Tenebrism in Baroque Painting and Its Ideological Background

Author(s): Maria Rzepińska and Krystyna Malcharek

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Artibus et Historiae, Vol. 7, No. 13 (1986), pp. 91-112
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MARIA RZEPINSKA

Tenebrism in Baroque Painting and Its Ideological Background

The subject of the present study occurred to me as a result of Baroque paintings (as well as of those from later periods)
of observations in museums and at numerous exhibitions of have an overall dark tone owing to chemical changes in the
17th century painting.1. The art historians who analyse this paint itself. This was already noted by earlier historiographers,
painting usually employ stylistic categories such as Mannerism, who drew a distinction between purely external, physical
anti-Mannerism, Classicism, anti-Classicism, dynamic Baroque, causes (the kind of paint vehicles) and a change in taste which
or Naturalism. These categories, frequently disputable, have took place in a certain historical period.2. The strong contrasts
been omitted in this study with the exception of the term of light and shade and the large areas of darkness in the
"Baroque", which is conventionally accepted for the 17th pictures of the extremely numerous group of 17th century
century in the division into periods. In the painting of that artists were the expression of a definite stylistic trend called
time the relation of light and shade is the main problem of "pittura tenebrosa". The trend, if noticed at all, was by no
the visual structure and the most characteristic means of means praised by earlier critics.3. This referred above all to
expression. I noticed that the way in which light appeared in the art of Caravaggio, whose formulation of the new artistic
1 7th century paintings was conditioned by the intensity and idiom was the most radical [Fig. 1]. The critical texts on this
extent of their dark parts. From about 1600 onwards darkness subject written at the time are widely known. In particular
took up "statistically" more and more space, and in numerous they condemn violent contrasts between light and shade, the
Italian and Spanish pictures it predominated over light, "soverchia oscurita", the plunging of some parts into obscurity,
frequently spreading over two-thirds or more of the area of this being regarded as ruinous to the drawing. It is striking
the canvas. how the criticism and theory of the 17th century diverged
It should be pointed out at once that today a large number from living art. The categories of estimation did not go beyond

1 Here is a list of the major exhibitions of

painting of the period 1795-1796, Voll. II,pp. 159-160.
under discussion: Mostradel Caravaggioe dei Caravaggeschi,Milano 3 Cf. Francesco Scanelli, Microcosmodella pittura,Cesena 1657,
1951; Mostradel manierismopiemontese e lombardodel 600' Torino p. 115: ..."11medesimo pittore da Canto (...) haveva sentito piu volte
1955; Maestri della pittura del Seicento emiliano, Bologna 1959; dolersi coloro, che possedono i dipintidella propriasua primamaniera,
Caravaggioe Caravaggeschi,Napoli 1963; Tanzioda Varallo,Torino per nascondere gli occhi, bocca e altre membra nella soverchia
1960; Mostra del Cerano Novara 1967; Lichteffektein der Malerei, oscurita,e per ci6 non havere stimato compite alcune parti,coll'asser-
Wien 1971; II Seicento lombardo, Milano 1973; / Caravaggeschi ire ben spesso non conoscere le faccie e talvolta anco le azioni
francesi, Roma 1975; Caravaggioy el naturalismoespagnol, Madrid particolaridelle figure". Passages from the source texts criticizing
1973; Cinquantaanni di pittura veronese 1580-1630, Verona 1974; Caravaggiowere collected by B. Joffroy,Le dossier de Caravage,Paris
L'immaginedi San Francesco nella Controriforma,Roma 1982. 1959; Cf. also: R. Longhi,"Alcunipezzi rarinell'antologiadella critica
2 GiulioCesare Malvasia,Felsinapittrice, Bologna 1678 (two vol.), caravaggesca",Paragone 1951, nr. 15, marzo, pp. 41-62.
Vol. II,p. 58; LuigiLanzi,Storiapittoricad'talia (Threevol.), Bassano

91
 innovation in it can be defined as the "discovery of darkness",
or the "discovery of night". This is naturally connected with
the way of using light. In the very few works dealing with
light in the history of art it has been observed that light plays
a particularly important role in Baroque painting, some authors
emphasizing its realistic and "temporal" function of posing
the presented scene at a specified time (night, day, dawn,
dusk).5, whereas others brought out the religious interpretation
of light.6. However, no one has taken up the problem of
darkness, so characteristic of the visual structure and the kind
of expression in the vast majority of 17th century paintings.
The painters of the Baroque have given us beautiful pictures
of a "real" night, moonlit landscapes (Elsheimer, Rubens). Yet
it is not these pictures that are typical of the "Maniera
tenebrosa". The most characteristic feature of the latter is the
use of condensed light, giving the impression of being artificial
(late Tintoretto, Caravaggio, Ribera, Honthorst, and Georges
de la Tour). It is possible to obtain such an effect of light only
by employing a c t ive d a r k n e s s. Such darkness is a value
active both artistically and psychologically and is indispensable
for displaying various possibilities of light and for introducing
an element of mystery, ambiguity, and understatement. The
1) Caravaggio, (<Vocation of Saint Mathew>, Roma, San
contrast with darkness lends to the light a dynamic quality
Luigi dei Francesi.
and brings in the element of drama and pathos [Fig. 2]. Thanks
to this contrast the traditional biblical subjects acquire an
exalted mood and new meanings. The darkness of paintings,
deepening from the late 16th century onwards, does not
concern solely the scenes called "notti", in which the action
the sterotypes of traditional classical aesthetics which had takes place at night and is illuminated with a "real" source of
taken shape in the Renaissance.4. Like Caravaggio, Rembrandt light, a torch or an oil lamp. In the vast majority of religious
too was accused of hiding in shadow his defects in drawing. pictures the place and time of the scene are undecipherable.
In view of the present sensitivity to the formal, expressive, We are not sure whether it is day or night, whether the scene
and psychological values of art, it can be stated that we realize is laid indoors or outdoors. The source of light is very frequently
better than the earlier theorists the changes that occurred in invisible, remaining outside the picture, so that only a shaft
the pictorial language about 1600. The most essential of brightness can be seen; and when it does appear within

4 W. Tatarkiewicz,Estetyka nowozytna, Wroclaw 1967, p. 374, Till now the most comprehensive study of the problem of light in
p. 458. painting has been presented by W. Schone, Uber das Licht in der
5 W.
Meserer, "Die Zeit bei Caravaggio",Hefte des Kunsthistori- Malerei,Berlin1954 (includes bibliography).Among later publications
schen Seminarsder UniversitatMunchen,1959, Heft 9/10, pp. 55-71; are: "Uber Farbe, Licht und Dunkel", Munchen 1959, Hefte des
K.H. Spinner,"Helldunkelund Zeitlichkeit,Caravaggio,Ribera,Zurba- KunsthistorischenSeminars der UniversitatMunchen, Nr. 5, hrsg. H.
ran, Georges de la Tour, Rembrandt",Zeitschriftfur Kunstgeschichte, Sedlmayr,(coll. work);M. Barasch,"Lichtund Farbein der Cinquecen-
1971, vol. 34, Heft 3, pp. 169-183; J. R. Martin,Baroque, London to", Rinascimento,1960, Vol. Xl, Nr. 2, pp. 207-300; Idem:Lightand
1977, Chapter:"Light". Color in the Italian Renaissance Theory of Art, New York 1979
6 M. Fagiolo dell'Arco, "Le Opere della misericordia,contributo (bibliography);E. von Zawadzki, Helldunkelund Farbe bei Rubens,
alla poetica del Caravaggio",L'Arte,1968, nr. 1, pp. 54 ff.; M. Calvesi, Miinchen 1965 (inauguralDissert.);"Light- from Aten to Laser",Art
"Caravaggioo la ricerca della salvazione",Storia dell'Arte,1971, pp. News Annual,XXXV,1966 (coll. work);E. Strauss, "Zuden Anfangen
95-141; Idem: "Letture iconologiche del Caravaggio"(in) Atti del des Helldunkels",(in):KoloritgeschichtlicheUntersuchungenzur Male-
Convegnointernazionaledi studi caravaggeschidi Bergamo, Bergamo rei seit Giotto, Munchen 1972; V. Nieto Alcaide, La luz. Simbolo y
1975, pp. 75 ff.; C. del Bravo,"Sulsignificato della luce nel Caravaggio sistema visual, Madrid1978.
e in GianLorenzoBernini",Artibuset Historiae,1983, Nr.7, pp. 69-77.

92
 2) Tintoretto, (<The Last Suppern, Venezia, San Giorgio Maggiore, 1594.

the picture, the light emanates from the Child, the Holy Spirit, up the errors of drawing", as was naively believed by some
or the angels, thus being clearly of a metaphysical nature earlier critics.
though the model of representing it follows real optical effects Such a treatment of darkness in painting cannot be
[Fig. 3, 4]. Nonetheless, even when the light shines forth from explained solely by the "influence of Caravaggio", as is usually
a real source, a candle or an oil lamp, it can carry some done. Caravaggio gave particularly forcible expression to a
symbolic meanings. A burning candle can denote the light certain tendency which grew out of the general spiritual
dissipating ignorance [Fig. 5], but it can also stand for the undercurrent of the epoch. This was a powerful European
inner, spiritual illumination, "a candle in a dark place", trend which introduced darkness, inseparable from light, as
mentioned in one of the Epistles of St. Peter [Fig. 6]. However, an iconic and psychological factor of essential significance.
these symbolic meanings of light are perceived only because Let us then try to answer the question how this artistic idiom
it appears in extreme darkness, the intensity of which also can be linked with other branches of the culture of the time,
accounts for the degree of intensity of the light and for the with the attitude of mind, the stance on transcendence, and
diversity of its variants. In some parts of the paintings darkness with the knowledge of nature and man, what ideas and facts
attains the depth of impenetrable black, but it is apprehended combine to form the origin of the phenomenon of tenebrism
as an artistically positive value and not as a means of "covering and at the same time are a comment on it. No answer to this

93
 I

3) Giacomo Cavedone, <<Adorationof the Shepherds>), Bologna, San Paolo Maggiore.

