NASA Facts

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, CA 91109

Viking Mission to Mars

NASA’s Viking Project was the culmination of a August 7, 1976.
series of missions to explore Mars that had begun in
After studying orbiter photos, the Viking site cer-
1964 with Mariner 4, and continued with the Mariner
tification team considered the original landing site
6 and 7 flybys in
proposed for
1969, and the
Viking 1 unsafe.
Mariner 9 orbital
The team exam-
mission in 1971
ined nearby
and 1972.
sites, and Viking
Viking found a
1 landed on
place in history
Mars July 20,
when it became
1976, on the
the first Amer-
western slope of
ican mission to
Chryse Planitia
land a spacecraft
(the Plains of
safely on the
Gold) at 22.3
surface of Mars.
degrees north
Two identi- latitude, 48.0
cal spacecraft, degrees longi-
each consisting tude.
of a lander and
The site cer-
an orbiter, were
tification team
built. Each
also decided the
orbiter-lander
planned landing site for Viking 2 was unsafe after it
pair flew together and entered Mars orbit; the landers
examined high-resolution photos. Certification of a
then separated and descended to the planet’s surface.
new landing site took place in time for a Mars landing
Mission Design September 3, 1976, at Utopia Planitia, at 47.7 degrees
north latitude and 48.0 degrees longitude.
Both spacecraft were launched from Cape
Canaveral, Florida -- Viking 1 on August 20, 1975, The Viking mission was planned to continue for
and Viking 2 on September 9, 1975. The landers were 90 days after landing. Each orbiter and lander operat-
sterilized before launch to prevent contamination of ed far beyond its design lifetime. Viking Orbiter 1
Mars with organisms from Earth. The spacecraft spent exceeded four years of active flight operations in
nearly a year cruising to Mars. Viking 1 reached Mars Mars orbit.
orbit June 19, 1976; Viking 2 began orbiting Mars The Viking project's primary mission ended
November 15, 1976, 11 days before Mars’ superior The basic structure of the orbiter was an octagon
conjunction (its passage behind the Sun). After con- approximately 2.4 meters (8 feet) across. The eight
junction, in mid-December 1976, controllers reestab- sides of the ring-like structure were 45.7 centimeters
lished telemetry and command operations, and began (18 inches) high and were alternately 1.4 by 0.6
extended-mission operations. meters (55 by 22 inches).
The first spacecraft to cease functioning was Electronic bays were mounted to the faces of the
Viking Orbiter 2, on July 25, 1978; the spacecraft had structure and the propulsion module was attached at
used all the gas in its attitude-control system, which four points. There were 16 bays, or compartments,
kept the craft's solar panels pointed at the Sun to three on each of the long sides and one on each short
power the orbiter. When the spacecraft drifted off the side.
Sun line, the controllers at JPL sent commands to shut
The orbiter was 3.3 meters (10.8 feet) high and
off power to Viking Orbiter 2's transmitter.
9.7 meters (32 feet) across the extended solar panels.
Viking Orbiter 1 began to run short of attitude- With fuel, the orbiters weighed in excess of 2,300
control gas in 1978, but through careful planning to kilograms (5,000 pounds).
conserve the remaining supply, engineers found it
Combined area of the four panels was 15 square
possible to continue acquiring science data at a
meters (161 square feet), and they provided both reg-
reduced level for another two years. The gas supply
ulated and unregulated direct current power; unregu-
was finally exhausted and Viking Orbiter 1's electrical
lated power was provided to the radio transmitter and
power was commanded off on August 7, 1980, after
the lander.
1,489 orbits of Mars.
Two 30-amp-hour, nickel-cadmium, rechargeable
The last data from Viking Lander 2 arrived at
batteries provided power when the spacecraft was not
Earth on April 11, 1980. Lander 1 made its final
facing the Sun during launch, correction maneuvers
transmission to Earth Nov. 11, 1982. Controllers at
and Mars occultation.
