. Examples of generator protection settings

or three-phase, etc.), and conditions to be protected against. 21.1.8 Underfrequency protection

In this example, a three-phase VT connection is used, and
This is required to protect the generator from sustained
overvoltages on any phase are to be detected, so a selection
overload conditions during periods of operation isolated from
of ‘Any’ is used for this setting.
the Utility supply. The generating set manufacturer will normally
provide the details of machine short-time capabilities. The
example relay provides four stages of underfrequency
Protection Quantity Value protection. In this case, the first stage is used for alarm
purposes and a second stage would be applied to trip the
5%
set.
Differential 120%
protection 5% The alarm stage might typically be set to 49 Hz, with a time
delay of 20 s, to avoid an alarm being raised under transient
150%
conditions, e.g. during plant motor starting. The trip stage
0.04
Stator earthfault might be set to 48 Hz, with a time delay of 0.5 s, to avoid
0.4 tripping for transient, but recoverable, dips in frequency below
Neutral voltage 48 V this value.
displacement 3.5
21.1.9 Reverse power protection
-14.5
The relay setting is 5% of rated power.
227
Loss of excitation
3s  0.05 × 5 × 10 6 
setting =  
0.5 s  CT ratio × VT ratio 
0.73
 0.05 × 5 × 10 6 
Voltage controlled 33 = 
overcurrent 0.6
 500 × 100 
0.375 =5W
0.05 This value can be set in the relay. A time delay is required to
8.6 s guard against power swings while generating at low power
Negative phase
8.6 s levels, so use a time delay of 5 s. No reset time delay is
sequence
1.5 s required.
600 s 21.2 Large generator transformer unit protection
meas mode three-phase
The data for this unit are given in Table C8.5. It is fitted with
operate mode any two main protection systems to ensure security of tripping in
1 setting 107% the event of a fault. To economise on space, the setting
1 function DT calculations for only one system, that using a MiCOM P343
Overvoltage
time delay 10 s relay are given. Settings are given in primary quantities
2 setting 120% throughout.
2 function DT 21.2.1 Biased differential protection
2 time delay 0 sec
The settings follow the guidelines previously stated. As 100%
1 setting 49 Hz stator winding earthfault protection is provided, high sensitivity
1 time delay 20 s is not required and hence Is1 can be set to 10% of generator
Underfrequency
2 setting 48 Hz rated current. This equates to 602 A, and the nearest settable
2 time delay 0.5 s value on the relay is 640 A (= 0.08 of rated CT current). The
settings for K1, Is2 and K2 follow the guidelines in the relay
function reverse power
manual.
setting 5W
Reverse power
time delay 5s
DO time 0s

Table C8.4:
Small generator protection example – relay settings

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21. Examples of generator protection settings C8

Iflt = minimum generator primary current for a multi-phase

Parameter Value Unit
feeder-end fault
Generator MVA rating 187.65 MVA
VN = no-load phase-neutral generator voltage
Generator MW rating 160 MW
Generator voltage 18 kV
Xd = generator d-axis synchronous reactance
Synchronous reactance 1.93 pu Xt = generator transformer reactance
Direct-axis transient reactance 0.189 pu Rf = feeder resistance
Minimum operating voltage 0.8 pu
Xf = feeder reactance
Generator negative sequence
0.08 pu
capability n = number of parallel generators
Generator negative sequence factor,
10 s
Kg Hence,
Generator third harmonic voltage
0.02 pu Iflt = 2893 A
under load
Generator motoring power 0.02 pu
and
alarm 1.1 pu
time V N 3(( nR f ) 2 +( X t +nX f ) 2 )
Generator overvoltage 5 s V flt =
delay
trip 1.3 pu
( nR f ) 2 +( X d + X t + nX f ) 2
Generator undervoltage not required
Max pole slipping frequency 10 Hz = 1304 V
Generator transformer rating 360 MVA
Generator transformer leakage
Iflt /Iset = 2893 / 7200 = 0.4
0.244 pu
reactance
Generator transformer overflux alarm 1.1 pu
So a suitable value of K is 0.3.
Generator transformer overflux alarm 1.2 pu
A suitable value of V2set is 120% of Vflt, giving a value of
Network resistance (referred to 18kV) 0.56 m 1565 V. The nearest settable value is 3000 V, minimum allowable
Network reactance (referred to 18kV) 0.0199 relay setting. The value of V1set is required to be above the
System impedance angle (estimated) 80 deg minimum voltage seen by the generator for a close-up phase-
Minimum load resistance 0.8 earthfault. A value of 80% of rated voltage is used for V1set,
14400 V.
Generator CT ratio 8000/1
Generator VT ratio 18000/120 21.2.3 Inadvertent energisation protection
Number of generators in parallel 2 This protection is a combination of overcurrent with
undervoltage, the voltage signal being obtained from a VT
Table C8.5: on the generator side of the system. The current setting used
System data for large generator protection example is that of rated generator current of 6019 A, in accordance
with IEEE C37.102 as the generator is for installation in the
USA. Use 6000 A nearest settable value. The voltage setting
cannot be more than 85% of the generator rated voltage to
21.2.2 Voltage restrained overcurrent protection
ensure operation does not occur under normal operation. For
The setting current Iset has to be greater than the full-load this application, a value of 50% of rated voltage is chosen.
current of the generator (6019 A). A suitable margin must be
21.2.4 Negative phase sequence protection
allowed for operation at reduced voltage, so use a multiplying
factor of 1.2. The nearest settable value is 7200 A. The factor The generator has a maximum steady-state capability of 8%
K is calculated so that the operating current is less than the of rating, and a value of Kg of 10. Settings of I2cmr = 0.06
current for a remote end three phase fault. The steady-state (=480 A) and Kg = 10 are therefore used. Minimum and
current and voltage at the generator for a remote-end three- maximum time delays of 1 s and 1300 s are used to co-ordinate
phase fault are given by the expression: with external protection and ensure tripping at low levels of
negative sequence current are used.
VN
I flt =
( nR f ) +( X d + X t + nX f ) 2
2