94
 4) Tintoretto, (The Martyrdom of St. Catherine)), (c. 1590) Venice, Accademia di Belle Arti.

question will be found in the 1 7th century historiography and far back as the mediaeval metaphysics of light, which numerous
theory of art, as they barely touch on the problem of light modern researchers associate with mediaeval art and the
and shadow. One must therefore look for source material of "aesthetics of light".7.
another kind. First of all, however, it is necessary to go to as In the Christian world of the 12th, 13th, and 14th century

7 E. de Bruynes,Etudes sur l'esthetique medievale, Brugge 1946 Tatarkiewicz,Estetyka sredniowieczna,Warszawa-Krak6w1960, pp.

(three vol.) T. Ill, Livre IV, Chap. 1, "L'esthetiquede la lumiere";J. 258-260; J. Gage, "GothicGlass. Two aspects of a DionysianAesthe-
Koch, "Uber die Lichtsymbolikim Bereich der Philosphie und der tic", Art History, Nr. 1, March 1982, pp. 36-58. See also: W.
Mystik des Mittelalters",(in):Studium Generale, 1960, Jhrg. 13, pp. Str6zewski,"Claritas".Uwarunkowaniehistoryczne i tresc pojecia,(in):
653-670; Ibidem:H. Sedlmayr, "Das Licht in seinem Kunstlerischen Estetyka, 1961, An. II, pp. 125-144; M. Rzepirska,Historiakoloruw
Manifestation",pp. 313-323. The major works dealing with the malarstwie europejskim,Krak6w 1970, Chap. II, part. 1, Part 2, pp.
"philosophyof light"are cited by: W. Schone, op. cit. pp. 51-68; W. 101-115.

95
 5) Gerard Dou, ((The Evening School)), Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum.
96
the symbolic meaning of light pervaded the whole of theology,
cosmology, and philosophy. Light was considered the first
principle of being, prevailing in the entire world. "Omnia esse
unum ab unius lucis perfectione", says Robert Grosseteste.
The earth is located in the centre of the concentric spheres
of light, of increasing brightness, which form the cosmic
heaven. This heaven is the image of the spiritual heaven, the
latter being nothing but light emanating from God. In this
luminous cosmos there was no room for darkness. Darkness
and shadow, if accepted at all, always carried a negative
meaning. Darkness was associated with evil, negation, non-
being, and sin (Eckhart, Hildegard of Bingen), and was thus
evaluated as negative. This view was shared by scholastics
as well as as mystics. St. Thomas Aquinas was called the
"doctor of light".
This stereotype changed very slowly and gradually in the
Renaissance. The Neo-Platonists of the Quattrocento were
still the continuators of the mediaeval metaphysical aesthetics
of light. The Liber de lumine by Marsilio Ficino begins with
the words: "Odi maxime omnium tenebris (...) amo ante omnia
lumen".8. The whole of Ficino's cosmography hinges upon
Divine Light. Light is the highest value, while darkness is "a
heavy inert matter". Beauty lies in the brightness and grace
of a form and not in obscure inert matter. Leone B. Alberti, a
humanist and theorist of art, asserts that "by nature we like
bright things" and gives the advice to "avoid black and terrible
works".9. However, side by side with the spiritualism and the
purely speculative system of Ficino and his circle, there
developed the direct observation of the world around. It could
not possibly be ignored that every solid body produces and
accepts a shadow. This fact began to interest both scientists
and artists. Leonardo da Vinci was both the one and the other
and it was he who developed the science of light and shade
on an unprecedented scale.10. Likewise Leonardo's role in the
6) Georges de la Tour, ((Job and His Wife)), Epinal, Musee
structural transformations of painting is of immense impor- des Vosges.
tance. The aesthetics propagated by him and manifested in
his paintings differs from that introduced nearly a hundred
years later by Caravaggio and by many of his contemporaries;
nonetheless it can be regarded as the first stage between the an illumination as giving too strong a contrast and being of
mediaeval "aesthetics of light" and the Baroque "aesthetics "little use to a painter". The development of the range of
of light and darkness". In his notes Leonardo studied the chiaroscuro introduced by Leonardo was continued by his
effects of condensed light (lume particolare), but he did not successors primarily as a means of enhancing the plasticity
apply it to his paintings and even warned against using such of figures and objects. At least this was so in the Florentine-

8 I
quote from K. Goldammer,"Lichtsymbolikin philosophischer 10 Leonardo'snotes on light and shade are scattered in various
Weltanschauung,Mystikund Theosophie vom 15. bis 17. Jhrdt.",(in): codices (mainly in Ms. C and Ms. E) and have been compiled by
StudiumGenerale, 1960, Heft 11, pp. 670-682. Francesco Melziin the Trattatodellapittura.The writings of Leonardo
9 Leone Battista Alberti,Della pittura,ed. L. Malle,Firenze 1950, have been printedseveral times in various languages since the 17th
p. 47. century.

97
7) Jose de Ribera, (<S. Sebastian and St. Irene)), Leningrad, 8) G. B. Caracciolo (11Battistello), (<The Baptism of Christ)>.
Ermitage.

Roman School, whereas the northern schools followed some- points out that the lume divino is shown independently of
what different paths, using light and shade to enrich the fabric whether the picture represents a diurnal or nocturnal scene.
of colour and value. However, it follows from his further considerations that the
Leonardo derived his theory of chiaroscuro from his "lume primario divino" should be subject to the laws of real
observations of nature and from the rules of geometry. The light, with all the optical consequences. And here appears the
next phase in this evolution is marked by the treatise of other typological division into lume diretto, riflesso, and rifratto.
Lomazzo (Milan, 1584).11, who again regards light as a The lume diretto, falling directly on an object, is identified by
metaphysical element, though without abandoning realism. In Lomazzo with the lume primario, and thus with the source of
the historiography and criticism of the 16th century the light. It can be metaphysical or natural, but this does not
problems of light and shade occurred rarely and incidentally, change the fact that its brightness is set off because the
though in practice painters developed and enriched it in various objects intercept and produce shadows, partial shadows, and
ways (Correggio, Luca Cambiaso, Titian, Tintoretto). Thus reflections. Lomazzo presents numerous examples of pictures
Lomazzo's work is invaluable as it deals with light in an familiar to him in which the divine light has been applied, his
exceptionally comprehensive way and presents its typology. descriptions indicating that the lume divino appears invariably
The latter is intricate and chaotic, but after careful consideration as a condensed light surrounded by darkness. This concept
it is presented as follows. Lomazzo introduces two divisions. of Lomazzo's is of essential significance and befits excellently
One of them concerns primary and secondary lights (lumi the formal structure of religious paintings, which took shape
primari e lumi secondari). Lume primario denotes a source of towards the end of the 16th century. Painters continued and
light and can occur in three forms: a) as natural light, of the developed this concept by deepening contrasts and intensifying
sky or the sun, b) as lume divino, metaphysical light, emanating darkness; these tendencies, however, met with objections from
from divine persons and angels, and c) as artificial light, kindled critics. The latter seem to have been ignorant of the important
by man, coming from a fire, a torch, or a candle. Lomazzo innovation ushered in by Lomazzo, who distinguished the

11 I referredto the edition: Gian Paolo Lomazzo,Scritti sulle arti, of the Trattato. Cf. LibroIV, "Dei lumi",pp. 186-214. See also: M.
a cura di R.P.Ciardi,Firenze 1973 (two vol.). Vol. IIcontains the text Barasch,Lightand Color...,New York 1979.

98
9) Valentin de Boullogne, (<The Sacrifice of Isaac>, The
Montreal Museum of Fine Arts.