JPL tried unsuccessfully for another six and one-half
months to regain contact with Viking Lander 1. The The orbiter was stabilized in flight by locking
overall mission came to an end May 21, 1983. onto the Sun for pitch and yaw references and onto
the star Canopus for roll reference. The attitude con-
Viking Orbiters trol subsystem kept this attitude with nitrogen gas jets
The Viking spacecraft consisted of two large located at the solar panel tips. The jets would fire to
orbiters, each weighing 2,325 kilograms (5,125 correct any drift. A cruise Sun sensor and the
pounds) with fuel. Each orbiter carried a lander, Canopus sensor provided error signals. Before Sun
weighing 576 kilograms (1,270 pounds), and their acquisition four acquisition Sun sensors were used
design was greatly influenced by the size of these lan- and then turned off.
ders. The attitude control subsystem also operated in an
The orbiters were a follow-on design to the all-inertial mode or in roll-inertial with pitch and yaw
Mariner class of planetary spacecraft with specific control, still using the Sun sensors. During correction
design changes for the 1976 surface mission. maneuvers, the attitude control subsystem aligned the
Operational lifetime requirements for the orbiters vehicle to a specified attitude in response to com-
were 120 days in orbit and 90 days after landing. mands from the on-board computer. Attitude control
during engine burns was provided in roll by the atti-
The combined weight of the orbiter and lander tude control subsystem and in pitch and yaw by an
was one factor that contributed to an 11-month transit autopilot that commanded engine gimballing.
time to Mars, instead of the five months for Mariner
missions. The longer flight time then dictated an If Sun lock was lost the attitude control subsystem
increased design life for the spacecraft, larger solar automatically realigned the spacecraft. In loss of
panels to allow for longer degradation from solar Canopus lock, the subsystem switched to roll-inertial
radiation and additional attitude control gas. and waited for commands from the spacecraft com-
puter. The nitrogen gas supply for the subsystem
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could be augmented by diverting excess helium gas and lander subsystems.
from the propulsion module, if necessary.
The completely outfitted lander measured approx-
Two on-board general purpose computers in the imately 3 meters (10 feet) across and was about 2
computer command subsystem decoded commands meters (7 feet) tall. It weighed about 576 kilograms
and either ordered the desired function at once or (1, 270 pounds) without fuel.
stored the commands in a 4,096-word plated-wire
The lander and all exterior assemblies were paint-
memory. All orbiter events were controlled by the
ed light gray to reflect solar heat and to protect equip-
computer command subsystem, including correction
ment from abrasion. The paint was made of rubber-
maneuvers, engine burns, science sequences and
based silicone.
high-gain antenna pointing.
The body was a basic platform for science instru-
The main orbiter communications system was a
ments and operational subsystems. It was a hexagon-
two-way, S-band, high-rate radio link providing Earth
shaped box with three 109-centimeter (43-inch) side-
command, radio tracking and science and engineering
beams and three 56-centimeter (22-inch) short sides.
data return. This link used either a steerable 1.5-meter
It looks like a triangle with blunted corners.
(59-inch) dish high-gain antenna or an omni-direc-
tional low-gain antenna, both of them on the orbiter. The box was built of aluminum and titanium
The low-gain antenna was used to send and receive alloys, and was insulated with spun fiberglass and
near Earth, and the high-gain antenna was used as the dacron cloth to protect equipment and to lessen heat
orbiter journeyed farther from Earth. loss. The hollow container was 1.5 meters (59 inches)
wide and 46 centimeters (18 inches) deep, with cover
S-band transmission rates varied from 8.3 or 33.3
plates on the top and bottom.
bits per second for engineering data to 2,000 to
16,000 bits per second for lander and orbiter science The lander body was supported by three landing
data. legs, 1.3 meters (51 inches) long, attached to the
short-side bottom corners of the body. The legs gave
Relay from the lander was achieved through an
the lander a ground clearance of 22 centimeters (8.7
antenna mounted on the outer edge of a solar panel. It
inches).
was activated before separation and received from the
lander through separation, entry, landing and surface Each leg had a main strut assembly and an A-
operations. The bit rate during entry and landing was frame assembly, to which was attached a circular
4,000 bits per second; landed rate was 16,000 bits per footpad 30.5 centimeters (12 inches) in diameter. The
second. main struts contained bonded, crushed aluminum hon-
eycomb to reduce the shock of landing.
Data were stored aboard the orbiter on two eight-
track digital tape recorders. Seven tracks were used The two-piece bioshield was a pressurized cocoon
for picture data and the eighth track for infrared data that completely sealed the lander from any possibility
or relayed lander data. Each recorder could store 640 of biological contamination until Viking left Earth’s
million bits. atmosphere.
