FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGY

AND MATERIAL ENGINEERING

GLASS SHAPING TECHNIQUES

AT LOW AND HIGH TEMPERATURES

PREPARED BY 17012010 BUSEM BALKİ

ADVISOR: AYLİN DELİORMANLI

Delivery Date: 3 May 2020

 CONTENTS

CONTENTS..................................................................................................................1

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................3

1.INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................4

2. GENERAL INFORMATION OF GLASS .................................................................5

2.1 Physical Properties of Glass .................................................................................5

2.2 Chemical Properties of Glass ...............................................................................6

2.3 Optical Properties.................................................................................................7

2.4 Thermal Properties ...............................................................................................7

3.CONSTRUCTIVE SYSTEMS OF GLASS ................................................................8

3.1 Glass Structure-Propety Relationships ..................................................................9

3.2 The Basic Components Of Modern Glass ........................................................... 10

4. GLASS SHAPING ..................................................................................................12

4.1 Blowing Method ................................................................................................ 15

4.1.1 Crushing Method ......................................................................................... 15

4.1.2 Blowing By Blowing Method ......................................................................16

4.1.3 Spinning-Tossing Method ............................................................................ 18

4.1.4 Wrapping Method ........................................................................................ 18

4.1.5 Inside-Out Turning Method .........................................................................19

4.1.6 Pulling And Pouring Method .......................................................................19

4.2 Bulk-Cylinder Method ....................................................................................... 20

4.3 Pulling Method ..................................................................................................21

4.3.1 Fourcault Method ........................................................................................ 21

4.3.2 Colburn Method .......................................................................................... 22

4.3.3 Pittsbourgh Method ..................................................................................... 22

4.4 Floating Method ................................................................................................. 23

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 4.5 Pressing Method ................................................................................................ 24

4.6 Fiber Transform Method .................................................................................... 25

4.7 Foaming Transform Method............................................................................... 25

4.8 Centrifuge Method ............................................................................................. 26

REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 27

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ABSTRACT

In this study, the structure of glass is explained with its atomic, physical, thermal
and optical properties. Building components and tasks are specified. Brief information is
given about the shaping process, which is important for glass. It is explained by making
a literature study from books, scientific journals and theses for shaping methods at high
and low degrees. These methods were again supported by images from books, theses and
journals.

3
1.INTRODUCTION

During the course of history, human ingenuity and rise of technology enabled our
ancestors to conquer the ability to create glass some 3 thousand years ago. Even though
our modern technology enables us to create glass in much larger quantities, the initial
recipe and ingredients that were perfected in Ancient Egypt, Rome and Persia remains
almost the same. In its basic structure, glass is made from pure silica that can most
commonly be found in sand.

However because pure silica has very high melting temperature and is not most
durable material, many additional substances were introduced into recipes to strengthen
it and change many of its properties, which helped the glass to become one of the most
common materials in modern society.

In the 5th century AD, Aleppo and Damascus became important centers for
bottles, glasses, glasses and pitchers. After the conquest of Istanbul in the late Middle
Ages and the Byzantine glass masters fleeing to Venice, the art of glass making developed
a lot here. Over the centuries, there has been much progress in the technique of glass
making that today, the variety of glass used in the commercial field is more than seven
faces.

In the Ottoman Empire, the glassware, which the Selcuk Turks know very well,
especially XVII. and XVIII. It has progressed a lot in the centuries. In this period, all
kinds of glassware were made, although working with primitive methods. XVIII. At the
end of the century, a glass and a crystal (crystal) production house was established around
Çubuklu in Istanbul. The most famous of the glass types made here are the bottles called
«Çeşmibülbül».

First established modern glass factory in Turkey is Paşabahçe Bottle and Glass
Factory (1934). Çayırova Glass Factory was established in 1961 to make flat glass. Later,
new ones were added to them.

Glass is a unique state of matter between liquid and solid. Silica (sand) atoms
combine with irregular calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium atoms in an irregular
manner. It is surprising that as a result of this irregularity, a transparent, indestructible
and highly durable (except cracking, crack spreads immediately). It is used in almost
every conceivable field because it is not rust, waterproof and transparent.