"divine light", and it is just this kind of light that predominates

in the religious paintings of the 1 7th century. This light, even
if it shines from above, is never the sunlight of sky and day.
The "metaphysical" effect is always achieved by means of
condensed light, that is to say, the light which passess through
10) Francesco Del Cairo, ((Agony in the Garden), Brera,
a small aperture into a dark interior, through a slit in dense Milan.
clouds, or from every bright lantern. It is impossible to achieve
the effects of illumination of this kind without the introduction
of shadows and of activating gloom. In 17th century painting
this gloom becomes increasingly dense and in the background
sometimes deepens to utter, impenetrable blackness. In the
vast majority of Italian, Spanish, Flemish, and French religious though the setting of these scenes at night is clearly
paintings, scenes from the Bible and mythology are laid, as it inconsistent with the Scriptures.12. The favourite subject of
were, in the middle of the night. In some cases this has its the painting of that time, i.e. the ecstasy of the saints, is nearly
justification in "reality", as e.g. in the scenes of the healing always a nocturne, the divine light falling in a beam of brightness
of St. Sebastian by St. Irene, which, according to the from an invisible source. In numerous pictures the dense,
Martyrologium Romanum, took place at night [Fig. 7]. However, impenetrable gloom takes up three-fourths of the canvas,
darkness is usually an autonomous factor. The painter whereas light brings out small, as if casual, fragments of a
introduces it disregarding the circumstances handed down by torso, hand, leg, or drapery [Figs. 10, 11]. The shadows bound
tradition. The shadow of night reigns in paintings showing to the objects are so deep that they submerge these objects
the Baptism of Christ [Fig. 8], or the Sacrifice of Isaac [Fig. 9], in the dark background, completerly swallowing up their

12
Reproductionsof the paintings of: BattistelloChristand Simon to be found in the catalogue of the exhibition:Caravaggioe la sua
of Cyrene,G.M.Crespi ChristAppearingto MaryMagdaleneand V. de cerchia a Milano,Milano 1951.
Boullogne The Sacrifice of Isaac (all of them being nightscenes) are

99
outlines and blurring therir spatiality.13. The setting of these of the soul towards its union with God is called Night. First,
scenes is frequently nondescript; it is only known that they because of the position from which the soul departs, as it
are laid in a "dark place". must mortify all the lusts regarding the things it has in the
This specific structuring of the paintings in which shadow world and abandon them. Such an abandonment and the lack
and darkness are as important as light, and at times of these things are a night for the human sense. Secondly, it
predominate over it, implies a new aesthetics. It was never is called Night because of the way or the means which the
formulated by the theorists of the time, and in vain would one soul must use in order to achieve the union. That means is
seek it in their works, as it was incompatible with the prevailing faith, which is such a darkness for the mind as the shadows
official classical aesthetics. Therefore, let us try to search for of night. Thirdly, it is called Night owing to the end, this end
it in other statements, in the texts apparently remote from being God. In life on earth He is also a dark night for the
matters of painting but contributing to the climate in which soul". Having discussed the active night of the senses, St.
it was created and in which it existed. Should not the extremely John passes on to the active night of the spirit, saying: "Deeper
wide spread of tenebrism in painting be explained by its being is the obscurity in the spiritual part, similarly as pitch darkness
the artistic expression of some trend in world outlook, which is deeper than the shadows of night. Even in the depth of
was not institutional or official but was particularly significant night it is still possible to see something, whereas in total
and distinctive for the epoch? This intellectual trend, treating darkness one cannot see anything. Also in the night of the
darkness as a value, as the negation but at the same time senses some light still remains; there remain the mind and
and indispensable complement of light, can be detected in reason, as they are not dimmed then. However, the spiritual
some fields of spiritual and intellectual life, i.e. in 1) a change night, i.e. faith, is deprived of any light from either the reason
in the type of religiousness and the wave of new mysticism, or the senses". And next: "According to theologians, faith is
2) astronomy and the science of the projection of shadows, the soul's faculty, sure and dark. It is a dark faculty because
and 3) hermetic doctrines, above all, alchemy. it makes one believe in the truths revealed by God Himself,
Let us discuss the first of these elements. Historians have which are above all natural lights (...) This mighty light flowing
devoted much space to the relationship between religiousness from faith is deep obscurity for the soul, as it deprives the
and art in the post-Tridentine period. However, so far no one reason of light just as sunlight eclipses all other lights" (...)
has taken into account a matter of real consequence: the Faith is a night for the soul but it also gives it light. And the
introduction of the theology of darkness by St. John of the more it obscures it the more light of itself it imparts to it. An
Cross in the late 1 6th century. In his doctrine darkness and image of this night was the cloud which separated the Israelites
night are treated as something positive. The soul's night is from the Egyptians as they went into the Red Sea, to which
not the night of sin, it is not something negative; on the the Holy Writ refers in the following words: "Erat nubes
contrary, it is indispensable for the attainment of spiritual tenebrosa et illuminans noctem (...). From what we have said
perfection and on the way leading to God. In his treatises it can be concluded that faith as a dark night lends some light
Noche oscura and Subida del Monte Carmelo the great Spanish to the soul plunged in darkness. And it proves true what David
mystic distinguishes the following stages of the soul's progress: says to that effect: Et nox illuminatio mea in deliciis meis".
the active night of the sense, the active night of the spirit, St. John of the Cross repeatedly emphasizes that faith
and passive night.14 In his "Way to Mount Carmel" St. John requires that one should close one's eyes to everything that
of the Cross says: "It is for three reasons that the progress pertains to the senses and particular cognition. He quotes the

13
Paintingsof this kindwere executed by so many 17th century Rembrandtand many others are examples of tenebrism in the larger
artists of various schools and nationalitiesthat it is impossible to list sense.
all of theirauthors.The following names are only examples:G.B.Crespi 14 A distinction should be made
between the poem "DarkNight"
(IICerano),Caravaggio,Mastelletta,L. Caracci,Passignano, A. Tiarini, written in prison in Toledo in 1578, and the prose treatise bearing
L. Cantarini,J. Ribera, F. and J. Ribalta,J. Sanchez Cotan, V. de the same title, writtenin Granadain the years 1582-85, simultaneously
Boullogne, C. Vignon, T. Bigot, H. Terbrugghen,D. van Baburen,A. with, the "Wayto Mount Carmel",which also discusses the doctrine
Blomaert, L. Finsonius, M. Stomer, O. Gentileschi,A. Gentileschi, C. of dark night. The quotations in the present study come from the
Saraceni, G. Serodine, J. Leclerc. Reproductionsof the paintings of Polish edition: Sw. Jan od Krzy2a,Dzie,a (two vol.), (translatedfrom
these artists can be found in the catalogues of the exhibitions Spanish by FatherBernard,a Carmelite).Cf. Vol. I, Book I, Chap.2, p.
mentioned in Note 1. Cf. also the illustrationsin the book by A. von 46; Book II,Chap. 1, p. 101, Chap.2, p. 105, Chap.4, p. 107, Chap.
Schneider, Caravaggioand die Niederlanden,Amsterdam 1967. Ho- 16, pp. 178-179.
wever, also numerouspaintings of George de la Tour,Simone Vouet,

100
words from the Second Epistle of St. Peter: "We have more
sure evidence than the vision on Mount Tabor, and these are
the discourses and words of the prophets, which bear evidence
of Christ. Whereunto you do well that you take heed, as unto
a candle that shines in a dark place". And here is St. John's
comment on these words: "The statement that we should
regard the faith preached by the prophets as a candle in a
dark place indicates that we should remain in darkness, shutting
our eyes to all other lights (...) Reliance on other lights, on
clear comprehension, leads us to abandon that dark light of
faith, shining for us, according to St. Peter, in a dark place".
The paradoxical idea of "dark light" had its precedent in
the writings of Dionysius the Areopagite, which, though never
officially recognized by the Church and of disputable origin,
nevertheless exerted a significant influence on the concepts
of both Neo-Platonism and the Christian theology of the Middle
Ages. However, from Dionysius's words only those passages
were taken which referred to the "theology of light", sun, fire,
and brilliance. They are all the sign of "lux perpetua", the
pre-eminent light of God. Being is light and darkness is
Non-being - such could be the most general expression of
the attitude of Christian Philosophy, departures from this
attitude occurring very rarely.15 The writings of St. John of
the Cross contain the doctrine of the theology of darkness,
for the first time developed in such a comprehensive and
fascinating way. He knew the works of Dionysius the
Arceopagite but also those of St. Ignatius Loyola. And it is in
St. Ignatius's "Exercicios" that we shall find an intimation that
staying in darkness is particularly conducive to contemplation:
"To deprive myself of the brightness of daylight (...) by shutting
the windows and doors for the time of my stay in the room.
Exception is made for the time of saying office, reading, and
taking meals".16.
The "Exercicios spirituales" were officially recognized and
recommended by the Church in 1548 and were published in
the same year. They came to be widely read by religious, and
not only Jesuits; among the ideas contained therein the eulogy 11) Dirck van Baburen, ((Deposilion)), San Pietro in Montorio,
Rome.
of darkness had a significant impact. The Reformed Carmelites
(whose order was founded by St. Teresa of Avila and St. John
of the Cross), in their missionary activity in the south of Italy, le tenebre della notte, che coll'horrore notio intimorendo gli
frequently pointed to the night as a time suitable for pious animi, gli dispongono piu attamente ai colpi del divino timore".17
concentration: "giovano non poco al compungimento dei cuori The "Excercicios" were also read by artists, as is known with

15 J. Gage, "GothicGlass, Two aspects of Dionysian Aesthetic", T. II,p. 119, Ignatius Loyolawas beatified in 1609 and canonized in
Art History,1982, vol. 5, Nr. 1, pp. 36-58. T. Merton in his work: The 1622.
Ascent to Truth(Polish version, Krak6w 1983, p. 52) points to the 17Cfr.C. Ginzburg,"Folklore,magia, religione",(in):Storia d'talia,
precedentof the "theologyof darkness"in the teachings of St. Gregory Torino 1972/76, vol. I, pp. 603-670. The first monastery of the
of Nyssa (4th century A.D.). Discalced (Reformed)Carmelitesin Italywas established in Rome in
16 gw. 1597.
Ignacy Loyola, Pisma wybrane, Krak6w 1968 (two vol.),