Data collected by the orbiter, including lander The two bioshield halves generally resembled an
data, were converted into digital form by the flight egg, and the shield’s white thermal paint heightened
data subsystem and routed to the communications the resemblance. It measured 3.7 meters (12 feet) in
subsystem for transmission or to the tape recorders diameter and was 1.9 meters (6.4 feet) deep. It was
for storage. This subsystem also provided timing sig- made of coated, woven fiberglass, 0.13 millimeters
nals for the three orbiter science experiments. (0.005 inches) thin, bonded to an aluminum support
structure.
Viking Lander
The bioshield was vented to prevent over-pressur-
The lander spacecraft was composed of five basic ization and possible rupture of its sterile seal.
systems: the lander body, the bioshield cap and base,
the aeroshell, the base cover and parachute system The aeroshell was an aerodynamic heat shield

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made of aluminum alloy in a 140-degree, flat cone Three terminal descent engines provided attitude
shape and stiffened with concentric rings. It fit control and reduced the lander’s velocity after para-
between the lander and the bioshield base. It was 3.5 chute separation. The 2,600-newton (600-pound)
meters (11.5 feet) in diameter and its aluminum skin throttleable engines were located 120 degrees apart on
was 0.86 millimeters (0.034 inches) thin. the lander’s sidebeams. They burned hydrazine mono-
Bonded to its exterior was a lightweight, cork-like propellant.
ablative material that burned away to protect the lan- The engines used an advanced exhaust design that
der from aerodynamic heating at entry temperatures wouldn’t alter the landing site environment. An
which may have reached 1,500 degrees C. unusual grouping of 18 small nozzles on each engine
The interior of the aeroshell contained twelve would spread engine exhaust over a wide angle that
small reaction control engines, in four clusters of wouldn’t alter the surface or unduly disturb the chem-
three around the aeroshell’s edge, and two spherical ical and biological experiments.
titanium tanks that contained 85 kilograms (188 Two spherical titanium tanks, attached to opposite
pounds) of hydrazine mono-propellant. sides of the lander body beneath the RTG wind cov-
The engines controlled the pitch and yaw to align ers, fed the descent engines from an 85-kilogram (188
the lander for entry, help slow the craft during early pound) hydrazine propellant supply.
entry and maintain roll control. Four small reaction control engines used
During the long cruise phase, an umbilical con- hydrazine mono-propellant thrusters to control lander
nection through the aeroshell provided power from roll attitude during terminal descent. The engines
the orbiter to the lander; housekeeping data also were mounted in pairs on the terminal descent
flowed through this connection. engines’ propellant tanks and were identical to those
used on the aeroshell.
The aeroshell also contained two science instru-
ments -- the upper atmosphere mass spectrometer and The lander was equipped to transmit information
the retarding potential analyzer -- plus pressure and directly to Earth with an S-band communications sys-
temperature sensors. tem, or through the orbiter with an ultra-high frequen-
cy (UHF) relay system. The lander also received
The base cover fit between the bioshield cap and Earth commands through the S-band system.
the lander. It was made of aluminum and fiberglass;
the fiberglass allowed transmission of telemetry data Two S-band receivers provided total redundancy
to the orbiter during entry. It covered the parachute in both command receiving and data transmission.
and its ejection mortar, and protected the lander’s top One receiver used the high-gain antenna, a 76-cen-
during part of the entry phase. timeter (30-inch) diameter parabolic reflector dish
that could be pointed to Earth by computer control.
The parachute was made of lightweight dacron The second receiver used a fixed low-gain antenna to
polyester 16 meters (53 feet) in diameter. It weighed receive Earth commands.
50 kilograms (110 pounds).
The UHF relay system transmitted data to the
The parachute was packed inside a mortar 38 cen- orbiter with a radio transmitter that used a fixed
timeters (15 inches) in diameter and mounted into the antenna. The UHF system operated during entry and
base cover. The mortar was fired to eject the para- during the first three days of landed operations. After
chute at about 139 kilometers per hour (75 miles per that it was operated only during specific periods.
hour). The chute had an extra-long suspension line
that trailed the capsule by about 30 meters (100 feet). The radar altimeter measured the lander’s altitude
during the early entry phase, alerting the lander com-
The lander subsystems were divided into six puter to execute the proper entry commands. The
major categories: descent engines, communications radar was a solid-state pulse radar with two specially
equipment, power sources, landing radars, data stor- designed antennas: one was mounted beneath the lan-
age and guidance and control. der and one was mounted through the aeroshell.
