Armament Engineering Weapon Systems PDF

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AM•C PAMPHLET AMCP 706-10I
THIS IS A REPRINT WITHOiATC,4ANGC OF ORDP 20-10a
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

OF MATERIEL
ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK
ELEMENTS OF ARMAMENT ENGINEERING

PART THREE
WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
VF
STATEMENT #2 bNC. ASSIFIEb
This document is subj"cr to spec.al expor.
controls ald each Lcatismittal to foreign
governments or foreign nationals may be made
only with prior approvwl, of: Army Materiel
cnCcmmaind, Attn: AlCi.D-'TV, W.ashi gton, !.C.
20315
b4
HEADQUARTERS, U. S. ARMY MATERIEL L;OMIAANL. JULY 1963
F''
A
ELEMENTS OF ARMAMENT ENGINEERING

PART 3, WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
"i:
I
9•I
HEADQUAR TERS
UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND

WASHINGTON 25, D. C.
31 July 1963
AMCP 706-108, Elements of Armament Engineering, Part Three,

Weapon Systems and Components, forming part of the Army Materiel
Command Engineering Design Handbook Series, is published for the
information and guidance of all concerned.
SEL-;YN D. SMITH, JR.

Brigadier General, USA
OFFICIAL: ;!'. Chief of Staff
DISTRIBUTION: Special
C~ /
_... ....
... ....
C olonel..
FOREWORD
T, is is ore of a group of handbooks covering the scope of a number of proposed handbooks
the engineering information and quantititive to include the information. For further infor-
data needed in the design and construction of mation apd more complete lists of s'eferences the
ordnance equipmen'., which (as a group) con- reader is referred to other appropriate hand-
stitutes the Ordnance Engineering Design Hand- books within the Series.
book Series. Arrangement for publication of the handbooks
The three handbooks comprising "Elements comprising "Elements of Armament Engineer-
of Armament Engineering" were produced from ing" was made under the direction of the
text material prepared for use at the United Ordnance Engineering Handbook Office, Duke
States Military Academy. They are published Univeysity, under contract to the Office of Ord-
as part of the H indbook Series to -nake generally nance Research. The copy was prepared by the
available the wealth of fundamental information McGraw-Hill Book Company, under subcontract
contained in the text material, which is of value to the Ordnance Engineering Handbook Office.
to those concerned with ordnance design, par- Comments on, and requests for copies of, this
, ticularly to new engineers and to contractors' Handbook should be addressed to Commanding
personnel. Publication of this nmaterial in its Officer, Office of Ordnance Research, U.S. Army,
existing form avoids the necessity of extending Box CQ,4, Duke Station, Durham, N.C.
.4
-- I III
.S.
. ...
. . . ... .. ... 2 •
S)REWORD TO ORIGINAL
TEXT MATERIAL
Stexttas been prepared to meet a specific development and changes in the field of wea-
requir iment 'Rs a reference for instruction in pons design.
"Elemeits of Armament EngiTneering," a one- References cited are those available to the
semester course in aetplied engineering analysis student as the result of study in previous courses
conducted by the Department of Ordnance at at the United States Military Academy. Advanced
the United States Military-.4cademy, for mem- references are available at the Department of
bers of the First (SoniorýClasi 1 ,\represents the Ordnance Reference Room.
application of military, scientiic, and engineer-
ing fundamentals to the analysis, design and op- Contributing authors for 1958-59 revision are:
eration of weapons systems, including nuclear
components. It is not intended to fully orient Maj. W. E. Rafert, Ord Corps, ksst. Professor
or familiarize the student in weapons employ- Capt. A. W. Jank, Ord Corps,, Instructor
ment or nomenclature. Capt. C. M. Jaco, Yrr., Ord Corps, Instructor
Of necessity, the large•"volume of classified Capt. J. M. Cragin, Ord Corps, Instructor
data used in presentation of this course has been Capt. G. K. Patterson, USAF, Instructor
omitted; hence the text is intended to serve as a
point of departure for classroom discussions. The JOHN D. BILLINGSLEY
text is revised annually by instructors of the Colonel, U. S. Army
Department of Ordnance in an effort to assure Professor of Ordnance
that subject presentation will keep pace with August 1958
iv •"
PREFACE
History will reveal that the greatest advances in science have occurred during periods of major
world conflicts. In this regard, World War I! was no different from the wars which preceded it.
Consider a few of the major technological advances that were made between 1940 and 1945; the
creating and harnessing of nuclear energy; the introduction of thermal jet propulsion; the development
of ground, shipboard, and airborne radar systems and of complex computing equipment; and the
development of rockets and rocket-propelled short and intermediate range guided and unguided
missiles. Unlike past examples in history, however, the engineering effort associated with this war did
not stop with the end of hostilities. The continuation of the cold war has kept the urgency of discovery
and the requirement to maintain technical leadership alive. The fact remains that we are right now
in the throes of the greatest major engineering effort that the world has ever kr.own. The engineering
effort of today differs in two ways from the customary engineering practices found prior to World
.. . War II: in the very large size of the projects, and in the tremendous scope of the undertakings. It is
' in the second of these areas that the systems engineering concept might be said to have been born.
"" I
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
1-1 IN T R OD U CT IO N .......................... ..................................... ..... 1...

1-2 WEAPONS SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS ................................ 1-1
1-3 M ILITARY CHARACTERISTICS .............................................. 1-2
A-.1 A irfra m e ...................... 1-2
1.2...............................................................
1-3.2 Prop ulsion System ..................................................................... 1-2
1-3 .3 Gu id ance S y stem ......................................................................... I-
1-3.4 Warhead . 1-2
1-3 .5 Relia bility .................... ........ ........... . .......... . 1-........................
1-2
I-3.6 Sample Military Requirements ..................... 1,2
14 S U M M AR Y ............ ......................................... ........................ ..... ... 1-3
2.CHAPER 2
ASNALY
SCONSTOL
2-1 IN TRO D U CT ION .............. ........ ............................... ................ .... 2-1
2-2 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS ....... ............... .............. 2.1

2-3 ELEMENTS OF SERVOMECHANISMS ...... .......................... 92-
2-4 SYST E M A N A L YSIS ... ........ ...... .............
.......................... 12112
S2-5 RESPONSE TO A STEP INPUT ................... .............. 1........... . 2.
2-6 RESPONSE TO A RAM P INPUT ............................................. 2-4

2,-7 METH1ODS OF IMPROVING SYSTEM RESPONSE ............ 2-5
2-7.1 D erivativw Feedback .. ..... ................................. ...... .... 2-5
2-7.2 Error-Rate Control .... ... 2-7
2-7.3 Integral Control .... ........... ..... 2-7
2-9 SU M M A R Y .. ..... . ................... ........ .... . 2..
2-8
CHAPTE 3
111ACT110,0C COMPUTES
3-1 INTRODUC'lN .. 3-.

3-2 ELECTRONIC ANALO.- t
COMPUTERS 3-1
An
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont)
Paragraph Page
CHAPTER 2 (cont)
3-2.1 TIhe O perational A m plifier .................................................... 3.-1

3-2.2 Summ ing and Integrating Circuits ........................................... 3-2
3-2.3 Solution of a Different9al Equation .... ............................... 3-3
3-3 D IG ITA L CO M PUTERS .......... . .............................................. 3-5
3-4 COMPARISON OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL
C OM PUT E R S . .. ....................................................................... 3-8
3-4 .1 A cc u racy ....................... .. ......... ................ ........ ...... . . . . ....... 3-8
3-4.2 Pre cision .... . . ............................................ ......................... . .... 3 -8
3-4 .3 S pe e d ..... ............. ......... ............................ . ..... ............. 3....-...
3-8
3-4 .4 A daptab ility . .................................... .. 3......................

3-8
3 -4.5 Co st ....... ...-....................................... .... 33..-9
CHAPTER 4
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
4-1 INTRODUCTION ..... ..... 4...............