101
regard to El Greco and Rubens.18 The writings of St. John of dabile argumentum de Umbrae laudibus. Quantitas itaque
the Cross were first published at Alcala de Henares in 1618, speciei quam Luna Solve seu integer seu deficiens nobis
but their manuscripts had circulated earlier among monasteries ostendit, umbraeque, quam Tellus et Lunam extendit, Astrono-
and congregations. In the Italian version they came out in mo diligenter est investiganda". (How far the eclipses of the
Rome in 1627. Nothing is known of their reception at that celestial bodies are helpful to men in the whole of astronomy
time, as until recently the official history of the Church rather can be learned from all astronomical writings. For, as regards
ignored their author.19 No historian has taken up the question the movements of the sun and the moon, the length of years
of the significance of the "theology of darkness" for Baroque and months, the science arose solely from the observation of
art. I can only draw attention to this subject, which still remains the eclipses. And it could not originate otherwise; nor can it
to be elaborated. The analogy between the enormous number be polished or improved any further save through a more
of paintings plunged in the misterious gloom of "spiritual detailed and more precise analysis of the eclipses of the
night" and passages from St. John's writtings suggests itself celestial bodies. This exactly is the aim of the present work.
irresistibly. As yet too little is known of the complex religious Now, if one considers how closely the rest of astronomy is
and cultural background of the period around 1600, however, connected with the motion of the sun and how many benefits
one cannot possibly overlook in it the high praise of night are received from the Moon, partaking in day and night, when
and darkness given by St. John of the Cross with great all other means fail us, he may well come to the conviction
suggestiveness and at the same time with the logic of argument. that it is on these eclipses of the heavenly bodies that the
The mystical doctrine of dark night was written in Granada whole of astronomy is based, so much so that this very
in the years 1582-85. It is noteworthy that the positive darkness is the eyes of astronomers, these flaws illuminate
estimation of darkness in the transcendental, spiritual order human minds with the most precious images. How magnificent
coincides in time with the positive role assigned to darkness and recommendable to all nations are the considerations of
by the great physicist and astronomer Johannes Kepler. In the eulogy of a shadow! Therefore, the astronomer must
his work, Ad Vitellonem Paralipomena. Astronomia Pars Optica, observe very carefully the size of the picture shown by the
published in 1604 but, of course, written earlier, he praises Moon or the Sun, whether with or without eclipse, and the
darkness, shadow, and eclipses as the factors which gave rise size of the shadow cast by the Earth on the Moon).20
to astronomy. In the introduction to this book he wrote: "Porr6 Furthermore, in the index of subjects listed by Kepler for the
quantum Defectibus Luminum adiuventur homines in Astrono- above book, he notes: "Tenebrae sunt activa qualitas".
mia tota, docent omnes Astronomorum libri. Nam quod motus The observation of the shadow cast by the sun in different
Solis et Lunas attinent, annorumque et mensium spacia, tota seasons of the year and the observation of the eclipses caused
haec doctrina es sola Eclipsium observatione primum est orta, by the shadow of the earth or the moon when one of them
nec aliter constitui potuit; ac ne limari quidem et expoliri falls in line between the sun and the other planet gave rise
amplius potest, nisi Defectibus Luminum accuratius et limatius to Greek astronomy and suggested to some philosphers the
consideratis, qui huius libri scopus est. lam qui perpenderit, idea of the spherical form of the earth.21 This idea, however,
quam arcte tota reliqua Astronomia cum Solis motu copuletur, appeared only occasionally and was later forgotten for many
quantumque nobis Luna, diei noctisque particeps, opituletur, centuries. In the Middle Ages the conceptions of the cosmos,
quando nos omnia alia media deficiunt: iure credet, universam stars, and planets came within the theological system subject
Astronomiam his luminum obscurationibus inniti, adeo ut hae to the metaphysics of light. Only Vitello in his "Perspective"
tenebrae sint Astronomorum oculi, hi defectus doc- mentions the shadow of celestial bodies. That the earth is a
trinae sit a b u n d a n t i a, hi naevi mentes mortalium preciosissi- sphere was not at all obvious - not only to mediaeval
mis picturis illustrent. 0 eximium et omnibus gentibus commen- theologians but also to natural historians of the Renaissance.

E. Waterhouse, Roman BaroquePainting,Oxford 1976, p. 17.

18 Bibliotheca Sanctorum, Vol. VI, entry: "Giovannidella Croce", pp.
19 Until recently the name of St. John of the Cross was rather 702-732. In recent years there has been a great revival of studies
ignored in the official history of the Church.The Storia della Chiesa, devoted to St. John of the Cross and his writings, however, in no
a cura di L. Cristiani,consisting of 22 volumes, contains only a short connection with art. Cf. I. C. Nieto, Mystic, Rebel, Saint. A Study of
note on him in vol. XVII,Torino 1977, none of his writings being St. John of the Cross, Geneve 1979.
mentioned at all. John of the Cross was beatified in 1675 and 20 Joanne Keplero,Ad VitellonemParalipomena.AstronomiaPars
canonized only in 1726. Time and again the Holy Office debated Optica, FrancofortiMDCIV.I used the edition: Gesammelte WerkeJ.
whether or not his doctrine had anythingin common with the quietists Kepler,Munchen 1939. The passage quoted from page 16.
or the so-called "alumbrados",not recognized by the Church. Cf. 21 D. R. Dicks,
EarlyGreekAstronomy to Aristotle, Ithaca 1970.

102
In the "De Revolutionibus" (1 548) Copernicus had to persuade question of the projection of a shadow in sunlight was resolved
his readers emphatically: "Talem quippe figuram habere terram only by Desargues in the second half of the 17th century are
cum circumfluentibus aquis necesse est, qualem umbra ipsius presented in the article by Da Costa Kaufman, therefore I shall
ostendit; absoluti enim circuli amfractibus Lunam deficientem not dwell on them here.25 What is important is the sheer
efficit. Non igitur plana est terra ut Empedokles et Anaximenes presence of the problem, the frequency of its occurrence, and
opinati sunt, neque tympanoides ut Leucippos neque sca- its parallelism with the period of painting in which the struggle
phoides ut Heraclitus, nec alio modo cava ut Democritus (...) of light, shadow, and gloom attained its highest expression.
neque ex inferna parte infinite radicitus crassitudine submissa Let us now pass on to the last field, of immense importance
ut Xenophanes, sed rotunditate absoluta, ut philosophi sen- for the "re-evaluation of darkness", that is to say, to magic
tiunt" (Liber I, Cap. V, p. 10).22 and alchemy. The significance of esoteric sciences in the
The Copernican system, so revolutionary from the modern culture of the Renaissance and Baroque, earlier passed over
point of view, was by no means regarded as such by his in silence by the humanities, has for some time been a subject
contemporaries. A large number of astronomers still accepted of particular interest.26 Contrary to the notions prevailing until
the Ptolemaic system, violently attacking the work of Coperni- recently, alchemy and all the sciences coming within the term
cus, and not only in its theological aspect.23 More than fifty of occult or hermetic flourished on the largest scale not in
years after the great astronomer's death, his theses still had the Middle Ages but in the Late Renaissance and in the
to be defended by Giordano Bruno, one of his most ardent Baroque, parallely with the development of natural science.
followers. Vindicating the thesis that "the sun is not only huge From the mid-1 6th century onwards the doctrines of alchemists
but that it is larger than the earth", Bruno used as a basis the gained an increasingly wide range thanks to numerous
geometry of the cones of shadow cast by the planets on their publications of printed works. From about 1600 the number
dark side.24 I am not dealing here with Bruno's diagrams or of these writings rose rapidly, testifying how deeply thinking
with the question whether his reasoning was precise. I wish in terms of magic pervaded the intellectual and spritual culture
to state a certain symptom, namely, that the opinions of the of that time. The attitude of the Church towards these sciences
three scientists mentioned above rank shadow and darkness was equivocal and changeable. "Wizard" practices were
remarkably high, being connected with the development of condemned, and yet alchemy was a subject of interest for
the new astronomy. numerous high church dignitaries. The contact of painters
Likewise symptomatic is the intensity of studies on the with alchemy and pharmacy had always been lively on account
projection of shadows, which continued throughout the 1 7th of the procedure of making paints. It is also almost certain
century. The Early-Renaissance treatises concered with optics that the symbolism of colours, related with the planets,
and linear perspective hardly touched upon the problem of temperaments, mythological figures, and indivual phases of
shadow (except Leonardo) or took it up only casually. However, alchemic process, was known to artists. Art historians have
about 1600 the situation changed markedly. There appeared interpreted the iconography of a number of Renaissance works
great numbers of works discussing the projection of shadows of art by means of alchemic symbols (e.g. the magic square
for various types of light, both natural and artificial. They were appearing in Durer's engravings or some motifs in Parmigian-
written by natural historians and mathematicians who, ino).27 However, they have overlooked a coincidence between
nevertheless, also dealt with artistic problems; they were the formal means of expression in painting and the religious
concerned with the correct rendering of the distribution of and cosmological symbolism of light and darkness, the latter
light and shade in a painting, this matter being discussed being one of the basic threads of hermetic-alchemic treatises.
extensively. These discussions and the reasons why the On comparison of the dates of these treatises one must find

22 Nicolai
CoperniciDe Revolutionibuslibrisex, Warszawa-Krak6w and CourtauldInst., 1975, Vol. 38, pp. 258-287.
1985. Ed. Polska Akademia Nauk. 26 F.A.
Yates, GiordanoBrunoand the HermeticTradition,Chicago
23 G. Sarton, A
Historyof Science (two vol.), Harvard1959, Vol. 1964; Id."TheHermeticTraditionin the Renaissance",(in):Art,Science
II. p. 181; E. Rybka, Cztery wieki rozwoju mysli kopernikanskiej, and Historyin the Renaissance, Baltimore1968 (coll. work);The Late
Warszawa 1972, p. 327. ItalianRenaissance 1525-1630 (coll.work)Glasgow 1970; M.Calvesi,
24 Giordano
Bruno, Le opere italiane, a cura di P. Lagarde, "A noir (MelencoliaI)",Storia dell'Arte,1969, nr. 1/2, pp. 37-97; W.
Gottingen 1888, Vol. II,"Lacena dei ceneri". Dialogo terzo, p. 159, Schumaker,The Occult Sciences in the Renaissance, Berkeley 1972.
p. 179. 27 R.
Klibansky,E. Panofsky, F. Saxl, Saturn and Melancholy,
25 Th. da Costa Kaufmann,"The
Perspective of Shadows. The London 1964; M. Faggiolo dell'Arco, "II Parmigianino,un saggio
Historyof the Theory of Shadow Projection",Journalof the Warburg sull'ermetismonel Cinquecento",L'arte,7-8, 1969.