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C8 21. Examples of generator protection settings

21.2.5 Overfluxing protection Xb1 = 0.5Xd = 1.666 Ω

The generator-transformer manufacturer supplied the following Xa1 = -0.75X'd = -0.245 Ω
characteristics:
Use nearest settable values of 1.669 Ω and 0.253 Ω. A time
delay of 5s is used to prevent alarms under transient conditions.
Alarm: V >1. 1
f For the trip stage, settings for high load as given in Section
16.3 are used:
Trip: V >1. 2, inverse time characteristic 2
18 2
f X b2 = kV = 1.727 Ω
Hence:
MVA 187.65
X a2 = -0.5X′d = -0.163 Ω
the alarm setting is 18000 × 1.05 = 315V/Hz
60 The nearest settable value for Xb2 is 1.725 Ω. A time delay of
A time delay of 5 s is used to avoid alarms due to transient 0.5 s is used.
conditions.
21.2.8 Reverse power protection
the trip setting is 18000 × 1.2 = 360V/Hz
60 The manufacturer-supplied value for motoring power is 2%
A TMS value of 10 is selected, to match the withstand curve of rated power. The recommended setting is therefore 1.6
supplied by the manufacturer. MW. An instrumentation class CT is used in conjunction with
the relay for this protection, to ensure accuracy of measurement.
21.2.6 100% Stator earthfault protection A time delay of 0.5 s is used. The settings should be checked
This is provided by a combination of neutral voltage at the commissioning stage.
displacement and third harmonic undervoltage protection. 21.2.9 Over/underfrequency protection
For the neutral voltage displacement protection to cover 90%
of the stator winding, the minimum voltage allowing for For underfrequency protection, the client has specified the
generator operation at a minimum of 92% of rated voltage is: following characteristics:
0.92 × 18kV × 0.1 Alarm: 59.3 Hz, 0.5 s time delay
3 1st stage trip: 58.7 Hz, 100 s time delay
= 956.1 V 2nd stage trip: 58.2 Hz, 1 s time delay
Use a value of 935.3 V, nearest settable value that ensures Similarly, the overfrequency is required to be set as follows:
90% of the winding is covered. A 0.5 s definite time delay is
used to prevent spurious trips. The third harmonic voltage Alarm: 62 Hz, 30 s time delay
under normal conditions is 2% of rated voltage, giving a value Trip: 63.5 Hz, 10 s time delay
of:
These characteristics can be set in the relay directly.
18kV × 0.02
21.2.10 Overvoltage protection
3
The generator manufacturers’ recommendation is:
= 207.8 V
Alarm: 110% voltage for 5 s
The setting of the third harmonic undervoltage protection
must be below this value, a factor of 80% being acceptable. Trip: 130% voltage, instantaneous
Use a value of 166.3 V. A time delay of 0.5 s is used. Inhibition This translates into the following relay settings:
of the element at low generator output requires determination
during commissioning. Alarm: 19800 V, 5 s time delay
Trip: 23400 V, 0.1 s time delay
21.2.7 Loss of excitation protection
The client requires a two-stage loss of excitation protection
function. The first is alarm only, while the second provides
tripping under high load conditions. To achieve this, the first
impedance element of the MiCOM P343 loss of excitation
protection can be set in accordance with the guidelines of
Section 16.3 for a generator operating at rotor angles up to
120°, as follows:

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21. Examples of generator protection settings C8

21.2.11 Pole slipping protection Protection Quantity Value

This is provided by the method described in Section 17.3.2. Is1 8%
Detection at a maximum slip frequency of 10 Hz is required. Is2 100%
Differential protection
The setting data, according to the relay manual, is as follows. K1 0%
K2 150%
Forward reach,
Vn3H< 166.3 V
Stator earthfault
ZA = Zn + Zt Vn3H delay 0.5 s

= 0.02 + 0.22 Neutral voltage displacement

Vsnvd 935.3 V
Time delay 0.5 s
= 0.24 Ω X1a -0.245 Ω
Reverse reach, X1b 1.666 Ω
td1 5s
ZB = ZGen
Loss of excitation Xa2 -0.163 Ω
= 2 × X'd Xb2 1.725 Ω
= 0.652 Ω td2 0.5 s
tD01 0s
Reactance line,
Iset 7200 A
ZC = 0.9 × Zt K 0.3
Voltage restrained overcurrent
V1set 14400 V
= 0.9 × 0.22
V2set 3000 V
= 0.198 Ω I2>> 0.06
where: Kg 10
Negative phase sequence Kreset 10
Zt = generator transformer leakage impedance tmin 1s
Zn = network impedance tmax 1300 s
V> meas mode three-phase
The nearest settable values are 0.243 Ω, 0.656 Ω, and 0.206 Ω
V> operate mode any
respectively.
V> 1 setting 19800 V
The lens angle setting, α, is found from the equation: V> 1 function DT
Overvoltage
1.54 - R l min  V> 1 time delay 5s
α min = 180 - 2tan
o −1
 Z +Z  V> 2 setting 23400
 ( A B)  V> 2 function DT
and, substituting values, V> 2 time delay 0.1 s

αmin = 62.5° P1 function reverse power

P1 setting 1.6 MW
Reverse power
Use the minimum settable value of 90°. The blinder angle, P1 time delay 0.5 s
Ө, is estimated to be 80°, and requires checking during P1 DO time 0s
commissioning. Timers T 1 and T 2 are set to 15 ms as Dead Mach I> 6000 A
Inadvertent energisation
experience has shown that these settings are satisfactory to Dead Mach V> 9000 V
detect pole slipping frequencies up to 10 Hz. Za 0.243 Ω

This completes the settings required for the generator, and Zb 0.656 Ω

the relay settings are given in Table C8.6. Of course, additional Zc 0.206 Ω

protection is required for the generator transformer, according Pole slipping protection 90°

to the principles described in Chapter [C7: Transformer and 80°

Transformer-Feeder Protection]. T1 15ms

T2 15ms
F>1 setting 62 Hz
F>1 time delay 30 s
Overfrequency
F>2 setting 63.5 Hz
F>2 time delay 10 s
F<1 setting 59.3 Hz
F<1 time delay 0.5 s
F<2 setting 58.7 Hz
Underfrequency
Table C8.6: F<2 time delay 100 s
Relay settings for large generator protection example F<3 setting 58.2 Hz
F<3 time delay 1s

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 Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

C8 22. References

[C8.1] IEEE Guide for Generator Ground Protection

IEEE Std C37.101™-2006 (Revision of IEEE Std C37.101-
1993/Incorporates IEEE Std C37.101-2006/Cor1:2007)
[C8.2] Problems in Voltage-Type Longitudinal
Zero-Sequence Inter-Turn Protection for Generator
LI Yu-hai, LI jiu-hong, ZHANG Xiao-qing, XU Min, Electric
Power Automation Equipment, Vol.21, No.10, Oct.2001
[C8.3] Verordnung zu Systemdienstleistungen durch
Windenergieanlagen (Systemdienstleistungsverordnung)
SDLWindV, BGBI
page 1734, 2009
[C8.4] Continental Europe Operational Handbook
Appendix - Policy 5: Emergency Operations. entso-e, 2010
[C8.5] Grid Code Requirements for Large Wind Farms
A review of technical regulations and available wind turbine
technologies. M. Tsili, Ch. Patsiouras, S. Papathanassiou,
2012
[C8.6] Lastenheft Blindleistungsrichtungs-
Unterspannungsschutz (Q-U-Schutz)
FNN/VDE, 2010
[C8.7] Transmission Code 2007
Network and System Rules of the German Transmission
System Operators. VDN, 2007
[C8.8] Protection of Distributed Systems with
Distributed Energy Resources
CIGRE JWG B5/C6.26, 2015
[C8.9] Survey of Rate of Change of Frequency Relays
and Voltage
Phase Shift Relays for Loss of Mains Protection.
ERA Report 95-0712R, 1995.ERA Technology

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C8

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