4-1
4-2 INERTIAL GUIDANCE ............. ... 4-1
4-3 INTEGRATING GYROSCOPES ....................... 4-1
4-4 LINEAR ACCELEROMETERS ................. ..... 4-3
4-5 STABLE PLATFORM ........ 4-5
4-6 GUIDANCE COMPUTER ....... 4-5
4-7 SCHULER PERIOD .................. ..... 4-7
4-8 SUMMARY .. ............. 4-7
C4APTOU 5
GUN TUBBS
5-1 IuSTOfO iCAL FUMMARY OF DEVICES FOR

LAUNCHING PROJEcr(LJ S 5-1
5-2 GUNS-DEFINITIONS 5-2
5-3 BREECH MECHANISMS-GENERAL 5-3
5.4 BREECHBLOCKS 5-,3
5-4.1 Interrupted-Screw 5-4
5-4.2 Sliding-Wedge 5-4
via
TABLEL OF CONTENTS (cont)
Para,,raph Page
chaptev 5 (cont)
5 -5 O B T U RA TIO N .............................. ................................ .... 5-5

5-6 BOBE EVACUATORS .................... ... 5-6
5-7 SAFETY DEVICES .. 5-7
7.......................
5-8 THEORY OF RIFLING . .. ........... ... 5-7
7..............
CHA•PER 6
"1RtESS ANALYSIS IN CYUNDERt
6-1 GENERkAL ... 6-1
6-2 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS ..................... ..... 6-1
6-3 BASIC THEORY ............. 6-2
6-3.1 Poisson's Ratio (sL) -.... ............. ........ ... 8.......
6-2
6-3.2 Equivalent Unidirectional Stress .. ................
'.. 6-3
6-4 STRESSES DUE TO INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL
PRESSURES .................. ..... 6-3
6-5 S0ME ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES .............. .......... 6-6
6-6 BUILT-UP GUNS ........ .......... ... 6-8
6-7 CALCULATIONS IN BUILT-UP GUNS ............... 6-9
6-8 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM ..... .... 6-11
6-9 EFFECT OF OVERSTRAIN OF METAL ...... 6-12
6-10 COLD-WORKED GUN TUBES 6-12
6-11 THIN WALLED CYLNDERS ........ 6-14
6-12 STRE•SES IN A ROTATING PROJECTILE ........... 6-15
6-13 CALCULATIONS 6-16
8-13.1 Stresses Resulting From Setbmck ....... 6-16
6-13.2 Stresses Re",,Iting From Rotadion 6-16
6-14 CALCULATION OF EQUIVALENT UNIDIRECTIONAL
STRESS 6-18
6-15 OTHER APPLICATIONS .. 6-19
CNAPY 7
RKcca - SUiM
f - L GENERAL 7-1
7-2 VELOCITY OF FREE RECOIL 7.1
Ix
Paragraph Page
Chupter 7 (coat)
7-3 RETARDED RECOIl-TOTAL RESISTANCE TO
RECOIL CONSTANT ............................................................. 7-4
7-4 STABILITY OF MOBILE CARRIAGES ................................. 7-4
1-5 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A RECOIL SYSTEM .................. 7-8
7- RE C OIL B RAK E .......................................................................... 7-8
7-7 COUNTERRECOIL MECHANISM .......................................... 7-0
7-7.1 Sprin g Type .... .................................... ...................................... 7-10
7-7.2 Pneum atic Type .......................................................................... 7-10
7-8 COUNTERRECOIL BUFFER ...................................................... 7-11
7-9 COMPLEIE RECOIL SYSTEMS ................................................ 7-11
7-10 M U ZZLE BRA KE S ........ .............................................................. 7-13
"7-11 TOTAL RESISTANCE TO RECOIL ....................................... 7-14
7-12 SPECIAL RECOIL DEVICES ..................................................... 7-14
I GUN MOUNTS AND MISSILE LAUNCHERS
8-1 G EN ERAL ......................................................................................... 8-

3-2 GUN MOUNTS 8-1
8-3 MISSILF tAUNCHING TECHNIQUES .................................. 8-
8-3.1 Rail Launchers ............................................................................ -5
8-3.2 Zero-Length Launchers ............................................................. 8-5
8-3.3 Vertical Launchings .................................................................... 8-5
8-4 STRESSES IN MOBILE GUN CARRIAGES ............ I..........L..... "
8-4.1 Forces Acting on Recoiling Parts .............................................. 8-7
"8-4.2 Forces Acting on the Cradle ...................................................... 8-8
8-4.3 Forces Acting on Top Carriage ......................... ..................... 8-9
8-4.4 Forces Acting on Bottorw Carriage ........................................... 8-9
8-4.5 Forces Acting on Each Trail ....................................................... 8-9
I CHAPTER 9
Ir SMALL ARMS AND RECOILLESS RIFLES
9-1 HISfrORY OF SMALL ARMS ....................................................... 9-1 (

9-1.1 Development of the Military Rifle ..................... 9-1
,x
IDI
Paragraph Page
Chapter 9 ({ont)
9-1.2 Development of Automatic Weapons ........................................ 9-2

9-2 CLASSIFICATION OF MILITARY SMALL ARMS ............... 9-3
9-2.1 Hand Weapo ns ....................... .................................................... 94
9-2.2 Shoulder W eapons ........................................................................ 9-4
9-2.3 M achine Guns ................................................................................ 94
9-3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A FIREARM .................................. 9-5
9-3.1 Receiv er ......................................................................................... 9-5
9-3 .2 Ba rrel 9-6
9.....................................................
9-3.3 Breech M echanism ........................................................................ 9-6
9-3.4 Firing M echanism ...................................................................... 9-7
9-4 CYCLE OF OPERATION .............................................................. 9-8
9-5 BASIC TYPES OF OPERATION .................................................. 9-8
9-5 .1 M anu al ................................................................................ ........... 9-9
9-5 .2 Reco il 9...................................................
9 -9
9-5.3 Gas .................................................................................................... 9-9
9-5M4 B lowb ack 9-9
9...................................................
9-6 CURRENT PROBLEMS AND TRENDS OF
D E V EL OPM E NT ............................................................................. 9-9
9-6.1 R ecoil ................................................................................................ 9-10
9-6 .2 Stren gth ........................................................................................... 9-11
9-6.3 H eat and Erosion .......................................................................... 9-11
"9-A.4 C orrosion ......................................................................................... 9-1 1
9-6.5 Lub rication ...................................................................................... 9.12
9-6.6 Prod uction ...... 9-12
1...................................................
9-7 RECOILLESS RIFLES-INTRODUCTfION ............................... 9-12
9-8 CENERAL CHARACTERISTICS ................................................ 9-12
9-9 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ... 9-13
9-10 MAINTAINING RECOILLESSNESS ....................................... 9-16
9-11 COMPARISON OF RECOILLESS RIFLES WITH
STANDARD ARTILLERY PIECES AND ROCKETS ............ 9-17
9-11.1 Simplicity and Weight .............................................................. 9-17
D 9-11.2 Acceleration and Velocity . ........................................................ 9-17
9-11.3 Accuracy and Range.. ....................................................................
Al
-*, TAME or CONTENTS (cont)
Paragraph Page
Chapter 9 (cont)
9-11.4 Bla st ..... ... . ................ ..... ... .................. 9 -18...........................

8
9-11.5 T actical C onsiderations ................... ................................ 9-18
9..
9-12 FUTURE DEVELOPM ENTS .. ................................................. 9-19
CHAPTER 10
DYNAMIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
10-1 IN TROD U CT IO N ................................................................... ... 10-1

10-2 ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC WEAPONS ................................ 10-1
10-3 ANALOG COMPUTER SOLUTION ............................................ 10-5
CHAPTER I I
AMMUNITION AND WARHEADS
11-1 SMALL ARMS AMMUNITiON-INTRODUCTION 1..............

1-1
11-2 H IS T OR Y . ........ ... ... ................. .............................. ............ 11-1
11-13 CARTRIDGE TERM INOLOGY .................................................... 11-3
11-4 COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLETE ROUND .................... 11-3
11-4.1 The C artrid ge C ase ............................................................. .... 11-4
11 4.-.2 T he P rim er .. .. ................ ................... ..... ..... ... ................. 11-4
11-4.3 T he Propelling C harge ............... ...... ..... ............ ....... .... 11-6
11-4.4 T he B u llet ........... ..................... ...... 11-6
11-5 GRAD ES AND GRAD ING ............. .............. .................... 11-9
11-6 APTILLERY AMMUNITION-HISTORY ........................... 11-10
11-7 COMPLETE ARTILLERY ROUNDS .................................... 11-11
11-7.1 Fixed Am munition ...... ............ ............. 11-11
11-7.2 Semifixed Ammunition ... ....... ..... .......... ..... 11-11
11-7.3 Separate Loading Ammunition ..... 11-12
11-7.4 Separated Ammunition ......... ... 11-13
11-8 COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLETE ROUND .. ..... 11-13
11-8.1 Primers 11-13
11-8.2 Cartridge Cases 11-13
11-8.3 Propelling Charges 11-14
11-8.4 Projectiles-General Characteristics 11-15
xAl
iti I.
Paragraph Page
Chapter 1 (cont)
11-8.5 Projectile Types .................................. ..................... 11-17

11-9 MORTAR AMMUNITION-COMPLETE ROUNDS ............... 11-20
11-10 RECOILLESS RIFLE AMMUNITION-
C O M PL ET E R OU N D ...... .................................. ......................... 11-21
11-10 .1 R otatin g B an d ... . .................. .................................................... 11-2 1
11-10.2 C artrid ge C ase . . ... ..... . . .................. ................................ 11-22
11-10.3 Propelling C harge ......................... ... .................................... 11-22
I1-11 BOM BS-INTRODUCTION ....................................... ........ 11-22
11-12 DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE ............................................. 11-23
11-12.1 Bom b Bodies ... ....................................... 11-23
11-12 .2 F ins ......... ................ ................ 11-23
11-12.3 Arm ing W ire A ssem blies .............................. ................... 11-23
11-12 .4 F u zes . ................................................... . . 11-24
11-13 CLASSIFICATION ............. . ........11-24
11-i3.1 G eneral Purpose (G P ) ............. ...................................... 11-25
11-13.2 Light C ase (L C ) ......... .... ............... ........... 11-25
11-13.3 Armor Piercing (AP) ... ................. .. 11-25
11-13.4 Semi-Armor Piercing (SAP) .......... ....... .... 11726
11-13.5 Depth .. ..... .... 11-26
11-13.6 Fragmentation 11-26
11-13.7 Chemical Bombs-Cas and Smeke 11-27
11-13.8 Chemical 9Bombs-Incendiary 11-28
11-13.9 Photoflash 11-29
I1-13.1() Target Identification (TI) 11-30
11-0,.11 Practice 11-30
11-13.12 Drill 11-30
11-14 CLUSTER ADAPTERS 11-30
11-15 WARHEADS 11-30
11-16 GRENADES-INTRODUCTION 11-32
11-17 HAND GRENADES 11-32
11-17.1 Fragmentation 11-32
11-17.2 Offensive 1-3
xiii
11-1.2 Ofenive 1-3