4
2. GENERAL INFORMATION OF GLASS

Glass is a hard and solid material when touched. It has a fragile structure, when it
suddenly encounters a hard surface, it tends to break. Despite this, it is defined as liquid
in chemistry terminology.

The main substance of glass is silicon dioxide, which provides transparency and
melts and disperses in the amorphous body (SiO2). Glass; They are transparent building
materials with amorphous internal structure, very stable, resistant to acidic and
atmospheric factors, heat changes, having the ability to refract the light, transmitting to
solar radiation.

It is necessary to know the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of glass

material in order to be used in building material and other fields.

2.1 Physical Properties of Glass

The densities of glasses take different values according to the ratio and type of
the main components entering their composition. The density of various glass types varies
between 2.2 g/cm3 and 3.0 g/cm3. In some special glass types, it reaches densities such
as 8 g/cm3. The density of normal glasses used in buildings is 2.5 g/cm3.

According to Mohs hardness, the hardness of the glass is between 6 and 7. This
level of hardness gives the glass good abrasion resistance. Thus, glass products with
glossy surfaces can maintain their transparency to an almost unlimited extent. Mohs
hardness value is slightly lower in normal window glasses and it is around 5.5.

• Thermal expansion coefficent: α = 9.1x10-6 cm/cmC

• Thermal conductivity coefficient: λ = 0.7-1.1 kcal/mhC (window glass)
λ = 0.035 kcal/mhC (glass wool)
• Heat transmission value: K = 6 kcal/m2hC (single glass)

K=2,3 kcal/m2hC

• Sound retention value:  = 30 dB (6 mm single glass)

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2.2 Chemical Properties of Glass

Glass is actually a liquid and its transparency is due to it. Glass is defined as a
mine. But it has a very important change compared to other mines. That is also the melting
point. When heated, it softens and can be shaped as desired. Hot forming can be done
between 800-1300 °C. The durability of glasses varies with the ratio of silica and
aluminum used. When the glass is heated, its viscosity decreases gradually and vice versa;
gradually rises when cooled.

It is possible to divide commercial glasses into two groups as soda glasses and
special glasses. Soda glasses are also called ordinary glass and their manufacture is low.
In terms of its general structure, it consists of 73% SiO2, 12% Na2O, 10% CaO, 4% MgO
and 1% Al2O3.

Our other types of special glasses cost more than ordinary glasses. It varies in
feature, for example optical glasses can adjust the light refraction feature. In addition, this
type of glass has some advantages such as resistance to chemical effects, high melting
temperature and high electrical insulation. Its general structure is 80% SiO2, 11% B2O3,
9% Na2O Al2O3 CaO As2O3.

Figure1. Atomic structure of SiO2

Source: https://www.quora.com/What-type-of-compound-atomic-structure-is-glass

6
2.3 Optical Properties

The passage of light through the glass is known as transmittance. It is a necessary

feature for window glasses. If the objects on the other side can be clearly seen from one
side of the glass, the glass with this feature is called “transparent glass”.

If objects cannot be clearly seen even though light is transmitted, the glass with
this property is called “translucent glass”. The return of light from a surface is known as
“reflection”.

Reflection is an important optical feature in the use of glass, and its properties are
important for mirrors and decorative glasses. Absorption of light by glass is another
important optical feature.

Assuming that there is no reflection, if only part of the incoming light can be
passed to the other side of the glass, then the rest of the light is absorbed by the glass.

Especially champagne, beer and some colored medicine bottles are bottles where
light is absorbed by the glass. Refraction, the deviation of light, is the fourth important
optical feature for glass. This feature is generally used in optical instruments. The most
common use is glasses.

The amount of deviation of light is increased by changing the shape of the prism
or lenses. It is also possible to increase the deviation of light by changing the refractive
index of the glass. The refractive index of glass is a size related to its composition. The
high amount of lead oxide in the glass increases the refractive index of the glass.