Altitude data were received from 1,370 kilometers
4
down to 30.5 meters (740 miles to 100 feet). timeters (15 inches) in length and weighed 15.3 kilo-
The aeroshell antenna provided high-altitude data grams (34 pounds).
for entry science, vehicle control and parachute The first isotopic space generator was put into ser-
deployment. The lander antenna was switched into vice in June 1961, on a Navy navigational satellite.
operation at aeroshell separation and provided altitude Advances in SNAP systems were made with the
data for guidance and control, and for terminal development and flight of SNAP 19 aboard Nimbus
descent engine ignition. III, launched in April 1969. This use of SNAP 19 rep-
The terminal descent landing radar measured the resented a major milestone in the development of
horizontal velocity of the lander during the final land- long-lived, highly reliable isotope power systems for
ing phase. It was located directly beneath the lander space use by NASA. The SNAP 27 generator was
and was turned on at about 12 kilometers (4,000 feet) developed to power five science stations left on the
above the surface. It consisted of four continuous- Moon by the Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16 and 17 astronauts.
wave Doppler radar beams that could measure veloci- The continuing operation of these generators provided
ty to an accuracy of plus or minus one meter per sec- new dimensions of data about the Moon and the uni-
ond. verse. Four SNAP 19 nuclear generators later provid-
ed the electrical power for each of two NASA pio-
Both radars were essential for mission success, so neering Jupiter flyby spacecraft known as Pioneers 10
the terminal descent landing radar could work with and 11.
any three of its four beams, and identical sets of radar
altimeter electronics could be switched to either of the The generators provided a long-lived source of
radar antennas. electricity and heat on Mars, where sunlight is half as
strong as on Earth, and is non-existent during the
The “brain” of the lander was its guidance control Martian night, when temperatures can drop as low as
and sequencing computer. That computer commanded -120 C (-184 F).
everything the lander did through software (computer
programs) stored in advance or relayed by Earth con- The generators used thermoelectric elements to
trollers. convert heat from decaying plutonium-236 into 70
watts of electrical power.
The computer was one of the greatest technical
challenges of Viking. It consisted of two general-pur- Waste or unconverted heat was conveyed by ther-
pose computer channels with plated-wire memories, mal switches to the lander’s interior instrument com-
each with an 18,000-word storage capacity. One chan- partment, when required. Covers over the RTGs pre-
nel would be operational while the other was in vented excess heat dissipation into the environment.
reserve. Four nickel-cadmium, rechargeable batteries
Among other programs, the computer had instruc- helped supply lander power requirements in peak
tions stored in its memory that could control the lan- activity periods. The batteries, mounted in pairs inside
der’s first 22 days on Mars without any contact from the lander, were charged by the RTGs with power
Earth. These instructions would be updated and modi- available when other lander power requirements were
fied by Earth commands once communications had less than RTG output.
been established. This equipment collected and controlled the flow
Basic power for the lander was provided by two of lander scientific and engineering data. It consisted
SNAP 19-style, 35-watt radioisotope thermoelectric of a data acquisition and processing unit, a data stor-
generators (RTGs) developed by the then U.S. Energy age memory and a tape recorder.
Research and Development Administration. They The data acquisition and processing unit collected
were located atop the lander and were connected in the science and engineering information and routed it
series to double their voltage and reduce power loss. to one of three places: to Earth through the S-band
The SNAP 19 Viking generator was 147 centime- high-gain antenna, to the data storage memory or to
ters (23 inches) across the housing fin tips, 96 cen- the tape recorder.