Paragraph Page
Chapter 11 (coant)
11-17.3 C hemical Grenades ...................................................................... 11-33

11-17.4 Practice and Training Hand Grenades .................................. 11-34
11-18 RIF L E GR EN AD E S ....................................................................... 11-34
11-18 ,1 Exp losiv e .......................................................................................... 11-34
11-18.2 Chemical Rifle Grenades .......... 1.............................................
1-34
11-19 MINES-INTRODUCTION ........................................................ 11-35
11-20 ANT ITA N K M IN E S 11-36
1........................................................................
11-20.1 H eavy A ntitank M ine ................................................................. 11-36
11-20.2 Light Antitank Mine ............................................................ 11-36
11-21 ANTIPERSONNEL MINE ............................................................ 11-36
11-22 DEMOLITIONS-INTRODUCTION .................................. .... 11-39
11-23 CHARACTERISTIC TYPES OF DEMOLITIONS ............... 11-39
11-23.1 Prim acord ....................................................... .............................. 11-39
11-23.2 Bangalore Torpedoes ................................................................ 11-39
11-23.3 Shaped Demolition Charges ...................................................... 11-39
11-23.4 Dem olition Blocks ................................................................... ... 11-39
11-24 PYROTECHNICS-INTRODUCTION ................. 11-40
11-25 FL AR E S 11I4 1
1...........................................................................................
11-25.1 G rou nd Flares ............................................................................... 11-41
11-25.2 T rip Flares ...................................................................................... 114 1
CHAPTER 12
FUZES
12-1 IN TR O DU CT ION .......................................................................... 12-1

12-, CLASSIFICATION OF FUZES ................................................ 12-1
12-2 .1 Tim e Fuzes .......... 1........................................................................
12-1
12-2 .2 im pact F uzes ................................................................................. 12 -2
12-2.3 P roxim ity Fuzes ........................................................................... 12-2
12-2.4 H ydrostatic F uzes . ..................................................................... 12-2
12-2.5 C hem ical Fuzes ............................................................................. 12-2
12-2.6 A m b ient Fuzes .............................................................................. 12-3
12-3 PBINCIPLES OF FUZZE DESIGN ............................. 12-3
pX1
Paragraph Page
Chapter 12 (cona)
12-3 .1 Safety Featu res ............................ .. .......................................... 12-4

12-4 ILLUSTRATION OF DESIGN PRINCIPLES ............................ 12-8
12-4 .1 Booster, M21A 4 ...... ............................... ............................... 12-10
12-5 THE RADIO PROXIMITY FUZE .............................................. 12-13
12-5.1 Functioning of a Typical Rocket or Borab VT Fuze ............. 12-14
12-5.2 E xternal Phenom ena ........................ ............................... ........ 12-14
12-5.3 In tern al Action .............................................. 1...............................
12-16
12-5.4 Radio Frequency Sect'on .......................................................... 12-16
12-5.5 Am plx*.er C ircuit ............................................................................ 12-17
12-5 .6 F irin g C ircu it ........................ ................................................ ...... 12-17
12-5.7 E lectrical Safety D evices .............................................................. 12-17
12-5.8 General Characteristics ........................................................... 12-19
12-6 FUZES FOR GUIDED MISSILES ............................................ 12-20
APPENDIX A
GUN TUBE CONSTRUCTION
A-1 SELECTION OF METHOD ........................................................ A-1

A-2 SH APING TH E TU BE .................................. .............................. A -1 _
A-3 ASSEMBLY AND STRENGTHENING OF
CO MPLET E IU BE .................................... A-2
2...................................
A-4 BO RIN G PROC ESS ........................................................................ A-5
A-5 HO N IN G ........................................................................................... A -6
A-6 RIFLIN G METHO D S ................................................................... A-7
A-7 TAPERED-BORE GUNS ............................................................... A-10
A-8 ERO SION PRO BLE MS ................................................................ A-11
AP P EN DIX B ........ ................................................. ....... ........... B-1
APPENDIX C
NOTES ON CURRENT GUIDED MISSILE SYSTiWMS
C -1 G E N E RA L ... ...... ........................................................................... C-1

C-2 MISSILE DESIGNATIONS ............. C............................................
C-i
C-2.1 Joint Army-Navy-Air Force Designations ............................... C-i
C -2.2 Air Force D eiignations ....................................................... ... C-1
I ND E X ... ..... ........ ........ ... ...... ........... .................. ...................... I

_XV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
P~g. No. Title page
2-1 Schematic of an open loop control system ....................................... 2-1

2-2 Schematic of a closed loop control system ........................................ 2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
Step function .......... .............
Ram p fu nction .
.. . . . . .
Response to ,-tep input, 0, = A .........................................................

. . . . .
. ..................................................................................
Responses to ramp input, 0, - wt ......... .........................................

2-3
2-4
2-6
I-4
2-7 Derivative feedback servo ......................... ..................................... 2-7
2-1 Error-rate control servo ....................................................................... 2-7
2-9 In tegral con trol serv o ........................................................................... 2-8
3-1 Operational am p lifier ........................................................................... 3-2

3-2 Su mm ing am plifier ................................ ......................................... -3
3-3 in tegratin g am p lifier ............................................................................ 3-I
3-4 D ouble integration circuit ................................................................. 3-3
3-5 M ultiplication circuit ............. ...................................................... 3-4
3-6 EDA circuit for the.solution of a second order equation .............. 3-4 [
4-1 Three-degree-of-freedom gyro ............................. 4-1

4-2 Single-degree-of-freedom gyro ........................................................... 4-2
4-3 Integrating gyro assembly ........... ...................... 4-3
4-4 Integrating gyroscopic accelerometer ........................ 4-4
4-5 Inertial guid ance plane ........................................................................ 4-0
4-6 E ighty-four m inute period .............................................................. . 4-7
4-7 Gyro drift rate per 1000 ft of miss distance .................................... 4-8
4-8 Acceleromete'r %error per 1000 ft of miss distance .................... 4-8
5-1 Components of a barrel assembly .... ............................. .......... .... .... 5-2
5-2 M easuv-em ent of caliber ...................................................................... 5-3

5-3 T ypes of artillery weapons .................. ............................................... 5-3
5-4 W elin b reech b loc k ............... .......................................................... .5. 4

5-5 Vertical sliding-wedge breechblock .......................... .................. 5--.l
5-6 Horizontal sliding-wedge breechk lock ............. ....... . 54
5-7 D eBange obturator .5......................... ........ .......... ........... 5-5
XI
//
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (cont)
Fig. No. Title Page

5.8 Bore evacuator and m uzzle brake ................................................ 5-r
5-9 C ross section of bore ev Acuator ........................................................ 5-6

5-10 D eveloped curve of rifling ................................... ......................... 5-8
5-11 Developed curve of riflihig (increasing tMist) ............................... 5-10
5-12 Form of rifling (from bree~ch end) ................................................. 5-10
6-1 Stress.-strain diagram (m ild' steel) ............................................... 6-2

6-2 Cube of gun Ateel, one inch on a side ............................................... 6-2
6-3 Stress co n ven tio n ............ .............................................................. .... 6-3
6-4 Principal stresses in a gun tube ....................................................... 6-4
6-5 Effect of wall thickness on allowable maximum powder
p re ssu r e ........ . ...... ............. .................................................... 6 -6
6-6 Equivalent unidirectional stresses .................................................... 6-7
6-7 E ffect of precom pression ................................................................... 6-9
6-8 1, due to shrinkage pressure only (symbol Io) ......... 6.................
6-9
6)-9 Gu n at rest ........................... .. ......... - 11..................................................
0
6-10 1, due to powder gas pressure only (symbol Y.,) ........................ 6-10
6-11 Y, when gun is in action (•ta) ........ .............................................. 6-10

6-12 Typical stress-strain diagram for cold-worked gun steel 6.........
-12
6-13 Stresses in cold-w orked tube ............................. ............... ..... 6-13
6-J4 Velocity and pressure as functions of projectile travel .............. 6-15
6-15 Stress in projectile wail due to setback acting on projectile ..... 6-16
6-16 Cross section of projectile wall of unit length. Calculation of
stress in wall due to centrifugal force acting on projectile ..... 6-17
7-1 Plot of LeD uc's equation ........ ........ ..................... .. . . 7-2
1
7 -2 - ve rsu s u . .............. ...... ......... ......................................... ......... 7-3
7-3 V elocity of projectile versus tim e .......................................... . 7-3

7-4 Velocity of free recoil versus time ............. ... .................. 7-3
S7-5 Velocity of retarded recoil versus time ....................................... 1-5
7-6 Mompnts on wheeled carriage ........ ............. ........ . 7-5
_. ~~7-8 7-7 Resistance