2.4 Thermal Properties

Glass is not a good conductor for heat. Giving isolation feature; distance between
glasses or air gaps. For many substances, an important heat-related feature is thermal
expansion. Thermal expansion refers to the growth in size when a substance is heated. If
you heat or cool one side of a piece of glass, ultimately the temperature difference
between the two ends; It means the difference or difference of expansion between the two
sides of the glass. One side will tend to be longer on the other. Tensions will occur inside
the glass. When the stresses are excessive, it will cause the glass to break. Because of
these thermal stresses, the breaking resistance is called thermal shock resistance.

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 It is only hydrofluoric acid that chemically affects the glass material. Hydrofluoric
acid is used especially for the matting of the surface in the processing of glass surfaces.
Glasses without lime added are not stable against water. These glasses are also called
water glass. It is mandatory to add lime to their composition in order for normal window
glasses and any glass that may come into contact with water to be stable against water.

3.CONSTRUCTIVE SYSTEMS OF GLASS

Elements: S, Se, Te, P

Oxides: B2O3, SiO2, GeO2, P2O5, As2O3, Sb2O3, In2O3, TI2O3, SnO2, Pb02, SeO2,
MoO3, WO3, Bi2O3, Al2O3, Ba2O3, V2O5, SO3

Sulfides: As2S3, S3, Sb2S3, B, Ga, In, Te, Ge, Sn, N, P, Bi

Halogens: BeF2, AlF3, ZnCl2, Ag(Cl, Br, I), b(Cl2, Br2, I2)

Nitrades: KNO3-Ca(NO3)2

Carbonades: K2CO3-MgCO

Simple Organic Compounds: Toluen, 3-Methyl Hexan, 2.3-Dimethyl Keton, diethyl

eter, isobutil bromide, ethyleneglycol, ethyl alcohol, glycerol

Polymerıc Organic Compounds: Polyethylene(-Ch2-)N

Aqueous Solution: Acids, Bases, Chlorides, Nitrates And Others

Table 1. Systems that form glass with liquid cooling

As can be seen in Table 1, although it is possible to create glass with many

different chemical systems, the most economically important group is oxide glasses. The
most important of these are SiO2, B2O3, P2O5 and GeO2 in order of importance. These
oxides form glass by themselves and by adding various oxides to the composition, a wide
variety of economic value glasses can be obtained.

Oxides, which are included in the composition of oxide glasses, are divided into
three groups according to their function in the formation of glass (Table 2). The first group
of them is compulsory for the formation of glass, they form the network structure of the
glass and are called "Glass formers". Other class oxides that are included in the

8
composition of the glass, according to their effects on the formation of the glassy
structure; They are classified as "Network modifiers" and "intermediates". Network
organizers disrupt network. On the other hand, they can have a disruptive effect on the
network, or they can be located within the network depending on the composition of the
glass.

Significant differences between glass formers, intermediate elements and

regulators, which are included in the composition of glass, in general, in this order;

1. Decreased tendency to form glass,

2. Structural bonds gradually change from covalent type to ionic type,

3. Transition from acidic oxides to amphoteric and basic character oxides,

4. It can be summarized as an increase in ion diameter and a decrease in ion

charge.

Table 2. Functional classification of some oxides commonly used in glass production

Glass Formers Intermediates Network Modifiers

B203 Al203 MgO

SiO3 Sb2O3 Li2O

GeO2 ZrO2 Ba0

P2O5 TiO2 CaO

V2O5 PbO SrO

As2O3 BeO Na2o

ZnO K2O

3.1 Glass Structure-Propety Relationships

To be suitable for a particular application, a glass must meet stringent

requirements for all of the properties of interest, which include attributes of the glass “as
used” such as resistance to brittle failure and those properties that are important for its
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manufacture such as melt viscosity at a given temperature. Property optimization involves
a careful balancing of the chemical composition of the glass to achieve these desired
attributes.