103
12) ((Et sic in infinitum). Nigredo (Robert Fludd, Utriusque 13) ((Putrefactio). Black Sun of Death. (Johann D. Mylius,
cosmi, Oppenheim 1617, Vol. I, p. 26). Philosphia reformata, Frankfurt 1622, p. 117).

it striking that this symbolism undergoes evolution. The by Johannes Fabricius, who used it as a basis for a
significance of the element of darkness as something important reconstruction, as lucid as possible, of alchemists' doctrines
and positive grows, the role of the shadow attaining its apogee in his book published in 1976.29 This book was of great value
about 1600 and continuing until approximately the middle of to me as an aid in my attempts at reaching the ideological
the century. Cornelius Agrippa (d. 1535) in the De occulta origins of the phenomenon called pittura tenebrosa and at
philosophia still continues the metaphysics of light originating setting it in its historical cultural context.
from Neo-Platonism and Christianity, thereby considering The basis of the alchemists' doctrine is the conviction
darkness as an element exclusively negative. God is the (derived from Aristotle) that out of the chaos of materia prima
pre-eminent light, but also temporal knowledge is associated emerged "forma" as four elements: earth, air, water, and fire.
by Agrippa with brightness and ignorance with darkness. A Each element has a pair of "qualities" out of the total number
similar standpoint is assumed by other authors of the of four: cold, moist, dry, and warm. Their various combinations
Renaissance, no matter whether it is scholasticism, mysticism, have given rise to the theory of the "transmutation of the
or "magia naturalis" that predominates in their writings.28. elements". Each metal has something of the qualities of the
A change in this attitude came about towards the end of four elements, therefore metals also undergo transmutation
the 16th century. The increasing number of printed alchemic in the alchemist's crucible. Besides its practical side (trasmuta-
treatises contained more and more frequently the motifs tion of metals, quest for gold), alchemy has its philosophical
"umbra" and "nigredo" as an indispensable part of the whole and mystical aspect. It lays stress on meditation and imagina-
initiation, of the whole of the cosmic-psychic system. Some tion and, in addition, presents something like cosmology and
of these treatises have attracted the attention of present-day existential symbolism. The four stages of the opus alchymicum
researchers, the most complete material having been gathered are nigredo, albedo, citrinnitas, and rubedo (black, white, yellow,

28 K.
Goldammer,op.cit.(Cf.Note 8);A. Koyre,Mystiques,spirituels, and Calvesi's study, "A noir ..." (Cf. Note 26). These authors have
alchimistes du XVIsiecle allemand, Paris 1971. assembled in their works several scores of the titles of hermetic
29 J. Fabricius,
Alchemy, Copenhagen 1976. I also used the book: writings, frequentlyanonymous, which were publishedfrom 1572 to
E.Canseliet,L'Alchemieappliqueesurses textes classiques, Paris1972, about 1660.

104
 much space to the question of colours. Following Aristotle, it
was believed that all colours originate from the combination,
in different proportions, of black and white (darkness and
light). In the alchemists' interpretation the combination of the
sublimated opposites: fire/water and light / darkness results
in the appearance of the cauda pavonis, sometimes identified
with the rainbow. Nevertheless, there also occurs a peculiar
ii
and rather isolated view that all colours derive from black. An
anonymous manuscript from the Bibliotheque Nationale in
Paris states that "Only black is a real colour, because all others
derive from it, as is pointed out by sages telling of the hundred
black eyes of Argus; but when after Argus' death Juno placed
his eyes on the tail of her peacock, all began to shine with
1)
different colours, and this was to demonstrate that all colours
derive from black".31
The practical side of alchemy was distinguished from its
philosophical one. The basic point of the latter was that in
order for a new life to arise every organism must first die and
decay. The word nigredo can refer to death, putrefaction, solar
i-
I' i eclipse, or the darkness of the womb, thus being related both
with the symbols of death and of revival, with the embryo of
birth. The next stages of the opus alchymicum are those of
purification, followed by the last one of unificatio, coniunctio
oppositorum, the mystic marriage of the sun with his lunar
bride. The paradoxical expression umbra solis denotes the
highest degree of initiation, the conjunction of the opposites:
14) <<Umbra solis) (Robert Fludd, Medicina catholica, birth and death, light and darkness, and Being and Non-being.
Frankfurt 1629).
The work by Robert Fludd, Medicina Catholica (1629), contains
an engraving which shows an intricate schematica diagram
of the interpenetrating circles of brightness and darkness.32
It illustrates the doctrine which can be defined as the "ontology
and red). However, the number of these stages is not always of light and darkness". The doctrine has a tiered, hierarchical
equal and in numerous treatises citrinnitas does not occur at structure: at the bottom on the left is Dionysus, the god of
all, though the traditional number of the elements is unchanged. darkness, and on the right Apollo, the god of light. At the top
(It is worth noting that, according to the sources from the of this construction can be seen a circle half light and half
epoch of Titian, that artist used only those four colours in his dark, with the encircling inscription, "Voluntas divina - Noluntas
late works). Nigredo denotes primary chaos, massa confusa, divina. Es duobus unu" [Fig. 14]. Both darkness and light
materia prima, out of which the four elements emerged, but originate from God and are his attributes. God is All, light as
as the "second darkness" it denotes one of the phases of the well as darkness. Thus darkness is equated with light, being
alchemic process, designated as tenebrositas, mortificatio, its antithesis but also its necessary complement.
putrefactio, or melanosis, and, typically of the doctrine, each The scheme presented in Robert Fludd's treatise is, for all
"physical" term has its "psychical" equivalent. Alchemists its complexity, exceptionally clear. The same idea is expressed
describe nigredo as nigrum, nigrius nigro and, in order to give with different variants and illustrated in a far more complicated
some idea of it, compare it with a raven's head, coal, lead, way in other 17th century treatises. In the Alchymia recognita
tar, or burnt bone.30 [Fig. 12, 13]. Alchemic treatises devote by Libavius (Frankfurt, 1606) the phases of transmutation are

30 J. Fabricius,op.cit., p. 98. 32 Robert

Fludd,MedicinaCatholica 1(withoutpagination),Frank-
31 M. Calvesi, "A noir..."(Cf. Note 26). furt 1629. The engravinghas been reproducedin J. Fabricius,op.cit.,
p. 195, ill. 377.

105
discussed at large, special emphasis being laid on nigredo as mystic current, new natural science, and thinking in terms of
the point of departure and basis..33 The work of Libavius is "magic" encompassed European countries independently of
mentioned here on account of actual historical and personal religions, just as astronomy progressed independently of them,
connections. The writings of this alchemist were studied by discovering the immensity of the world and the darkness of
Cardinal Francesco del Monte, who was the patron, of space. The hermetic treatises were printed in Italy, Germany,
Caravaggio and in whose residence the artist lived and worked Spain, Holland, France, and England, and all of them contain
for some time.34 The cardinal's brother Guidobaldo del Monte, speculations that are similar in very general outlines. What is
in turn, wrote the "Perspectivae libri sex", Pesaro 1600 most interesting to us in these doctrines - the motif of the
(dedicated to his brother), in which he devoted one large symbolism of light and darkness - recurs in them with great
chapter to the projection of shadows. It should also be recalled regularity, though this regularity is very hard to extract from
that Galileo, maintaining friendly relations with Francesco del the verbose, intentionally confused works, written in truly
Monte, in his statements on art considered the distribution of "hermetic language".
lights and shades as an element of the greatest importance.35 No doubt the alchemic-cosmological doctrines remain in
It was amidst these facts that Caravaggio's painting took large measure under the influence of the Cabbala, the mystic
shape. The drama of light and shade, the total dense gloom Jewish philosophy which also aroused the interest of some
in his pictures was a particularly emphatic expression of the dignitaries and reformers of the Catholic Church.36The authors
new axiology which treated shadow and darkness as a value. of 1 7th century treatises refer to the Corpus Hermeticum but
All the same, "Caravaggism" alone cannot account for the just as frequently to the collection of cabbalistic writings
fact that the pittura tenebrosa found so many magnificent known as Zohar (Brightness), which came out in Spain in the
creative continuators, also outside Italy. This trend in painting 13th century and was printed for the first time in Mantua in
originates from the new spiritual stereotype which was forming 1 588.37 It contains an immensely expanded, esoteric commen-
slowly but which attained its climax and finest artistic tary on the Books of Moses and the Psalms. It aims to interpret
expression in the Baroque. An increase in Catholic mysticism the deeper, hidden sense of the Bible, to a great extent on
with its "night of dark faith" of St. John of the Cross and the basis of linguistic speculation, on the symbolic meaning
with the "dark ecstasy" of St. Teresa, the Protestant mysticism of Hebrew words and letters which also have numerical values.
clearly overlaid with alchemic concepts (Jacob Boehme), Among several threads of the cabbalistic idea the one of
Kepler's words about darkness as "astronomorum oculi", and interest here is the motif of light, winding about it incessantly
the alchemists' nigredo as the cosmic earliest beginnings and, and in various forms. Light is the Divine substance and, in
at the same time, the necessary phase of death and putrefaction fact, potential matter creating the hierarchy of beings. The
in order that life and light might arise - all these symptoms farther their brightness departs from its source, God, the
somehow meet, forming an important trend at the time of the weaker and dimmer it becomes to be eventually transformed
Baroque. The universality of this trend is striking. It ignores a into "dark light" (or shakhor), this being a lower hypostasis
religious division into Catholicism and Protestantism. The of being. Thus light is not opposed to darkness in the sense