Simple recoilto brake
recoil . ...........
..... 7-
...............................................
7-8
7-9 Recoil mechanism for 105olm howitzer, showing movement
d urin g recoil .... .................. ............ 7-9
xvii _ _
' j
Fig. No. Tale Page
7.10 Recoil system for 90-mm antiair.iaft gun ..................... 7-9
7-11 Variable length recoil device ............................................ 7-10
7-12 Spring counterrecoil mechanism .. ................................................ 7-10

7-13 Pneumatic counterrecoil mechanism ........................ 7-10
7-14 Duhpot countetrecoil buffer ............................................ ....... 7-11
7-15 Concentric recoil mechanism ............... ....................................... 7-12
7-16 Muzzle brake for experimental, self-propelled 155-mm gun, T80 7-13
7-17 Action of 90-mm double-baffle muzzle brake ................................ 7-15
7-18 90-mm gun with 6)re evacuator and diffusor ... 7-15
8-1 105-mm howitzer, left rear view ..................................................... 8-2

8-2 105-mm howitzer, eight front view ........................... ........... 82
8-3 A pplication of equilibrators ............... ........... .......... .. ....................... . 8-3
8 -4 Eq u a lize r .................................................................... .. ... .............. .. 8-34

8-5 R ail-type m issile launcher .................................................................. 8-4
8-6 Dart misflle on zero-length launcher .......................... .............. 8-4
8-7 Example of veriical launching ..................................... ........ 8-5
8-8 105-mm how itzer, M 2 ............................................ ........................ 8-6
8-9 Forces on tecoiling parts ........... ...................... .. ..................... . 8-7
8-10 Forces on cradle . . ......................................................... .. ............ 8-8
8-11 Forces on top carriage .................................................. . 8-8
8-12 Forces on bottom carriage 8-9
8-13 Fc rces o n trail .. ................................ .......................... .... 8-9
8-14 C ross section of trail ...................................................... ..... 8-10
9-1 Flintlock musket, Springfield model of 1808 .................... 9-2

9-2 G atlin g gu n . ....... . .................... ................... . 9-3
L43 Rifle 7.62-mm (NATO) M 14 9-4
9-4 Machine gun 7.62-mm (NATO) MOO 9-5
9"s Components of a basic firearm ....... .... 9-6
9-0 Firing m~chanisms 9-7
9-7 Firing coeponents . ..... ........ .. ... 97
M8 Gun 20-mm T171E3 (six rotating barrels) on test mount . 9-10
919 Phanton, --ew of recoilless rifle showing ioaded round, trigger
linkage, re..ch, and firing mechanism 9-13
XV~I
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (.ont)
Fig. No. Title Page
94 0 Standard artillery piece ................................................................ .. 9-14

9-11 R eco illess r fe .................. ................................................. .......... ... 9-.
9-14
9-12 The 75-mm rifle M20 on tripod mount .......... ... ............................ 9-15
9-13 R eplaceable cone .............................................. I.................. . 9-16
9.1........
9-14 Throat ring and throat blocks .................................................. 9.........
-18
9-15 V en t b ush in g ....... ...................................................... ......................... 9-17
10-1 Schematic of M3 SMG bolt ........................................................ 10-1
10-2 Forcing function of M3 SMG bolt ............................... 10-2
10-3 ,raphical representation of trgonometric relationships ..... .......... 10-3
JO4 Plo o fi /x 0 L 2vsin (&V.t+'Y). -.................. ........ I........ 1-
Plot of
S 0 ton10-3
i0. Computer cdiaram for M3 bolt problem ....................................... 10-5
11-i l ypes of cartrid ges 11-2

1...........................................................
11-2 Terminology of complete small arms round (Cartridge,
Armor-Piercing Incendiary, Caliber .50, M8) ........................... 11-4
11-3 Types of cartridge cases ..................................................................... 11-5
11-4 The primer ........................................... 110
11-5 Types of cal.. 50 bullets ...................................................................... 11-8
11-6 C al. .50 tracer bullets ........................................... .............................. 11-9
11-7 Ammunition box showing markings ................................................. 11-10
11-8 The projectile and bore of Whitworth gun, 1857 ............................ 11-I1
11-9 Various means attempted to obtain rotation .................................... 11-11
11-10
11-11
11-12
11-13
111-14
Complete rounds of artillery ammunition
Percussion primer ....................
E.lectric primer .......
Separate-loading charges
.............. ..
Armor-piercing carped shell, showing principal parts ... ..............

.....................................
........................................................
............................................... 11
1-12
. 11-13
1.......4
11.15
11-15
I1
11-15 B ase cover ... . .. ..... ... .......................... ......... .......... .... UI-1
11-16 High explosive shell ........................ 11-17
11-17 High exploive antitank shell .......................................... . 11-17
11-18 Typical "..hemical projectiles ............. .................. ...... 11-18
11-19 llumivating shell .. .. .. ................ .... ................. 1...
11-19
11-20 Cg.niers: top, 57-mm recoilless rifle; bottom, 37-mm .............. 11-)
xix
___ .4
II
Fig. No. Title Page

11-21 Typical round of mortar ammunition .... ........ ................ 11-20
11-22 60-m m m ortar shell being fired ................................................ . 11-21
11-23 Recoilless rifle round .. . ................... ............................ .............. 11-22
11-24 250-lb general purpose bomb ................................. .......... 11-23
11-25 Thre.e members of the new bomb family, equipped with the
imy .oved fin a em bly ....... ..................................... ............. 11-24
11-26 i300-16 GP bomb ............ .............. 11-25
11-27 4000-lb L C bom b .......... ................................... ............................ 11-26
11-28 1000-lb A P mb .. 11-26
1..............................................1........................
11-29 10 '_)-lb SAP bom b ........... .................................... . . .................... 11-27
11-30 Fragmentation bomb. 23-lb ....... ........................ ..... ...... 11-27
11-31 4-lb fragm entation bom b .............. ................................................. 11-28
11-32 4-lb incendiary bom b ........................................................................... 11-28
11-33 6-lb oil incendiary bomb . ................................................................. 11-29
11-4 Incendiary bomb clusters in bomb bay ......................................... 11-31
11-35 Fragmentation bomb cluster, M 29 ................................................. 11-31
11-36 Fragm entation hand grenade .. ................................................ 1..
11-33
S1W37 Fragmentation hand grenade shown in adapter for launching
from rifle or carbine ..... . ..... ........ ... ......... .. ........ ... 11-53
11-38 Grenade, rifle, H.E., A.T ......... 11-34
11-39 Smoke rifle grena'es 11-35
11-40 Heavy antitank mine, M6, cross section U1-36
11-41 Light antitank mine, M7, with chemical fuze 11-37
11-42 Antipersonnel mine, M16, cross-sectional view 11-37
1143 Nonmetallic antipersonnel mine, M14 1.1-38
11-44 Antipersonnel mine, M! 11-38
11-45 40-lb shaped charge. M3 11-40
1i-46 Parachute trip ,'are, M48 11-41
11-47 Trip flare, M49 J.. 4-
12-1 Principal form used in arti••ery fuze design 1243

12-2 Examples P' arming and safety devices I.4
12-3 Senmple centrifugal plunger 12-5
12-4 Rotor 12-6

Fig. No. Title Page

12-5 Diagram of mechanical integrating accelerometer ........ ............... 12-7
12-6 PlPotograph of mechanical integrating accelerometer (ibout

four times actual size ) ........................................... ....................... 12-7
12 -7 M48A 2 P D fu ze ..................... 12-9
2.......................................................
12-8a M48A2 PD frze set for superquick ........................ 12-11
12-8b M48A9, PD fuze set for delay .......................................................... 12-11
12 -9 M 2 1A4 booster ............................. ........................................ 2..............
12- 2
12-10 Block diagram of typical VT fuze system ....................................... 12-13
12-11 Ring-type VT fuze, for bombs or rockets .............. ......................... 1Z-15
12-12 Change of artenna impedance as fuze approaches the target ...... 12-1O
12-13 Variations of Z in neighborhood of a target ... 2................................
-16
12-14 Artillery V T fuze ................. ............ ..... .......... .................... 12-18
12-15 Directional sensitivity patterns .......................................................... 12-19
12-16 Relation between directivity envelope and burst surface ........... 12-20
1.
A-1 Centrifugal casting . .. . . A-2