All of the macroscopic properties of a glass are, of course, a direct result of its
underlying structure. It is therefore highly beneficial to take advantage of fundamental
understanding of glass structure–property relationships when designing a new glass
composition. However, this can be a challenging endeavor for many industrial glass
composition families, which typically combine multiple network forming oxides (SiO2,
Al2O3, B2O3, P2O5, etc.) with a mixture of network modifiers (Li2O, Na2O, K2O,
MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, etc.). The structural role of each network former and modifier
depends on both the chemical composition of the glass and its thermal history.

3.2 The Basic Components Of Modern Glass

Pure Silica (SiO2,fused quartz) represents 70-74% weight of modern glass. In

ancient times, glassworkers prepared recipes with more than 90% of pure silica, but
because this substance has a melting point of about 2000 degrees centigrade (3,600° F)
chemist found a way to lower that temperature by introducing various additives into the
mix, most notably sodium carbonate. One of the most interesting features of pure silica
glass is its ability to block UV radiation, which modern 70-72% silica glass can't do.

Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) represent important ingredient of modern glass that

adds both positive and negative features. It successfully lowers the melting point of silica
to more manageable 1200 °C but it alsomakes the glass water soluble.

To prevent glass from being water soluble and to increase its chemical
structure, lime (calciumoxide,CaO), magnesiumoxide (MgO)and aluminumoxide (Al2O
3) are added. Glass enriched with lime represents over 90% of the glass that is use today.

Addition of lead oxide, barium and lanthanum oxide can increase glass refractive
index, making it more reflecting and suitable for optical purposes (eyeglasses and
lenses). Thorium oxide served a similar role in the past, but it was phased out from
manufacture because of its radioactivity.

Sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide can be added to prevent the
creation of air bubbles in the glass mixture.

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 Iron can strengthen ability of glass to absorb infrared energy and heat. Glass made
that way can today most commonly be found in movie projectors.

Cerium (IV) oxide is responsible for absorbing UV radiation.

Boron oxide is one of the main ingredients in so called Pyrex glass. Its ability to
strengthen the structure of glass and protect it from thermal expansion, cracking and
thermal shock makes it perfect for production of many kitchen cookware, optical
component and reagent bottles.

Figure 2. Equilibrium structures of soda-lime silica glass. (a) as-melt model and (b) ion-
exchanged (IEX) model. Lines show interatomic bonds among network formers (Si, Al,
and O). Yellow and blue particles are sodium and potassium atoms, respectively.

Source:https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Equilibrium-structures-of-soda-lime-silica-
glass-a-as-melt-model-and-b-ion-exchanged_fig1_320817661

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4. GLASS SHAPING

After the preparation and melting phases of the main components, it is time to
shape the rested glass paste. However, the temperature should be reduced below the
melting temperature (≈1100oC) in order to form the products made with plain glass. The
viscosity (≈10 poise) of the glass at this temperature is called a “Working temperature”.

In order to facilitate the melting of oxides, which can form mesh and glass,
substances added to the glass composition are called melters. These substances reduce
the melting temperature of the glazing agents and facilitate their melting. Especially the
melting degree of silicon at 1713 ˚C decreases to 1550˚C. Since melters enter the network
and change it, melters are also called modifiers. The most important melter used in glass
production is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or Soda, which is commonly used. Soda, as a
unit price, is one of the most expensive raw materials used in glass production.

Figure 3. Viscosity curves for different glass families and characteristic temperatures

Source: Springer Handbook of Glass pp 1259-1292- Glass Shaping

Stabilizers have an effect on the glass's chemical resistance, refractive index, and
dielectric properties. A glass without a stabilizer added to its formula does not show
stability against water. These glasses are called water glasses. The main substances used
as stabilizers are CaO, BaO, PbO, MgO and ZnO. CaO is achieved by adding limestone

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(CaCO3) and MgO to the glass formula of dolomite (MgCO3). With the heating of these
two substances, the CO2 in their body exits and oxides remain. Like CaCO3 = CaO +
CO2.

Glass formation depends on cooling rate (usually fast cooling), which can be done
using melt quenching technique. It does not depend on melt temperature as glass
transition temperature always less than melting temperature. However melt temperature
is important in order to mixing the alloys composition uniformly. Also should careful to
increase temperature after melting point as it might cause burst of ampules(container in
which alloys got sealed) due to increment of partial pressure.