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 Information was stored in the data storage memo- at the landing sites. Weather in the Martian midsum-
ry for short periods. Several times a day the memory mer was repetitious, but in other seasons it became
would transfer data to the tape recorder or back to the variable and more interesting. Cyclic variations
data acquisition and processing unit for further trans- appeared in weather patterns (probably the passage of
mission. The memory had a storage capacity of 8,200 alternating cyclones and anticyclones). Atmospheric
words. temperatures at the southern landing site (Viking
Data were stored on the tape recorder for long Lander 1) were as high as -14 C (7 F) at midday, and
periods. The recorder could transmit at high speed the predawn summer temperature was -77 C (-107 F).
back through the data acquisition and processing unit, In contrast, the diurnal temperatures at the northern
and the UHF link to an orbiter passing overhead. The landing site (Viking Lander 2) during midwinter dust
recorder could store as many as 40 million bits of storms varied as little as 4 degrees C (7 degrees F) on
information and it could record at two speeds and some days. The lowest predawn temperature was -120
play back at five. C (-184 F), about the frost point of carbon dioxide. A
thin layer of water frost covered the ground around
Science Experiments Viking Lander 2 each winter.
With a single exception -- the seismic instruments Barometric pressure varies at each landing site on
-- the science instruments acquired more data than a semiannual basis, because carbon dioxide, the major
expected. The seismometer on Viking Lander 1 would constituent of the atmosphere, freezes out to form an
not work after landing, and the seismometer on immense polar cap, alternately at each pole. The car-
Viking Lander 2 detected only one event that may bon dioxide forms a great cover of snow and then
have been seismic. Nevertheless, it provided data on evaporates again with the coming of spring in each
wind velocity at the landing site to supplement infor- hemisphere. When the southern cap was largest, the
mation from the meteorology experiment, and showed mean daily pressure observed by Viking Lander 1 was
that Mars has very low seismic background. as low as 6.8 millibars; at other times of the year it
was as high as 9.0 millibars. The pressures at the
The three biology experiments discovered unex-
Viking Lander 2 site were 7.3 and 10.8 millibars. (For
pected and enigmatic chemical activity in the Martian
comparison, the surface pressure on Earth at sea level
soil, but provided no clear evidence for the presence
is about 1,000 millibars.)
of living microorganisms in soil near the landing
sites. According to mission biologists, Mars is self- Martian winds generally blow more slowly than
sterilizing. They believe the combination of solar expected. Scientists had expected them to reach
ultraviolet radiation that saturates the surface, the speeds of several hundred miles an hour from observ-
extreme dryness of the soil and the oxidizing nature ing global dust storms, but neither lander recorded
of the soil chemistry prevent the formation of living gusts over 120 kilometers (74 miles) an hour, and
organisms in the Martian soil. The question of life on average velocities were considerably lower.
Mars at some time in the distant past remains open. Nevertheless, the orbiters observed more than a dozen
small dust storms. During the first southern summer,
The landers' gas chromatograph/mass spectrome-
two global dust storms occurred, about four Earth
ter instruments found no sign of organic chemistry at
months apart. Both storms obscured the Sun at the
either landing site, but they did provide a precise and
landing sites for a time and hid most of the planet's
definitive analysis of the composition of the Martian
surface from the orbiters' cameras. The strong winds
atmosphere and found previously undetected trace
that caused the storms blew in the southern hemi-
elements. The X-ray fluorescence spectrometers mea-
sphere.
sured elemental composition of the Martian soil.
Photographs from the landers and orbiters sur-
Viking measured physical and magnetic properties
passed expectations in quality and quantity. The total
of the soil. As the landers descended toward the sur-
exceeded 4,500 from the landers and 52,000 from the
face they also measured composition and physical
orbiters. The landers provided the first close-up look
properties of the Martian upper atmosphere.
at the surface, monitored variations in atmospheric
The two landers continuously monitored weather
6
opacity over several Martian years, and determined planet is dry, probably also an effect of the dust
the mean size of the atmospheric aerosols. The orbiter storms.
cameras observed new and often puzzling terrain and
! The density of both of Mars’ satellites is low --
provided clearer detail on known features, including
about two grams per cubic centimeter -- implying that
some color and stereo observations. Viking's orbiters
they originated as asteroids captured by Mars’ gravity.
mapped 97 percent of the Martian surface.
The surface of Phobos is marked with two families of
The infrared thermal mappers and the atmospheric parallel striations, probably fractures caused by a
water detectors on the orbiters acquired data almost large impact that may nearly have broken Phobos
daily, observing the planet at low and high resolution. apart.