"A-2 Piercing operation in making heavy gun tubes from seamless
tubing (courtesy Timken Roller Bearing Company) .................... A-3
A-3 16-Inch gun after shrinkage of B hoop in electrically heated
pit at W atervliet Arsenai .. . ......... ..............
.......... .............. . A-4
Partial layout of cold-working equipment .............................. A-5
A-5 Model showing boring operation ... _..
............................ ... A-6
it-6 P ack ed b it ....
............................... ... ...... .. A -6
.A-7 Large caliber gun hone ...... .... .......... .. . A-7
A-8 Model of rifling machine ......... ....... A-8
A-9 Small arms gang broach in use ...... .............. ......... A-8
A-10 Series of rifling broaches ...... . A-9
A-1l Rifling button .. .... ...... .. .. A-10
A-12 Cutaway view of caliber .50 machine gun barrel, showing
stellite liner ...... A-I3
0 ChAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
1-1 INTRODUCTION
Systems engineering, or, of more particular been met by both mnanufacturers. However, in
application to the military, weapons systems the marrying of the components, the end product
engineering, meaiis the successful creation, with was not always acceptable. The systems engineer-
the minimum expenditure of time, of a complete ing concept minimizes the possibility of the
system in which the interrelationship of all coin- omcurrence of such undesirable situations.
ponents of the system and of all conditions which This example illustrates the requirement of
might influence the systent are considered in manufacture of round pegs for round holes. The
proper perspective. (In its simplest terms systems weapons of the armed forces, however, must, as
design is the design of an integrated system systems beccrae even more complicated and
rather than putting together a collection of in- sophbitiuated, take on a much more complex
dependently lesigned components.) The prob- pattern. In the development of new weapons,
lems generated by each new design are in !Lem- it becomes impossible for one individual or even
selves put into proper perspective and solved in a siklgle organization to specialize in a!! the
terms of their ultimate effect on the program. engineering areas required for the development
This is but the application of common sense to of an integrated weapon system; hence, groups
the problem of overall design. The practical and of scientists and engineers must work together
obvious solutions are not always the simplest and as a team, combining all knowledge and ex-
easiest to achieve. This point can be shown by perience in the fields of aerodynamics, ballistes,
referring to the manufacture of the relatively propulsion, guidance and control, and electronics,
uncomplicated bombers of World War II. In prplaneo tde a single weapon.ch,
these programs it was not uncommon to find wean e mdevelop b the techn. of
that an airframe which had been manufactured weapon system deveiomed by the techniques of
to meet all requirements imposed on it by the systems engineering, nmst be integrated with
Army Air Force, could not accommodate the testing and check out equipment, with ground
navigational and bombing equipment designed launching, handling and guidance equipment,
by another company. In both cases the require- and fitted to the needs Of its human operator and
ment of manufacture of the individual items had its environment.
1-2 WEAPONS SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS

To initiate the development of a new weapon of a set of military requirements is comprehen-
system, the military services first devel3p state- sive. The requirement must be based on, but is
ments of military requirements. These statements by no means linrited to, a careful analysis of
indicate the specific need for the new weapon known and estimated enemy capabilities; the.
system on the basis of the anticipated military analysi cof conclusions obtained from actual com-
situatior. and enemy capabilities at the time that bat and combat exercises; the present inventory
4. it is anticipated the system will be active. They of in-service weapons and their capabilities; the
attempt to anticipate technological advancements proposed characteristics of sister weapons under
that might. be expected during the development development; recommendations of field corn-
period, The military requirements also state the manders; and the detailed evaluation of the
use to which the system is to be put and define technical progress and potential of industry.
the desired military characteristics. These are but a few of the many factors con-
* The thought that must go into the preparation sidered in formulating the military requirement.
I-.-. _-1
1-3 MILITARY CHARACTERISTICS

The remainder of this chapter will be focused the specific requirements of a system. A missile
on the selection of missile characteristics to meet system's general characteristics might include:
1-3.1 AIRFRAME (e) Hit probability.

(a) Range, speed and maneuverability. (f) Reliability of fuzing system, and several
(a) Rngespee
andother factors whirch characterize the particular
or aerodynamic type trajectories ytera.
(or(b) Ballistic
a combination of each). system.
The following sample military requirements
(c) Length and diameter requirements, are typical of some which might be used to
(d) Weight requirements. initiate work on a particular weapons system.
(e) Consideration of aerodynamic stability, From these requirements specific military charac-
aerodynamic control, launch peculiarities, aero- teristics would be prepared for each system.
dynamic heating, flutter, aerodynamic loads,
fluid flow, etc. 1-3.6 SAMPLE MILITARY REQUIREMENTS
1-3.2 PROPULSION SYSTEM (a) To develop a system that is capable of

85 percent probability of kill of low flying aircraft
(a) Selection of propulsion unit. (1000 yd to 17,280 yd range) at aircraft speeds
(b) Range, speed, and altitude operating up to Mach 2 and at altitudes of from fifty feet
conditions. to thirty thousand feet.
(c) Fuel characteristics, I,,, etc. (b) To develop a system capable of delivery
(d) Materiel requirements. of a warhead having a blast effectiveness against
(e) Thrust requirements. a six foot reinforced concrete emplacement at
ranges of from six hundred to fifteen thousand
1-3.3 GUIDANCE SYSTEM yards and having a CEP of ten yards.
(c) To deveiro a strategic system tiat is
(a) Selection of basic ststem. capable of allowing the delivery of a nuclear
(b) Accuracy requirements. warhead of no less than 1-MT to a range of
(c) Weight and dimensional limitations. 5000 nautical miles and with a CEP of no more
(d) Characteristics of individtial components. than a mile. The system to be operational within
four years from the date of negotiation of the
1.3.4 WARHEAD contract.
(a) Size and weight. (d) To develop a system that will be capable
(b) Desired effect. of allowing reconnaissance of an aggressor na-
(c) Yield. tion's homeland. The system to be observer-
(d) Altitude limits between which weapon is manned and possess a radius of operation of
to .be effective, twelve thousand miles. Total time of flight to
be no greater than four hours.
The final performance of the system will be
1-3.5 RELIAB!LITY measured in terms of probability of kill or proba-
(a) Reliability of each component of the main bility of inflicting the required level of damage
system. In this area it must be remembered that against a particular target. In terms of this evalua-
the overall reliability of the system is the product tion, the factors which typify the performance of
of the reliability of the individual components the selected system must be considered in great
making up the system. detail. (The reader may well review the discus-
(b) Performance of servicing crews. sion of overall kill probability and related factors
(c) Reliability of the ground handling system. which were presented in Chapter 6 [Part 2", of
(d) Availability of logistical support. this text.)
1-2
s c SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
1-4 SUMMARY
The major requirement today in the develop- is a case in point. The successful completion
ment of new weapons systems is to assure that of these projects requires an extremely well
the United States is the first to possess in opera- integrated program. The systems engineering
tional status the latest types and largest numbers concept provides a better system than has been
of offensive weapons. The ballistic missile race used in past years to meet this requirement.
REFERENCES
Goode and Machol, ControlSystems Engincering,

"Mc-Graw-Hill Company, Inc., 1957.
I - _3
•e• CHAPTER 2
CONTROL SYSTEMS
2-1 INTRODUCTION
A control system controls a source of power. of the handcrank (input) should result in one
The input to the system is a cornmmand which turn of the wheel (output). But, after the wheel
causes the power to vary within the system. has rotated to its new position, there is no
resulting in an output dependent upon the input, guarantee that the output will equal the input
The output could be the position of .a gun turret, position. An open loop system cannot correct
the pitch attitude of a missile, or even the for natural imperfections in the linkages, gears,
temperature of a room. The input is a small and motors. Such a control system is evidently
signal which must be amplified by the control too inaccmrate for precision control requirements.
system so as to influence the output. The remainder of this chapter will discuss closed
An open loop control system (Figure 2-1) can loop control systems which are capable of
be depicted as an amplifier and motor attempt- self-correction, and are, therefore, inherently
ing to position a large, heavy wheel. One turn accurate.
2-2 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS
An open ended system, as discussed above, can is the most basic type of servomechanism and is
be improved by the addition of a feedback loop called a position control servo.
and an error detecting device called a differential.
The feedback IGoO sends the magnitude of the It follows from Figure 2-2 that a servo-
output 0,, back to the differential, which com- mechanism may be defined as a combination
pares the output with the input. If there is a of elements for the control of a source of power
discrepancy between the input and output posi- in which the output of the system or some func-
tions, an error signal, e, equal to their difference, tion of the output is fed back for comparison
8, - 0,, = e, continues to keep the system in with the input, and the difference between these
motion until 0, = 0. ( 0). This type of system quantities is used in controlling the power.
* Power
I
Inp ItApiIfier Torqu/l Friction Output

*andan
Motor go
ei - Input angular displacement

0o - Output angular displacement
Fig. 2-1 Schematic of an open loop control system.
2-1
Power
and and
S~Motor (KI) Torque
--
0o (Feedback)
Fig. 2-2 Schematic of a closed loop control system.
In a closed loop system (servomechanism) if the system is properly designed with the ellments
the output is not behaving properly by following correctly calibrated, ihe response ti•.ne lag of the
6,, the physical system senses this at the input output may be excessive; the system may have
end and reacts by driving the output, 9., toward excessive oscillations in the output; or the system
agreement with the input, 0, This advantage, may not even be stable (i.e., the output response
of course, is not obtained without a price. Unless may diverge and never approach the input).
2-3 ELEMENTS OF SERVOMECHANISMS
A servomechanism in its simplest form requires (c) Controller: Power amplifier and servo
five basic elements: motor combination. The controller acts upon the
(a) Input: The driving signal which initially error signal, c, from the differential, driving and
activates the system, here considered as an positioning the output. The magnitude of the
angular poitinn, with the designation 09. The amplification will be K, therefore the error signal,
input is considered as an angular position because i, goes into the controller, and Ke, a torque,
many servomechanisms are used in conjunction which may move a load, comes out.
with shaft rotation devices or aerodynamic con- (d) Output: Load or mechanism which is
trol surface deflections. (This does not preclude positioned to correspond to a given input. Its
motion will also be considered to be an angular
servocontrol of variables other than angular displacement, designated as o.
position.) (e) Feedback: The process (and component)
(b) Differential: Error detecting device which which detects the actual amount of output dis-
mechanically or electrically subtracts the out- placement and .ends a sigaal proportional to
put from the input and determines the magni- this amount back to the differential for compari-
tude and direction of the error signal, c, where son with the input. Feedback may be accom-
S -. plished either mechanically or electrically.
24 SYSTEM ANALYSIS
The standard approach to servo theory is solving the equation for given inputs tc deter-
through mathematical analysis. This involves mine the response. A typical input signal might
developing the equatio.i which describes the be a step function, ramp function, sinusoidal
system in terms of input and output, aad then function, or pulse function. The equation of a
2-2
CONTROL SYSTEMS
system is obtained by equating the accelerating or