In short we melt materials so that we can solidify again at different cooling rate
(by melt quenching in your case) to form glass. so higher temperature than melting point
would not affect (But should be less than evaporation temperature).

It has to benoted that some shaping processes at high temperatures do not start
from a glass melt but from a glass substrate or glass powder previously prepared. Use of
glass frits as sealant (e.g., glass-to-metal seals in applications such as batteries or glass
fritting for production on filters (for labware notably)are some examples of such
processes.

Shaping a glass work-piece at low temperatures requires damaging the material in

its brittle regime. Different material-removal processes are used to shape this material:
cutting glass using a scratch or cut-off wheel, drilling of glass, grinding and polishing of
glass,abrasive air jet or water jet shaping. Depending on the process, we can distinguish
two kinds of elemental loading mechanism: Particle normal impact, commonly found in
typical processes based on force boundary conditions suchas abrasive air jet or water jet.
Scratching, which appears in other processes imposing displacement boundary
conditions.

Plates for mirror applications have been made by grinding/polishing the sheet
glass on both sides. In the most automated form, the sheet in the double rollers process,
is allowed to pass through large, slurryfed grinding and polishing discs contacting the
glass on both sides (called the twin grinding process). Flat glass so obtained had the
desired quality of optics but lacked the strength because of the surface flaws generated
by the grinding and polishing.

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 Glass shaping is done by machine or hand molding. After preparation and melting
phases, the rest of the glass dough is formed. The important factor in shaping with the
machine is the design of the glass machine so that the glassware is completed in a few
seconds. For this reason, it is necessary to solve design problems such as heat transfer,
stability of metals, bearing clearance, etc. In order for the products to be made with
ordinary glass to be shaped, the temperature must be lowered below the melting
temperature.

Figure 4. Transition and melting point graphic of glass

Source:https://www.quora.com/Is-the-glass-transition-simply-the-melting-point-for-
amorphous-solids

Glass material can be shaped by eight methods. Each glass material can be shaped
by a formatting method suitable for its own structure. Some glass shaping methods can
be used for many glass materials.

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4.1 Blowing Method

Blowing method is divided into many parts within itself. These are glass
production methods that enable more artistic glass production. These are six types such
as crushing method, blowing by blowing method, spinning-tossing method, wraping
method, inside-out turning method, pulling and pouring method.

Figure 5. Blowing method

Source: http://www.millikultur.com/index.php/cini-seramik-sanati/269-cam-yapimi-
tarihi

This method is one of the oldest among the forming methods. In this method, the
glass paste taken from the glass furnace with an iron pipe is shaped by blowing from the
other end of the pipe. This process can be done by blowing the glass paste into a two-
piece mold, without using mold, the glass at the end of the iron pipe. It can also be made
by rotating the dough from time to time. The glass thickness and size of the product to be
obtained depends on the experience and skills of the workers performing these operations.
The glass is re-heated by inserting it into the lavatory furnace and brought to the viscosity
that is suitable for shaping. Thus, the shaping process is continued. With this method,
bottles, demijons and similar objects can be made.

4.1.1 Crushing Method

It is a method that has been widely used in every period starting from the first
applications of the history of glass making. In a way, the easiest and fastest shaping of
the accessed soft glass can be accomplished by crushing. Usually it is a very easy way.
15
Molten poured on a suitable surface or mold. it is seen that the glass is formed by crushing
and compacting.

However, it is suitable for proving very limited shapes. Therefore, it was used in
the first applications of glasswork, mostly in the production of flat surface shapes. By
pressing, glass forming is a single process and generally very lean results are produced.
It involves great difficulties. Over time, the method of crushing has shown various
improvements, but few changes have been made in the basic principles. In addition,
during the application of other glass shaping methods, hot glass was used as a side
technique very widely.