33 This work is discussed and cited by M. Calvesi, "A noir...(Cf. himself wrote the "De cabbalisticis inventis libridue", Milano 1627.
Note 26). It was published in two versions. One of them is to be Cf. F. Secret, "Les cabbalistes chretiens de la Renaissance" (in):
found in the Jagiellonian Librarybut Calvesi used the other one. Annuaire de l'Ecole Pratique de Hautes Etudes, Vol. 73, 1965/66;
34 L. Spezzaferro,"La cultura del Cardinaldel Monte e il primo Idem: "Notes sur quelques alchimistes italiens de la Renaissance",
tempo del Caravaggio",Storia dell'Arte,1971, Vol. 9/10, pp. 87-98. Rinascimento,1973, Vol. 13, pp. 197-217.
35 Galileo'swords from his letter to LodovicoCigoli(1612): "Non 37 The Zohar (Brightness),the basic work of Jewish cabbalism,
ha la statua il rilievoper essere larga,lunga e profonda,ma per essere is a compilation of texts from various periods, written by various
dove chiara e dove scura (...)Conosciamo dunque la profondita,non authors. It was made up in Spain, most probablyin the 13th century.
come oggetto della vista per se e assolutamente, ma per accidente e The first printededitions came out in Mantuain 1588 and in Cremona
rispetto al chiaro e allo scuro. E tutto questo e nella pitturanon meno in 1590. I used the text: TheZohar,translatedby M.Simon, H.Sperling,
che nella scultura,dico il chiaro, lo scuro, la lunghezzae la larghezza; P. Leverto,Intr.by J. Abelson, London 1949 (five vol.) Cf. especially
ma alla scultura il chiaro e lo scuro lo da per se la natura,ed alla Vol. I, p. 51, p. 11 7. The Corpushermeticumdiscusses the symbolism
pittura lo da I'arte".Quoted from E. Panofsky, Galileoas a Criticof of light which is the synonym of God and of the highest good.
the Arts, The Hague 1954, p. 24. Darkness is mentioned only in connection with the primordialChaos.
36 The AmbrosianaLibrary,founded by CardinalFederigo Borro- Cf. CorpusHermeticum,traduitpar A. J. Festugiere, Paris 1945 (two
meo, contained, among other works, some Hebrew codices, among vols.), Vol. I, p. 44, p. 74.
them being the best known compilation,"The Zohar".The Cardinal

106
of plus - minus, in the sense of incompatible opposites. the giver of all, and therefore also of darkness. He separated
Researchers of Hebrew culture point out that in its domain light and darkness from Chaos and called them day and night,
darkness is not always treated as something negative, as evil He brought the four main elements out of the primordial Chaos.
and nothingness. There occur here two forms, as it were, two Vigenere lauds light, the life source, extols the ignis divinus,
versions of darkness. The "lower darkness" reigns in Gehenna the purifying fire, whose derivative is the alchemist's fire in
and then it is conceived as the absence of light. But it also which the elements undergo transmutation. But he also praises
occurs as the "upper darkness", as God's attribute.38 In the darkness because it is necessary in the same way as death,
Zohar we can find an extensive commentary on the quotation decay is in order that a new life might arise. He distinguishes
from Psalm 138: "... but the night shineth as the day: the between the "primeval darkness", the darkness of Chaos, and
darkness and the light are both alike to thee" and on the the "second darkness", the one which God called night, having
passage from Exodus, which refers to God as appearing as divided light from darkness, both of which belong to the
"pillar of fire" and at the same time as "a dark cloud".39 This natural order created by God.
very passage was developed on a large scale by the Christian The second hermetic text that I should like to dwell upon
mystics and occultists of the turn of the 16th century. The was written by Robert Fludd, a physician, the author of the
study of their writings leads us invevitably to the conclusion Medicina Catholica - from this book comes the already
that in the outlook of that time there appeared a tendency to mentioned diagram of the umbra so/is. The original of this
equate darkness with light in terms of religion, cosmology, work was not available to me; instead I studied another of
and existence. Fludd's writings, Utriusque cosmi metaphysica, physica, atque
When presenting the significance of the motifs of nigredo technica Historia, Oppenhaim 1617. The subject of interest
and umbra solis in the alchimist doctrine, I referred mainly to here is dealt with in Vqlume I, which discusses cosmogony
the works of Fabricius, Calvesi, and Canseliet. Now I will and the structure of the world. A great role is played in them
discuss three source texts, studied in the original, which clearly by the cabbalistic symbolism of letters, but light and darkness
show the role of light and darkness in the intellectual form the pivot of Ludd's speculations. The considerations of
speculations of the period. The first of them is the small "Traite their nature and hierarchy (substantio aut accidens) take up
de feu et de sel", Paris 1618, once immensely popular, judging over 60 pages; however, one should not expect here logic in
from the number of editions in various languages.40 Its author, its usual modern sense. This is the world of mystic language,
Blaise Vigenere, much like other occultists, refers to the the world of myth and its notional apparatus. The authorities
authority of Hermes and the Cabbala, but also to that of the referred to by Fludd are of various provenance; they are Hermes,
Bible. At first he speaks about God as the pre-eminent light, Jamblichus, Ficino, but predominantly the Old Testament.
the life source, quoting the same passages from the New Fludd cites the words of Moses when, vindicating the Divine
Testament that were used by mediaeval theologians to create substance of light, at the same time he assigns darkness a
the "metaphysics of light". But soon after that Vigenere quotes place in cosmogony. He ventures to defy one of the greatest
from Exodus, where God is said to "dwell in darkness". He Christian philosophers when he states: "Augustinus 'Contro
also refers to the passage from Psalm 138: "Sicut tenebrae Manicheos' asserit, privationem nihil aliud esse, quam tenebras,
eius sicut est lumen eius", commenting on it extensively, and quae definiuntur lucis absentia. Sed so recte consideretur
his reasoning can be recapitulated as follows: God dwells in tenebrarum significatio, illam latius quam privationis vocabulum
the light to which no one has access. This light is at the same se extendere percipiemus. Nam teste Moyse: Tenebrae super
time darkness to us, just as sunlight is darkness to owls, bats, faciem abyssi fuerunt, priusquam lux seu forma crearetur;
and other nocturnal creatures. Darkness appertains to the privatio vero nominari non potest".
Divine nature in the same way as light does and is even Right at the beginning of his work Fludd emphasized that
identified with the latter. For God is All, embraces all, and is the darkness is the earliest beginning of all things: Mundi

38 S. Aalen, Die
Begriffe "Licht"und "Finsternis"im Alten Testa- the edition. The psalm denoted in the 17th century as No. 138, in
ment, im Spatjudentumund im Rabbinismus,Oslo 1951 (especially the present-day editions of the Holy Scripture appears as No. 139.
pp. 9-16, pp. 63-73, pp. 318-319); J. Hempel,"Die Lichtsymbolikim Cf. the edition of the British and Foreign Biblical Society (Polish
Alten Testament",Studium Generale 1960, Heft 6, pp. 352-368; J. version) Warszawa 1983, p. 694.
Kania,"OpowieSciz iydowskiej (Ksiegi Swiat'osci)", Znak, nr. 356, 40 1 used the German translation: Blaise Vigenere, Abhandlung
VII,1984, pp. 865-874. von Feuer und Salz (trans. D.A.P.)Breslau 1782. Cf. Especiallypp. 5,
39 The numeration of the psalms slightly varies, depending on 28, 48, 107, 211, 215, 227-232.