forces (or torques) to the decelerating forces (or J'., + Fi0 + KG0 = KM, (2-2)
torques) that act on the system (Figure 2-?).
(a) Accelerating torque. The only accelerat- E tuaton (2.2) is the general equation of
ing torque in this system is Ke, the torque motion of a position control servo. The equation
produced by the controller. re'ates the output a'cceleration, velocity, and
(b) Decelerating torque. position to the input position. Note that this is
(1) Inertia torque: The load has mass and mathematically the equation encountered in
hence acts to retard the response of the output. electricity which describes the behavior of a
It is proportional to the acceleration of the output circuit containing inductance, resistance, and
and designated 160 where J is moment of inertia capacitance. It is also the equation describing
of the load, and the motion of a mass, damper-, and spring in
mechanics. The only difference is in the inter-
00 = dpo.. pretation of the symbols.
In order to state (2-2) in even more general
(2) Friction torque: The viscous friction terms, the following definitions will be intro-
proportional to output ve!ocity. It is due to duced:
friction between lubricated surfaces such as
gears and bearings. As will be seerl, a certain (On ]/ (2-3)
amount of this retarding force may 'e desirable J
and certain devices such as fluid dashpots are

sometimes introduced into the systcm to improve F
response. The tirque due to viscous friction, 2V/K-J(
whether inherent or added, is designated F~o The term wn. in (2-3) is defined as the un-
where F is the friction torque p- unit speed, and damped natural frequency. It is the resonant
doo frequency in radians per second at which a
00 = dt frictionless system will oscillate.
The term C (zeta) in (2-4) is defined us the
Equating the abovw accelerating torque to the damping ratio. It is a dimensionless constant
decelerating torques produces the equation of which indicates the relative amount of damping,
motion, in terms of the error signal c, and the
output, 0,. This is a second order linear differen- By substitcting i and . for the constant co-
tial equation with constant coefficients of the efficients of (2-2), a completely general equation
form: of motion of any second-order linear system is
Ke = J0"0 + F0 (2-1) obtaired.
ButB 8t- 00O+2 O=0 (2-5)
2
cann W,,
J/0 + Fe0 = K(i - O0o) The proof of this substitution is left as an exercise.
2-5 RESPONSE TO A STEP INPUT

A step input is defined as an instantaneous
jump to a new and cor 'tant position. Foi ex- -, fewt,
ample, an instantaneous rotation of the input SIM ANort.0 0o
shaft in Figure 2-2 through 900 would be a step
input of angular position. Figure 2-3 illustrates
a general step input plotted against timc. Fig. 2-3 StPp funcion.
2-3
-. _--_ ___-_III__ _ _ _'- 2
For a step input of 0, = A, the servo will drive (2-5) is clear. A qualitativc analysis of the system
the output until 0, = 0 -=A, or in other words, may be quickly made without resorting to a
until there is no steady state error. However, rigorous solution of the differential equation. A
before arriving at the steady value, A, the output quantitative analysis requires either a mathe-
must first experience a transient or intermediate matical solution or a graphical solution with the
response since no physical system is capable of aid of an analog computer. In Figure 2-4 re-
an instantaneous jump through space. This sponses to step inputs are shown for each of the
transient response may take one of several forms, ranges of the damping ratio described above.
deponding primarily on the magnitude of C,the The analog computer solution is the subject of
darrmping ratio, the next chapter.
(a) C < 1: The output is underdamped and
will oscillate one or more times about the steady
position A.
(b) C - 1: The output is critically damped
and will curve smoothly into A on an exponential
path.
(c) C > 1: The output is overdampcd and -_
will curve more slowly, but still smoothly, into A.
(d) C= 0: The output is undamped and will .
oscillate on a sine wave at a frequency, w,. ,0
"(e) C< 0: The system is negatively damped, A
"isunstable, and will ultimately destroy itself in
ever increasing wild gyrations.
From the preceding list, the advantage of
rewriting the equation of motion in the form .of Fig. 2-4 Responses to step input. O0= A.
2-6 RESPONSE TO A RAMP INPUT
Another type of input which is perhaps even d9, 0

more frequfe-ntly encountered is the ramp input; Let P#o = - =9o
dt
that is, one which varies with time at a constant
rate. This could be represented by a man turning d'o
a handwheel at a constant angular speed, w,. P 0 =- - • o
Figure 2-5 illustrates a general ramp input dt'
plotted against time. then
For a ramp input of 0, = w't, the servo will 1 + = (2-6)
attempt to drive the output until 0,, = 0,, but, due
output P"' + e 9(
the
to the inherent inertia of the system,
can never quite catch up to the input. After the 0i
transient effect has died out a steady state error,
or time lag, will remain and the output will follow
along behind the Input.
In order to determine just -.hat amount of
lag will be present, it will be necessary to solve
for the steady state resronse. The equation of L__,_ _
motion is first rewritten In terms of operator (p) Pot