4.1.2 Blowing By Blowing Method

One of the most important stages of glass making methods is the discovery of the
blowing rod. First, it is necessary to stand on the blowing rod. A specially prepared metal
pipe is immersed in the glass in the liquid state in the crucible and is taken out by rotating
it slightly.If the glass in this liquid state cools down slightly and blows slowly from the
end of the pipe, the glass starts to swell and a smooth sphere is formed. The little sphere
is now ready to be immersed in the melted glass in the crucible and to form a larger glass
mass once again around it.

Figure 6. Blowing rod and glass blowing

Source:https://www.ensonhaber.com/kultur-sanat/tarihi-cok-eskilere-dayanan-cam-
ufleme-sanati

16
 It is clear what a skill described in such a simple way requires a great deal of skill.
But once it is, we can see that the blowing techniques have developed at a very rapid pace
once it has emerged, because the fact that the blowing and blowing method of this pipe
has brought new possibilities to previous production ways. But since it can be applied
together with previous techniques, it has also been a pioneer of many innovations.

The most important of these is this; Until that time, glass, which can be produced
with limited techniques, in limited numbers and in limited forms, has suddenly overcame
these limits.

Figure 7. Blow pipe

Source: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Blowpipe_(tool)

The first glass products made for daily life have remained from those dates.
However, it should not be thought that the blowing technique developed only cheap,
simple glass. On the contrary, it has brought a completely new direction to the art of glass
and created a suitable ground for brand new creativity. Even the first flat glass plate was
obtained by cutting and straightening a balloon that was baked and rolled. Blowing has
become one of the milestones of glass technology. After this stage, which facilitates and
speeds production, the chemical and physical properties of glass have also developed
rapidly. More transparent, thin and superior technical aspects have been made.

17
4.1.3 Spinning-Tossing Method

Tossing is one of the techniques that have been used extensively in glass making
in every period, but its own norms have not been established and are not named too much.

The exact equivalent of tossing is the centrifugal force. By wrapping it on a hot

glass rod and rotating it at a suitable speed, the molten glass is rolled up and special forms
are formed. Since there is no mold or a similar shape, the basic feature of the glass is a
soft and comfortable form, which we call the glass. is the relief process.

It is possible to make a blown glass rotated around its axis while it is still warm,
and it is possible to create a jug that has been cut by burning and burning it, but an
interesting method brought by direct tossing is an example applied in every period of
glass history. products are created because a shape can only be formed by turning a large
mass until it cools down.

It is important to pour the glass into a non-rotating mold in the tossing, wait for
this molten glass to balance itself within the mold for a very short time, and then ensure
that the mold rotates at an appropriate speed. If it is confined to the mold and stopped, all
the details and textural features of that mold pass to the glass. Undoubtedly due to the
self-forming feature, the tossing products are generally symmetrical and one-piece. It is
very difficult to make any joints.

The general characteristics of the tossing products are simple, balanced,

symmetrical, soft and not very thin glass. The technical development of the spinning is
based on the development of the shape changes during the rotation of the glass with the
mold with the appropriate mold technique. The fact that the surfaces are flat, soft and
spherical are the result of tossing and spinnig.

4.1.4 Wrapping Method

In any glass workshop, a person watching the production is very surprised when
he sees that the glass is taken from the crucible either with a stick or another tool.When
he melts and rotates the glass rod, which is extremely fluid, it clings to the end and causes
the principles of glass forming to appear. The shape begins to be produced as wrapping
first. The glass to be wrapped on a stick has a weight limit. For this purpose, it is cooled
and taken up by wrapping glass again several times in order to obtain larger shapes. This
feature has been used in many different ways. For example, it is possible to wrap another

18
color of glass in every dip in the crucible. Colorful beads are interesting examples of such
an application.

What features does wrapping have in terms of glass technology? The most
important of these is that the layers wrapped around each other, both color, texture and
blending together, give more interesting appearances and reach very rich results. The
basis of all these glass methods lies in the fact that the glass can be made in layers, in a
certain order. Basically such a well known winding method was able to produce really
surprising results in various periods of glass history.