The massive quantity of data from the two instru-
! Measurements of the round-trip time for radio
ments will require considerable time for analysis and
signals between Earth and the Viking spacecraft,
understanding of the global meteorology of Mars.
made while Mars was beyond the Sun (near the solar
Viking also definitively determined that the residual
conjunctions), have determined delay of the signals
north polar ice cap (that survives the northern sum-
caused by the Sun's gravitational field. The result
mer) is water ice, rather than frozen carbon dioxide
confirms Albert Einstein's prediction to an estimated
(dry ice) as once believed.
accuracy of 0.1 percent -- 20 times greater than any
Analysis of radio signals from the landers and the other test.
orbiters -- including Doppler, ranging and occultation
! Atmospheric pressure varies by 30 percent dur-
data, and the signal strength of the lander-to-orbiter
ing the Martian year because carbon dioxide condens-
relay link -- provided a variety of valuable informa-
es and sublimes at the polar caps.
tion.
! The permanent north cap is water ice; the
Other Significant Discoveries southern cap probably retains some carbon dioxide
Other significant discoveries of the Viking mis- ice through the summer.
sion included: ! Water vapor is relatively abundant only in the
! The Martian surface is a type of iron-rich clay far north during the summer, but subsurface water
that contains a highly oxidizing substance that releas- (permafrost) covers much if not all of the planet.
es oxygen when it is wetted. ! Northern and southern hemispheres are drasti-
! The surface contains no organic molecules that cally different climatically, because of the global dust
were detectable at the parts-per-billion level -- less, in storms that originate in the south in summer.
fact, than soil samples returned from the Moon by
Apollo astronauts. The Viking Team
NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton,
! Nitrogen, never before detected, is a significant VA, had management responsibility for the Viking
component of the Martian atmosphere, and enrich-
project from its inception in 1968 until April 1, 1978,
ment of the heavier isotopes of nitrogen and argon
when the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA,
relative to the lighter isotopes implies that atmospher-
assumed the task. Langley and JPL managed the mis-
ic density was much greater than in the distant past.
sion for NASA’s Office of Space Science,
! Changes in the Martian surface occur extreme- Washington, DC. JPL designed and built the Viking
ly slowly, at least at the Viking landing sites. Only a orbiters, managed tracking and data acquisition
few small changes took place during the mission life- through the Deep Space Network and managed
time. Viking’s mission control and computing center. The
former Martin Marietta Aerospace in Denver, CO,
! The greatest concentration of water vapor in
the atmosphere is near the edge of the north polar cap designed and built the Viking landers. NASA's Lewis
in midsummer. From summer to fall, peak concentra- Research Center in Cleveland, OH, had responsibility
tion moves toward the equator, with a 30 percent for the Titan-Centaur launch vehicles.
decrease in peak abundance. In southern summer, the At NASA Langley, James S. Martin Jr. was
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Viking project manager; Dr. Gerald A. Soffen was ogy investigation; Dr. Klaus Biemann of the
Viking project scientist. At NASA Headquarters, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who led the
Walter Jakobowski was Viking program manager; Dr. molecular analysis investigation; and Dr. Priestley
Loyal G. Goff was Viking program scientist. Toulmin III, team leader of the inorganic chemistry
Leaders of the scinece teams included Dr. Michael investigation.
H. Carr of the U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, The meteorology investigation was led by Dr.
CA, team leader of the orbiter imaging investigation; Seymour L. Hess of Florida State University; the seis-
Dr. Crofton B. “Barney” Farmer of JPL, team leader mology investigation was led by Dr. Don L. Anderson
of the water vapor mapping investigation; Dr. Hugh of the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena,
H. Kieffer of the University of California, Los CA; Dr. Richard W. Shorthill of the University of
Angeles, team leader of the thermal mapping investi- Utah led the physical properties investigation; and Dr.
gation; Dr. Alfred O.C. Nier of the University of Robert B. Hargraves of Princeton University was
Minnesota, Minneapolis, who led the entry science principal investigator on the magnetic properties
investigation; and Dr. Thomas A. “Tim” Mutch of team. Radio science investigations were led by Dr.
Brown University, Providence, RI, team leader of the William H. Michael Jr. of NASA’s Langley Research
lander imaging investigation. Center, Hampton, VA.
Investigators on the Viking biology experiments
were Dr. Harold P. Klein of NASA Ames Research
1988 DB
Center, Mountain View, CA, who led the Viking biol-