F notation, as follows. Fig. 2-5 Ramp function.
2-4
CONTROL SYSTEMS
or
1 , + 2? 0- -- p)•
~~~8o 08i-p+ (2-7) •
S+ +(plwit and higher terms are zero)
Solving (2-7) for 6,: or

00 - ( _ (2-10)
S(2-8)(2-10)
Z.. p 2' The output will then lag behind the input by
By long division the right side of (2-8) may be seconds in time, or 2€ w• radians in position.
converted to an infinite power series in p. Et
Equation (2-10) indicates that a system with
/ \4zero damping (C= 0) will have no lag, but such
Sffi1- P+
w"2 P2 +. . 8-i (2-9) a system will oscillate indefinitely and so is not
practical. In Figure 2-8 responses to ramp
Applying (2-9) to the ramp input, 0e - o,$, the inputs are shown, again for each of the ranges
steady state output becomes, of the damping ratio.
2-7 METHODS OF IMPROVING SYSTEM RESPONSE
The basic servomechanism uses a control generally lie in the range of 0.3 to 1.0.
signal which is proportional to the differe,,ce of The system moment of inertia 1, is usually
) the input and output signals. This type of servo fixed, which leaves F and K as variables. De-
is commonly called a position servo, since it creasing K, the controller gain, reduces the
compares only the positions of the input and available output torque K,, used to drive the
output. system, so K should be as large as possible. The
In an analysis, the most iescriptive parameter viscous friction, F, is usually a rather small
was *ound to be quantity in a well designed system, since losses
F due to friction are not desirable. A small F and
2V.J"K a large K indicate that Cwill be a small quantity,
As C increses, the response becomes more i.e., the system will be highly oscillatory, and
sluggisha and leis oscillatory. An optimum servo there is apparently nothing that can be done
conwrol system sh6uld hawe a very rapid speed of about it. However, there are techniques available
response, and very little oscillation, or hunting. which add artificial damping; two of these
In practice, It has been found that C should methods w5lI now be described.
2-7.1 DINVATIU "MUIDACK equa.ttion of motion of the derivative feedback

In this scheme we feed back not only the
output position, but also the output velocity Ao + (F + KCG) k + K&e, - KG, (2.11)
multiplied by a suitable constant, so that we so that now
have position plus velocity control. The velocity%. + KC,
is obtained by taking the first time derivative of .
the output, hence, the name derivative feedback,
Using the technique developed for (2.2), the and the damping rmtio has been effectively
2-5
"" ______- ---.
Oj i
T0
L2 W.n-- -
2-65
CONTROL SYSTEMS
. dio Amplifier (K) K(C-Cdd•o) Load, 0

Lind Motor- Torque
Cddo Differentiator
Fig. 2-7 Derivrtive feedback ervo.
,...FiP.
2-8 Error-rate control ero.
increased without dfiseating additional energy derivatives next leads to an investigation of re-
through Friction. Using derivative feedback it sponse with the use of Integrals. As in error-
is theoretically possible to operate a system with rate control, output position is fed back to obtain
zero friction
damping (F) and
for proper still mainitain sufi~cient
control. an error
gral signal,
of error then as
is used position error
an input pluscontroller.
to the the inte-
2-7.2 ERROR-RAITE CONTIEOI The equation of motion of this system is,I
In this scheme the 3UtpUt position is fed back, J'8o + Feo +! KGo + K•J, f eod*
as in position
•!(ed control, butto the
is differentiated error signal
prodance pro-
an error- = KG. +FKC• f ed• (2-13)
,-rate signal. The input to the controller is the Differrntiating once,
sum of the error signal and the error-rate signal
The equation of motion of this device is: r J'ro + Pto + Klo + Can e
zro+, f)C., + (2-14)
2-J. K C.) +K
ROR+(F K(2+1K ) This equation now represents a third order
p (2-12)wdifferential equation, for which and .e can no
F + KC, longer be defined. A matheematical solution and
2sVmK
ahow a computer analysis will that the transient
and again the damping ratio has been effectively response of this system beiomes increasingly
increased, oscillatooy as the integal constant Ca, is in-
creased. Ultimately, for large values of C,, the

2.7.3 INTIGRAL CONTROL system becomes completely unstable.
The improvement in response with the use of The steady-state solution, however, can tesdily
2-7
5te g r at-' v• edt Pa er

ix / dt
0i + + s tj'etj Amplifier K(e+Cifedt) Load.

(K) and Torque J andF
|Motor
Fig. 2-9 Integral control servo.
be determined by use vt iaC operator-division the mest important trait of an integral control
process outlined in Par. 2-7. The result is (2-15).
1.(2-15)
system,
If, as often occurs, the addition of integral con-
trol creates too much oscillation in the system
I
K• output, the further addition of error-rate control
will provide sufficient artificial damping for stable
The surprising conclusion drawn from (2-15) operation. Such multiple, or compovind, control
is that for ram!p inputs, as well As for step inputs, systems are, of course, much more complicated
there will be no steady state error, i.e., no lag in and are beyond the scope of an introductory
the response. This removal of lag is, therefore, leison on servomechanisms.
2-8 SUMMARY
The necessary ingredients for a servomechan- easi17 solved by either classical mathematics or
ism are: modem computing machinery. By varying the
(a) An external power supply which is to be coustants of these equations and observing the
controlled, effect on system response, a coidirol system de-
(b) A feedback device whifh provides an er- signer is able to build a device which will satisfy
rm signal. his requirements. For example, he may want a
(c) A~n amplifier which drives a moior which, system capable of holding a missile on a pre-
in turn, sets the output at a desired position. scribed course; or of maintaining a chemical
process at a certain temnerature; or of rotating
Without the feedback device we would have an a gun turret to a desire(d heading. For each re-
open loop system with its inherent disadvartage quirement a different design problem must be
of inaccuracy. With feedback we have a servo- solved.
mechanism with greater accuracy, speed of re-
sponse, and flexibility. (a) Position control:
A servo can become unstable under certain o / 2r P +
conditlnn!-. However, with the addition of com-
pensating elements, such as integrators or dif-
ferenhators, stability is restored and overall 'No steady error for step inputs.
response is vastly improved. The basic servo-
mechanisms are described in terms of second- 2t second,* lag for ramp iputs. I -
order linear differential equations which may be e.. -
2-8
S--i- .*-*.-*..--.--- .-- - ______________-. . ...

CONTROL SYSTEMS
(b) Derivative feedback: No steady error for step inputs.
00 = + seconds lag for ramp inputs.
No steady error for step inp'its. Artificial damping introu..:-d.

-" + C ,seconds lag for ramp inputs. (d) Integ-l control:
Artificial damping introduced. ( Fp
(c) Error-rate cun'tnl: 00 = 1 t- + .. #
00 (l -- p + 0i•#
to i N.o steady error for step or ramp inputs.
REFERENCF S
--. 1 Advanced Course I for Upper Sections, West 3 Walter R Evans, Control-System Djnantnu,
S ) Point, New York: Dept. of Electrical En- MLCraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., N.Y.,
gineering, USMA, 1958, Part I. 1954.
2 brims and Saunders, Analysis of Feedback 4 James, Nichols, and Phillips, Th2On of Servo-
Control Systems, McGraw-Hill Book Com- mechanisms, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
pany., Inc., N.Y., 1955. Inc., N.Y., 1947.
2.9.!
- -- -. - -- _____, . - - ...- ,-
7 F
,.-
CHAPTER 3
ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS
3-1 INTRODUCTION
World War II provided a tremendous stinmulus not available. All guided missiles use eithe.e
for the expansion of L great many fields of analog or digital computers for trajectory cai-
science. By no means the least of these was the culations. Designers of weapons depend upon
development of electronic computers. This de- the speed, accuracy, and economy of computere,
velopment followed two basic lines: one, the in developing reliable items of equipment. The
logical conversioi, of existing mechanical digital list of possible applications of both analog and
computers into their electronic counterpayt, and digital computers grows almost daily and has no
the other, the growth of the entirely new elec- foreseeable limit. The following sections will
tronic analog computer. The development of present the characteristics and applications of
modern, complex weapon systems would be vir- each, and will conclude with a comparison of
tually impossible if electronic computers were both.
3-2 ELECTRONIC ANALOG COMPUTERS
7) The electronic analog computer, often called

the electronic differential analyzer (ET)A), is a
direct outgrowth of the M-9 gun director devel-
ease. The ouitput of the computer is generally
a con'inuous graphical plot of the variables which
allows the operator to visualize quite easily the
oped during World War II by the Bell Telephone output of the physical system he is investigating.
Laboratories. In 1947, the circuits developed for As an example, consider the equation of motion
the M-9 were first applied to an actual laboratory of a body with a varying velocity:
computing device. Since that time the analog
computer has become an essential tool for dy-
namic analysis. X I Vdt (3-1)
The chief characteristic of the EDA is the fact Jo
that it uses voltages to represent the variables of
a- problem. The types of problems best suited To solve this equation on an EDA, the variables
for the EDA are those which involve the solu- X and V would be represented by voltages. The
tion of simultaneous differential equations, either input V, would be electronically integrat'ld, and
linear or nonlinear, and with either corstant or the output X, would be automatically plotted
variable coefficients. However, the machine is graphically as a function of time. The graph
not limited to this range. It can also handle trans- would indicate how the position of the body
cendental (sinX, logX, el) functions with equal varied with time.
3-2.1 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER The operational amplifier is a high gain d c am-
The basic component, or building block, of any plifier which uses an input impdance, Z4, in
electronic analog computer is the operational series, and a feedback impedance, Z,. Two as-
sumpticns are required to analyze the circuit:
amplifier, first used in the M-9 gun director. The (1) the gain of the amplifier is very large; and
circuit diagram of the amplifier is shown in Fig- (2) the grid current into tho amplifier from point
ure 3-1. P is negligible.
n3-1
1!
- Amplifi
I
Fig. 3.1 Operational amplifier.
The current through Z, is very large compared to the quantity (I +5
" g, Ordinarily the amplifier gain is greater than

Thecuren iserttn
throug (M)
and the feedback current ismay bewrttn
e1 - el. (3-7)
% -. zi
z/ Note that the operational amplifier reverses the
Since the sum of the currents into a point must sign of the input voltage and also provides a
be zero, we obtain: method of multiplying the input voltage by the
6 !L:!1
+ of f 0 (3-2) ratio Z.-.
z, Zf ZZ
Let the amplifier gain be -A so that 3-2.2 SUMMING AND INTEGRATING
e2 - -Ae'. (3-3) CIRCUITS
Substituting (3-3) into (3-2), if Z, and Z, are both pure resistances, R, and
then
11,,
e!2 e•,+
A Af
i + , 0 (3--4) e = --- (3-8)
Z e L +I + and one is able to multiply by any desired con-

zi AZ+ A) stant, provided that (1 + is much less
-Z e) (3-6) than A. the amplifiei gain.

-C1
Zi [1+ 1 1 +iJ If 7, is a resistance, R4, and Z, is a capacitance,
ZC/
Equation (3-6) is the general relationship be-
tween the input and output voltages of the am- es ---- el, (3-9)
plifler. An extremely useful approximation is p C/ pRic
made using the first assumption, that the gain A R, ("'"
is very large, or more precisely, that the gain is (using the operational notation of Chapter 2,
3-2
el