The wrapping method has been widely used in almost every period of the glass
history. It is also used with the same widely today. The forms obtained in this way are
very suitable for all kinds of attachment operations. It is difficult to fix if there is any
disruption in the way produced in this way. It is not possible to melt and reuse such a
damaged glass as it consists of various glasses. Moreover, all the material used must be
in full compliance with the technical specifications. Otherwise, spontaneous cracks and
breaks occur over time.

4.1.5 Inside-Out Turning Method

While focusing on the interesting features of glass production, comments that are
not seen in other materials and production methods are remarkable. A surprising situation
in glass mastery is interesting changes that can be made during the process on the
produced form. Those who use these paths in glass have already achieved very free
results. In terms of production, the colored part that is placed inside the glass is taken out
by reversing at the end of the work. Why is such a way applied? In terms of glass
technology, some operations in advance affect the resulting success. So the technical
priority is the order.

4.1.6 Pulling And Pouring Method

Even though we call this glass forming way, it can be called pouring, because
melted and liquefied glass is already ready to flow and it is very natural to form using
these ways. Therefore, all glassware products are based on this flowability feature. It is
transported by turning to prevent flow. A flowing material can be cut, crushed, pulled
with suitable tools. From these forms, it is usually possible to obtain products close to the
thick plate or roller as there is no puffing process. The pulling also gives an interesting

19
opportunity to grab a part of a large mass. The well-known and striking example of this
is the way used in making glass rods.One of the oldest glass technique, pulling bar is one
of the most important areas of its production today. If you pull the bar at a certain speed,
the rapidly cooling glass begins to elongate with a uniform thickness, just like a thread
wraps from a ball.This elongation lasts until the mass of the hot glass ends or cools. If
you pull fast, the bar becomes thinner, if you pull it slow, it becomes thick.

Pouring is an application that gives many interesting results. The basic principle
is that the glass mass taken at the end of the bar is poured either by flowing into a mold
or in a special order. It forms in a way that reflects the balance of the natural structure of
glass very well.

4.2 Bulk-Cylinder Method

In this method, it is applied by pouring the glass dough on a flat table and then
turning it into a plate by passing a roller over it. The thickness of the glass determines the
two metal laths on which it is rolled, placed on both sides of the table and spreading the
glass paste.

Figure 8. Schematic representation of Bulk-Cylinder Method

Source: http://193.255.140.18/Tez/0073823/METIN.pdf

One side of the glasses produced with this method is flat and the other side is
patterned. In some cases, both sides of the glass can be patterned. Patterns, on the roller
rolled on the casting table, the patterns obtained in the form of indentations and
protrusions are very diverse, but since they are all provided in a sense by means of
printing, these glasses are called printed glasses.

20
4.3 Pulling Method

The basis of drawing methods used today to directly produce flat-sided glass is
horizontal on molten glass pulp. Flat glass has been handcrafted for a long time as an
extremely handcrafted piece. The basis of pulling methods used today to obtain flat plate
glass directly is to put a flat iron on the melted glass dough horizontally and adhere to the
iron lamella, depending on the cohesion strength. It is based on pulling up like a curtain.
Thanks to the cohesion of the glass, 1.50 m wide and maximum 7 mm thick glass plate
can be drawn in this way. Thicker glass production is not realized with this method. The
production of sheet glass by drawing method is referred to as Fourcault, Colburn and
Pittsbourgh in the order of their emergence.

4.3.1 Fourcault Method

In this method, the glass was pulled up with a flat iron. The drawn glass is fed by
a flowrate adjuster called a debitus made of flame-resistant (refractory) material floating
on the melted glass pulp (Figure 3.6). The glass plate moves upwards, the rollers on both
sides turn to each other in opposite directions and help this. It is provided to cool down
by passing water through the heated rollers. After the glass plate is pulled up 12-15
meters, it cools sufficiently and solidifies. It is then cut to standard sizes with the help of
cutters.