107
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D z us Triangulohuicincomprh ibili comparari potf,quia comprec

hendcnsin fe omnia,&virtutefiuii(: ubiqc excendenscuncdina&uac,ex-
trqaaeipfumeftnibilatqueporroeui m qudibecanguliconus cuilibctmundi
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15) (<Terraopaca) (Robert Fludd, Utriusque cosmi Oppen- 16) (<Terraopaca) (Robert Fludd, Utriusque cosmi, Oppen-
heim 1617, Vol. 1, p. 29). heim 1617, Vol. I, p. 66).

mater, Ens primordialis.This primordialdarkness (associated fixed stars, and the fifth one the "metaphysical heaven", or
with expression such as fuminigerrimi,tenebrositas,abyssum), the empireum,which is the closest to the brightness of God.
penetrated by light, became the mother of the four elements. The earth, occupying the centre of the system, is plunged in
The scheme of their order is shown in a numberof engravings darkness, is an obscure place, very remote from the Divine
(pp. 9, 29, 37, 63, 66, 75, 131, 136, 138, 141, Utriusque light. Here is Fludd's comment on one of these engravings:
cosml) as a system of concentric circles. In the centre is the "Manifestumigiturest, omnem tenebrarumsubstantiam,cuius
globe, the second, outer circle is water, the thirdair,the fourth praesentia totius mundi materia spiritualis occultata erat et
the "naturalheaven" with the planets and the sphere of the informis,jam tandem virtutelucis in molem densam et opacam

108
 DE MACROCOSMI FABRICA. S FABR.IA. r
DE MACROCOSMI
fcemmodocumipfisradtiisincreatis c;dem,Et uc fpeculum abfentii objeli
horum lucisincreaar radiorum &
aSpcrditimprcflionesi licetiam abfentii
l, in rnomentoautnutu oculi perdec fuam formam acpulchritudincm,prio-
m-ua tencbrarumdeformitatem rurfus fpirtunnduet iftc fupcrcc:le lts.Lu-
cr_t giturgratiadivinavivitmundus munditquecrcatu;c,illa vero in femet-
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j famtanriumrceflexa,& s perirencef
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a crT trtt to jlosdOremfActe u#eoh merlA amltgeitt fliAti
men.
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justcanucmoccupantes virtute fua lucida deorfTm detrulic,& lucis increara
r,diosdcorfumalocoipiricus increati i hanc regionem creatam defcendetnes
imitando,fuzquoquc lucis creact radlis bafin regionis fux pcnerat,deorfum
cneabras pcrfequens,utinfra dcclarabitur.
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C A PU T. XIV.
De elementorum
forma.
O RMA hujusccelidebilioreft,quiafilla upeiorum,proptet
longinquitatemifuaoriginei Hoc autem failimeab eflf&u
ejusprobatur.Etcnim ignisnoftertcrreftrisvim fuamcalefa-
ciendailuminisa&tioneaccipiens,quanto longiusi paffivofuo
diftat,tantodbilius calefacerefolet & per confequensccr-
tum eft,hujusceli materiam,qu6 magis centroappropinquac,
ofiorem, impuriorem,& indignioremffei fecundiimitludArif)s^t in
pbhyficis,sp th el wterji i msixs efffonmr, e cewvrfe.Unde Iiquido
EU*ctJusccrimateri opter formzfuz rnmiffionem przdomiuari,&
P equens novamn fubindefornamquotidieappeterenequ enim fuppe-
(atis formz,u &
etplcri fitia-
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,~tionui materizejus de
appetims pollit
aNtitur afiduz mearcrummutationca oriunturhinccorruptiones quEt.
I 5 hbct

17) ((Terra opaca)) (Robert Fludd, Utriusque cosmi, Oppen- 18) <<Terraopaca) (Robert Fludd, Utriusque cosmi, Oppen-
heim 1617, Vol. I, p. 75). heim 1617, Vol. I, p. 138).

circa mundi centrum collectam redigi et conglobari, quae symbolism of the human condition. Fludd quotes Job's words
quidam elementum terrae appellatur. (...) In principio creavit about the fate of man on the earth: "Et terra tenebrosa
Deus coelum et terram, hoc est lucem a tenebris separavit; cooperitur cum obscuritate Mortis; et alibi: terram de miseria
coelum enim perspicuum lucidumque fecit; terram vero opacam, et obscuritate esse dicitur". It is impossible to ignore this
hoc est mundi centrum tenebris immergebat".41 [Fig. 15, 16,
17, 18]. 41RobertFludd,UtriusqueCosmimaiorissilicet minorismetaphysi-
The earth is therefore a dark place, a locum tenebrosum. ca, physica atque technica historia, Oppenheim 1617. The passages
The physical meaning is combined in this doctrine with the quoted: p. 9, p. 27, p. 74, p. 65.

109
motif, which keeps recurringin hermetic writings and which such an attitude. We see light but we also see a shadow, so
must have been widespread in the intellectual stereotypes it is a being:"Umbranon est ens pure privativum".Let Kircher
of the time. speak for himself in an extensive passage from Book II, Part
The third text to be dealt with here is the Ars magna lucis 2, entitled Sciasophia, or the knowledge of the shadow, a
et umbrae by Athanasius Kircher, published in 1646.42 descendant and an inseparable companion of light: "Hoc
Historians have recently been intimating that the occult admirabile lucis opus explicandum aggredimur, umbram in-
doctrineswere adopted not only by vast numbersof unorthodox quam, cuius antiquitatem si spectes, nobilissima est; si
Christians;they also penetrated into the institution of the ingeniumacutissima;si virtutem,fortissima;si gloriam,honora-
Catholic Church,especially into the Jesuit circle.43I think Carl tissima. Antiqutate tanta pollet, ut uni Creatoriposterior esse
G. Jung was the first to observe the similarityof the role of videatur;ante primaenim omnium rerumexistentiam in nihilo
meditation and imagination,very importantin the philosophy illo praelusit;deinde in Chao illo, et mundani corporis, Tohu
of alchemy, to that assigned to them by St. Ignatius Loyola et Bohu, quaedam veluti essentiae suae rudimenta iecit; ac
in his "Exerciciosspirituales".Francis Yates points out how denique in ipso parturientisnaturaesinu edita, non perquosdam
numerous and how little investigated are the Jesuit writings infantiae et pueritiae gradus ad maturitatem pervenit, sed
on the borderlinebetween mysticism and exact and hermetic statim totum hoc Universum complex ferrugineo suo pallio
sciences.44 Athanasius Kircherwas a Jesuit and he published operuit (...) Quid proprie umbra sit. Umbra non est ens pure
his work of nearly a thousand pages in Rome. It is of special privativum(...)Vitellio in 3 et 4 Postulato in absentia luminis
significance for the problem discussed in the present study. umbramfieri postulat; Et contra in allatione luminis umbram
The title page bears the motto: "Sicut tenebrae eius sicut deficere. Et alibi, umbram esse privationem cuiusdam lucis
est lumen eius" in Greek, Hebrews, and Latin(the same line existente in actu praesentia lucis alterius in loco tenebroso.
is quoted by Vigenere and by other hermetic authors). The Alii dicunt esse privationem lucis primariae(...) Quidquidsit,
contents of Kircher's huge opus are a peculiar mixture. It lumini contrarias esse tenebras, oppositamque proprie dici
comprises astronomy, gnomonics, optics and the projection obscuritatem,et Aristoteles testatur omnibusqueest evidentis-
of shadows, as well as cosmology and the "magic arts". Here, simum. At quaenam huiusmodi sit oppositio inter lumen et
for example, are the titles of some books and chapters: tenebras, purene privativa,an quovis pacto positiva repugnan-
Cosmometria gnomonica, Sciagraphia sive de Umbra Lucis tia, et utrum lumini praeter tenebras aliquid aliud opponatur
sobole, Physiologia lucis et umbrae, Magia lucis et umbrae. At discutiendumest. Lumentenebris opponi, ut habituipropriam
the beginning of the last-mentioned book the author declares privationem,ex Aristoteles constat. Etsi vero in tenebrarum
that it is not concerned with the "false,superstitious,dishonest entitate maximam luminis privationem reperias, ut tamen
or devilish"magic but with the "naturalmagic",that is to say, obscuritatem, tenebrasque puram putamque luminis ab omni
the knowledge of the laws of nature. He discusses sundials positiva entitate segregatam privationemcredam induci non
(magia horographica),and also writes about the magic lantern possum. Primoenim tenebrae ita visum congregant, ut praeter
and the possibility of throwing images on a screen in a dark doloremquem oculis etiam subinde nimis diuturnaecaecitatem
room (magia parastatica).This is a veritable compendium of adferant; at congregatio et excaeccatio reales et positivae
the knowledge of light and shadow as it appearedin its various operationes, a nuda, et mera privationeveluti causa efficiente
aspects in the first half of the 17th century. What was of - provenire nequeunt. Iterum contraria, quae sese mutuo
particularinterest to me in Kircher'swork was the apology refriguntretundendohebetandoque,naturamhabent utcumque
of a shadow and darkness, the equation of darkness with light positivam:tale est lumen et tenebrae. Sicut igiturflamma non
as two forms of being. Kircherquotes the statements of est ignis sed corpus mistum cum multo praedominioignis; ita
Aristotle and Vitello regardinglight and vision (they were the tenebrae quoque non sunt pura privatio,sed naturamhabent
identifiedwith each other) and also the definitionof darkness visibilem ex privativaet entitate positiva coniunctam;si igitur
as the absence of light (absentia luminis),thus a definition by tenebrae et obscuritas non est pura privatio, certe minime
negation. Likewise a shadow was conceived as "privation" umbra erit; quamvis etiam aliquo modo lumini opponi dici
(privatio) or diminution (diminuitio lucis). Kircher objects to possit. Potest itaque duplex hoc loco obscuritas considerari:

42 Athanasius Kircher,Ars magna lucis et umbraein decem libris Contribution,New York 1972.
44 F. Yates, GiordanoBrunoand the Hermetic Tradition,London
digesta, Roma 1646.
43 R.Taylor,"Hermetismand MysticalArchitecturein the Society 1964, pp. 401-429.
of Jesus", in: R. Wittkower and B. Jaffe, Baroque Art. The Jesuit

110
prior natura constans privativa,lumini opponitur, ut habitus; from any positive entity. In the first place, darkness makes
et nomine tenebrarum appellatur: altera positivam magis sight concentrate to such a degree that besides pain it
essentiam obtinens, luminiut qualitaticontrariaerepugnat;et sometimes brings blindness to the eyes if it lasts too long;
haec vocatur umbra,quae est entitas maxime positiva e6 quod and the concentration and blindness, being real and positive
maxime visum movent. (...) His itaque positis dicimus corpora operations, cannot originatefrom nothing but a mere privation
lucida corporibus opacis contraria quidem, at non omnino as the effective cause (...) Darkness is not the pure state of
privativased positiva;illa enim lumen emittunt, haec tenebras. privationbut is of visible nature derivingfrom the conjunction
A lumine et tenebris, proles quaedam nascuntur, quae uti et of the privative and positive entities; therefore, if darkness
matres earum in medio diaphano diffunduntur(...)Actio enim and obscurity are not a purelyprivativestate, then undoubtedly
et passio a viribus agendi et patiendi provenit: vires autem the shadow will not be such a state either; though it could
omnes an essentia sibi propriaprocreantur,et in essentia sunt, also be said that the latter in some way opposes light (...)
in ea fundanturex eaque funduntur.Non sunt ergo obscuritas, despite the fact that bright bodies stand in opposition to dark
umbra,umbratioquesimplices lucis et luminis privationes,sed ones, the dark ones are not completely privativebut positive;
vera sunt entia, qualia dicunturpositiva". the formergiving forth light and the latter darkness. Both light
(Now we proceed to the explanationof this admirablework and darkness give birth to some kind of progeny which,
of light, that is to say, a shadow. If its antiquityis considered, similarlyas their parents, diffuse in a diaphanous medium (...)
it is most noble, if its inherent ability, it is very acute, if its For activity and passivity derive from the capacity to act and
power, it is very strong, if its glory, it is worthy of every to perceive, and all these capacities derive from their specific
honour. It is characterizedby such a great antiquitythat it is nature and in this nature they exist, they rely on it, and spring
naturallyposterior only to the Creator;because already prior from it. Thus darkness, shadow, and obscurity are not ordinary
to the existence of all things it played a role in that nothingness, states of privationof luminosityand light but are real entities
and next in that Chaos and in that Tohu Bohu of the body of which are called positive).45
the universe it established the rudimentsof its quasi existence; This rather lengthy quotation was necessary to bring out
and, finally, begotten in the very womb of mother nature, it the idea of the "axiologyof darkness".This idea was included
came to maturity not through some stages of infancy and in the metaphysical system, recapitulated by Kircherin the
childhood but it immediately embraced the whole Universe last part entitled "Epilogussive metaphysica lucis et umbrae",
and wrapped it in its dark mantel. (...) What exactly is a and at its briefest runningas follows: A man is too weak to
shadow? A shadow is not a purely privativebeing (...) Vitello withstand the power of the Divine light (lux).Therefore God
in his 3rd and 4th postulates assumes the indispensabilityof created light, as it were, of the second degree (lumen), and
the occurrence of shadow in the absence of light, and, vice between this and a man He put yet another, third degree: a
versa, the vanishing, of shadow at the appearance of light. shadow; darkness forms the lowest degree. Thereby the
And, in another place: that a shadow is the privationof some following hierarchyhas been established:Lux,Lumen,Umbrare,
light in the actual presence of some other light in a darkplace. and Tenebrae,corresponding respectively to God, the Angels,
Others say that it is the privation of the primary light (...) Man, and Animals, and to the four elements: ignis, aer, aqua,
Whatever it may be the fact remainsthat darkness is contrary terra.Let us again quote Kircher'swords: "Estenim Angelicum
to light and as its opposite it is rightly called obscurity, as is intermedium veluti umbra quaedam, qua inter Deum et
testified by Aristotle and is obvious to every one. It should, hominem frangiturdivinae Lucis irradiatio,quave divini Solis
however, be considered what kindof opposition exists between ardores humanae fragilitati intolerabiles divinae Lucis radii
light and darkness, whether it is purely privative or in some quodam modo coercerunt, et consequenter inter nubem et
way positive, and whether anything else besides darkness can Solem divinae claritatis umbra causatur, quam umbratiliset
be contrasted with light. On the basis of what Aristotle says imperfecta nostra cognitio sequitur".46
it is known that light opposes darkness just as the deprivation The influence of alchemy and the Cabbala on Kircher's
of property opposes possession. On the other hand, though system is quite clear, but the stress laid on the apology of a
you would find in the entity of darkness the maximum shadow is a significant and original trait of Baroque culture.
deprivationof light, I am not willing to believe that obscurity Whoever wishes to become acquainted with this culture in
and blackness are nothing but a pure deprivationof light, free its: "deep layer"should study the "Arsmagna lucis et umbrae".

45 Athanasius Kircher,Ars magna, op. cit., pp. 53-54. 46 Athanasius Kircher,Ars magna, op. cit., p. 923.

111
It is not easy to wade through this book but it is worthwhile, astronomy stressed the phenomena of solar eclipse and of
as it introduces us into that peculiar conglomeration of religious, the phases of the moon as the point of departure for the
scientific (Kircher knows and approves of Copernicus' disco- geocentric system. All these "signs of the times", though
very), and magic thinking which was a general stereotype of scattered and apparently independent of one another, show
the first half of the 17th century. In addition, Kircher's book a concurrence which cannot be accidental; they are various
marks out most emphatically the end of the monistic mediaeval facets of a significant cultural topos, One of these facets is
metaphysics of light and its replacement with the metaphysics the painting of the Tenebristi. Their darkness is a symbolic
of light and darkness as two forms of being. darkness. Just as the gold background in the Middle Ages
was the metaphor of the Divine Light - Lux perpetua - so the
* * *
murky background of Baroque paintings is a metaphor which,
depending on the context, can be understood as a "mystic
night" or as "a dark place", the latter being the earth. The
The problem of light and darkness in Baroque painting was gloom of the Tenebristi can be interpreted as the sign of "dark
not purely artistic in character. It penetrated into the entire faith" in its theological bearing, but it can also denote the
intellectual life of the time, into religion, philosophy, and natural alchemists' nigredo which is likewise a positive value, as it
science. This also seems to have been the only period in the gives rise to a new life. Since all symbols are equivocal, it is
history of European culture in which the phenomenon of not always possibile to read the artist's intentions (frequently
shadow and darkness has aroused so much speculation and subconscious anyway). Many of them surely associated
gained such an important position unknown of before or later.47 darkness with negation. However, in the pictures of the
The end of the 16th century saw the formulation of the Tenebristi darkness appeared as a positive value, active both
theology of darkness in its perfect and unsurpassed form - iconically and symbolically, thereby creating a new aesthetics.
in the writings of St. John of the Cross. The Jesuit and Darkness was equated with light, as it conditioned the brilliance
Carmelite Orders recommended darkness as conducive to and magnificence of the latter. The religious, cosmic, alchemic,
contemplation, thus a positive value in spiritual life. Owing to and existential symbolism of light and darkness was expressed
the great revival of Biblicist studies in Hebrew the representa- not through the iconographic subjects but in the whole visual
tives of the Church and Orders were able to become acquainted structure of the works by Tintoretto, Caravaggio, Georges de
with Judaic mysticism, where God "dwelled in darkness" and La Tour, Rembrandt, and Spanish artists, going beyond the
where darkness was His attibute just as light was. The new borders of countries, schools, and patronages.

Translated from the Polish by Krystyna Malcharek

47 The modernencyclopedias always contain the entry "light"but Lichtes aber kein zweites Element ist. Dunkelheitbedeutet schlecht-
lack the entry"darkness".Text books of physics and optics concerned hin Abwesenheit des Lichtes, welches allein die agierende, optische
with light never deal with the problemof darkness.Immensescientific Macht ist. Der Akzent liegt auf dem agieren, d.h. die Dunkelheitkann
literaturegives an answer to the question "What is light"?,whereas von sich aus nicht handlungsfahigsein, ist passiven Dunkelgrund.Die
the question "What is darkness?" is never asked. Humanists and eigene Macht des Dunkels- radikalausgesprochen in der Finsternis
philosopherstend to treat darkness as non-entity.Cf. e.g.: E. Heimen- als totalem Nichts - ist damit nicht getroffen. Das ist eine existentielle
dahl, Licht und Farbe,Berlin 1961, p. 108: "Bei dieser Beschreibung Lebensfrage". Cf. also: Enciclopedia delle religioni, ed. Vallecchi,
der phanomenalen Beziehung zwischen Licht und Dunkelheit wird Firenze, 1971, Vol. III, col. 1708, entry: "Luce et tenebrae. Due
offenbar, dass die Dunkelheitwohl Gegensatz und Gegenstand des fenomeni fondamentalidella natura".

112