Figure 9. Beginning of glass production with Fourcault Method

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4.3.2 Colburn Method

In this method, debitus is removed. In order to keep the glass leaf fixed, two rollers
rotating in opposite directions are placed on the edges of the cem leaf that is pulled up.
Stabilization of the glass strip is provided by the coolers on the glass bath and placed very
close to the strip. Another important change in this method is to pull the glass sheet
vertically up to 1.50 m height and then turn it 90 degrees to make it horizontal. Due to
this change, the roller that rotates 90 degrees of the glass sheet is of great importance.

Figure 10. Pulling by colburn method

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4.3.3 Pittsbourgh Method

This method, which is the third method used in the production of sheet glass with
the drawing method, is similar to the Fourcault method by drawing the glass vertically
and the Colburn method with the removal of the debituse. The obtained sheet glass has
no traces on the glass, and when perfectly bright, a sheet glass is produced.

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Figure 11. Pulling by Pittsbourgh Method

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4.4 Floating Method

Plate glass, which cannot be obtained by other methods, could be produced.In this
plate glass produced by this method, the surfaces are parallel to each other, the glass
surfaces can be obtained very smoothly and very brightly, and there is no need for any
polishing and similar treatment afterwards.

The main ingredients melted in the pool furnace are drawn horizontally between
the two water-cooled rollers where it can be seen, adjusted to the desired thickness and
rolled, or passed through the refractory throat, with a free fall, passing through a second
pool with molten tin inside. The relationship between the feeding speed of the glass and
the glass pulling speed is the factor that makes up the thickness of the glass.

This method, which was introduced in England for the first time in the late 1960s,
produced more qualified glass than other methods used in sheet glass production. In the
sheet glass obtained with this method, the surfaces are parallel to each other, the glass
surfaces can be obtained very smoothly and very brightly, without the need for any
polishing and similar treatment afterwards.

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Figure 12. Glass production with flotation method

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4.5 Pressing Method

In this method, it is ensured that molten glass dough is put into a two-piece mold
and this dough is pressed and shaped. The amount of glass dough to be put in the mold is
equal to that of the piece to be obtained.

However, since this is very difficult, the molds used have a third and moving parts.
In the event that there is a little or a little more than necessary, the third and moving parts
move up or down, allowing the glass paste to fill the mold completely. With this method,
conical parts can be produced in a way that can be avoided. After the glass solidifies, the
mold formed by opening the mold is removed and a new one is formed.,

Figure 13. Glass production with Pressing method

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4.6 Fiber Transform Method

The glass, which was previously ball-shaped to make the glass fiber, is placed in
a long vessel with small holes under it. Glass balls that are melted by heating flow down
through the holes in the bottom of the boat, gaining a large surface tension and become
very thin and fiber.

The glass, which becomes fiber and cools, is released on a bottom roller. Then,
glass fiber is taken from the cylinder, and materials of different qualities are produced.
When pressurized steam is blown on the glass that flows from the boat above and becomes
a fiber, glass fibers are blown together and take the appearance of cotton. This is called
glass cotton. The blown glass cotton material is called glass wool. The type of glass fiber
produced for use in weaving is called glass silk.

Figure 14. Reinforced glass fiber

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4.7 Foaming Transform Method

In foaming, the glass is heated together with pure carbon, so that carbon emits gas
and glass root is formed. The foamed glass shows many different physical chemical
properties. These include sufficient compressive strength, fireproof, lightness, high level
of heat retention, dimensional invariance etc. can summarize as. This method is a fairly
new technology.

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Figure 15. Foaming method

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4.8 Centrifuge Method

Apart from building materials, there are several shaping methods used in the
production of some other materials. One of them is the centrifuge method.

In this method, cylindrical parts are generally produced by rotating the glass
dough around a vertical or horizontal axis. The tubular rear parts of the television tubes
are made by the vertical centrifuge method. Cylindrical sleeves with a large diameter (50
cm) and a thickness of 2.5 cm are made by the horizontal centrifuge method.

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 REFERENCES

1. http://www.bullseyeglass.com/all-methods.html
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3. http://www.me.nchu.edu.tw/lab/CIM/www/courses/Manufacturing%20Processes/Ch
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2nd edition 2005)
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