S- = e3 ej e•e
1R 3 3 3 R 1
e3 e, + e, e2 ffi--- eldt
Fig. 3-2 Summing amplif/er. Fig. 3-3 Integrating amplifier.
wher
po adPwihas The wiring diagram developed here will be
d) wh) als utilized in Chapter 10 in the design analybiq of
may be written: a machine gun.

1 f• JA + A~ + gOo =ffigo (3-11)
C= -R- 'dt (3-10) The first step in finding the wiring diagram,
and one is able to integrate the input, in addition oromueciutystoole(-)frth
to multiplying by a constant and (hanging sign.
Many other circuit arrangements ate possible F K
i-j" 00 + 8- (3-12)
using combinations of resistance, capacitance,
and inductance, but not all are practical. By us-
ing only the two circuits described above, any First, assume a voltage representing " is avail-
linear differential equation may be solved. Fig- able. This voltage is integrated twice to obtain
urlea -2 and 3-3 illustrate the circuits used. It first
a o and then 0o. For this operation, two in-
should be noted that voltages introduced on tegrating operational ampfiers are used.
parallel input resistances are added by the am- The numbers above each resistance indicate
prallerl their value in merohms, while the numbers above
each captcitance indicate microfarads. From
3-2.3 SOLUTION OF DIFFIrlINTIAL ic From
EQUATION Figure 3-3, the multiplications factor, - , be-

The technique of devising a wiring diagram comes 1 1 so the integrators of
which will solve a given equation is best shown 10s X 10 --
by an example. Refer: to (2-2) of the preceding Figure 3-4 mill change sipn and integrate with-
chapter (Control Systems). This is a general out multiplication.
hinear second-order differential equation, a type Voltages now are available wn.ch are propor-
frequently encountered in the analysis of dy- tieial to the variables of the equation; but we
namic systems. The equation is repeated below, only assumed that • was av.ailable originally. If
0 40eV0 + VIt
3-3
FW
.++
Fig. 3-5 Multiplication and summation circuit.
Recorder I
Fig. 3-6 EDA circuit for the solution of a second order equation.
, is replaced by the three quantities appearing circuit shown in Figure 3-6 is obtained. Note
on the right side of (3-12), then one should still that at each end of the circuit there is a voltage
be able to integrate twice to obtain, progres- equal to k. The logical step to complete the cir-
sively, 46 and 09. But these are precisely the cuit is to hook both ends togetiher, thereby justi.
quantities needed to obtain #,,, so the circuit is fying the original assumption that 1, would be,
apparently goni -";i circles, which is exactly what and is, available for integration.
must be done. Since -0. is available, and The output voltage representing angular posi-
F i needed and also since 0 i available tion (0,) is fed into a recording device and
T plotted against time to give a graphical picture
and - K0, is needed, the next step is to mul- of the manner in wbhch the physical system be-
haves. In a similar manner the voltage 6, could
tiply by the appropriate constants, changing be plotted to illustrate the angular veloci'y of
signs as necessary, the system.
The output voltage of Figure 3-5 is still only Obtaining a wiring diagram may appear to be
part of the right side of (3-12). To this voltage we a tedious operation at first, but it should be re-
must now add the input voltage K . membered that the preceding steps are generld,
mdv and again and once mastered can be applied to a new prob-
change signs so that the final output will be 6,, lem in a very few minutes. The final diagram
from (3-12). indicates that an EDA circuit is a closed loop
By combining the circuits. of Figures 3-4 and network, and as such, is ideally suited to the
3-,n dig h otg K 0,a iiaete analysis of servomechanisms. In gonerai, then, !
3-5 and adding the voltage the electronic analog computer is best utilized in"
3.4
U.,.) ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS
the solution of dynamic problems, that is, those conditions the accuracy can be extended to four
involving equations of motion. The accuracy or five significant figures, which is generally more
of the solution will, of course, depend largely than sufficient for most applications. Where
on the accairacy of the computer components greater precision is required, one must turn to
and the ability of the operator. Under optimum the electronic digital computer.
3-3 DIGITAL COMPUTERS
Digital computers have been in use since man 137= (I X 102) + (3X 10') + (7 Xl0 0) (3-13)
first learneo ",n count on his fingers. Throughout
history this ability to represent objects with digits
has evolved into the use of the abecus, the add- N = (d.X 10") + (d.-IX 10"-') +. ....
ing machine, the desk calculator, the mechanical + (d, x 10') + (doX 100) (3-14)
digital computer, and, finally, in this century,
the high speed electronic digital computer. The Note that in general, the appropriate digit is mul-
various devices are identical m one respect. tiplied by a corresponding power of the base 10.
They all represent de*a as discrete whole num- In the decimal system, the digits (d) may be
ber values, whether At is by counting fingers, any number from 0 to 9. In the binary system,
beads, gear teeth, or electrical impulses, the digits may be only the numbers 0 or 1, and
Before any discussion of the operation of digi- the base is 2. A general binary equation of a
tal computers, it would be well to define what number (N) is then:
is meant by a number system. A number system N = (dX 2") + (dx2"-') +
refers to the number of individual digits used. + (dIX2'),+ (doX2') (3-15)
For example, we normally use a number system
of base 10, which means we employ ten dif- The decimal number 137 may be broken into
ferent digits (0 through 9) to write any given several numbers, all of which are powers of two.
number. This convention was undoubtedly es-
tablished solely because the human hands were 137 = 128 + 8 + 1 = 27 + 23 - 20
endowed with ten fingers. It is entirely probable By similar reasoning, any decimal number may
that, had we been given a different number of be written as the sum of certain powers of two.
digits, our number system would again corre- Using (3-15) with d. = 1, d, = 1, do = 1, and
spond. all other digits zero, we may write our decimal
The majority of the digital computers in use number 137 in binary form as follows:
are built around a number system of base 2,
i.e., they use only the digit3 0 and 1. The reason 137 = (1 X2 7) + (0 X24) + (0X2') + (3X2 4)
Sbehind this choice is obvious when one realizes - (1X23) + (0X22) + (0X21) + (I X20 )
that the computers operate on pulses which are = (1X 128) + (0 X64) + (0 X32)
either present or not present. A pulse represents + (OX 16) + (1X8) + (0X4)
the number 1 and no pulse represents the number + (0X2) + (lX 1) (3-16)
0. The problem that now arises is that of con-
verting our familiar decimal system to the simple In the decimal system we wrote the digits 1, 3,
binary system of the computer. 7 in descending order. In the binary system the
The solution of this problem is best obtained same number is represented by eight digits in.
by an example. Given the decimal number 137, stead of three. Writing the digits in descending
find its binary equivalent. The number 137 may order gives us:
be broken down into three digits (1, 3, and 7) 137 10001001 (3-17)
each of which must be multiplied by a power
of ten to determine the relative posiUon of the As an exercise, the student should prove that the
digits. In equation form this becomes* following table is correct.
3-5 i
V DECIMAL BINARY Even though most digital computers utilize the

1 1 binary system for arithmetic operations, and the
2 10 designer of such a machine must certainly have
3 11 an understanding of this number system, it is not
4 100 essential for the operator of the machine to know
5 101 or use any system other than the ordinary deci-
10
16 mal system. Most computers have an internal
7 111 coding device which allows the operator to use
8 1000 the decimal system while the machine operates

9 1001 in the binary system. The machines are also
10 1010 quite capable of translating letters and words
The simplicity of the binary number system is into binary numbers, so that instructions may be
demonstrated by the following tables, which rep- given in English. From the operator's viewpoint,
resent the complete addition and multiplication the use of a digital computer involves only the
tables for binary arithmetic, preparation of a proper program to solve a par-
ticular problem. A program for a digital computer
AD I MUL0PLICTIOis an orderly sequence bf instructions and data
0 + 0 01 0 X 01 0 which guides the machine to a logical conclsion.
0+1 1 0 X 1I0 This program is normally fed into the machine
1 +- 1 = 10 !X1 1 by means of punch cards, magnetic tape, or elec.-
In the decimal system, numbers to the right of tric typewriter. The information is stored in the
the decimal point are written in descending nega- memory of the computer on magnetic drums or
tive powers of ten. In the binary system, num- tapes so that it will be quickly available when
bers to the right of the binary point are written needed. Next, the numerical data are fed in and
in descending negative powers of two. For ex- the computer is started. The machine now reads ,
ample, the decimal number 5.75 is written in its first instruction, performs the required arith-
binary notation as 101.11, which is 4 + 0 + I metic operation, and goes on to the next instruc-
+ X + X. Examples of addition and -aultiplica- tion, following this sequence until the program
tion are given by the following comparisons. is completed and the answer is obtained. From
Addition: this brief description it can be seen that a digital
DECIMAL BINARY computer must contain the five following com-

5.75 101.11 ponents:
+3.50 f + 111.n (1) Input-output unit.
9.25 1001.01 (2) Data storage or memory unit.
(3) Arithmetic unit for actual computation.
(4) Transfer unit for moving data from the
DECIMAL BINARY memory to the arithmetic unit and back.
5.75 101.11 (5) Controller for sequencing the operations
X 3.5 X 11.1 specified by the program.
2.875 - 10.111 The solution of any problem is completely de-
17.25 101.11 pendent on the use of a correct program. To
20.125 1011.1 eliminate errors and provide a logical general
10100.001 approach, the programm.mr should always fol-
Using arithmetic operatious such as these, the low the four steps listed below.
digital computer can carry out rapid calculations (1) State the problem.
of unbelievable complexity by easily handling (2) Write a mathematical model of the prob-
as many as 100,000 numbers per second. It is leIm.
Only bectiamry for the operator to instruct the (3) Construct a flow diagram of the desired
machbine. before the operation begins, as to what program.
steps it should take to solve the problem at hand. (4) Write the final program for the machinie.
I
3-
A simple example will be given to illustrate (4) Program:

these steps.
CODE MEANING
(1) Statement: If the statistics of the Arny- RSA Reset and Add (cear arithmetic unit and
Notre Dame game and the Nav.-Notre Dame add the contents of-)
game are known, who will win the Army..Navy ADD Add to previous result the contents of -
gamne? For each tearn we will find the difference
in scores, add the yards gained per carry, and SUB Subtract from previour result the contents
divide by two for the team wearing dark jerseys of-
(dark jerseys are considered bad luck). The re- DVD Divide previous result by the contents of -
suits will be compared and BEAT NAVY printed STR Store result in indiAted memory cell
on a punch card if Army is to win; otherwise JIM Jump If Minus (if previous result is negW
NEXT YEAR will be printed on a punch card. tive, jump to indicated instruction
number)
(2) Model: PCH Punch (print result on a punch card)
MEMORY STP Stop operation
CELL NUMTIF11 CONTENTS OF CELL
001 uy score scrFinal Program:
002 Notre Dame wore (against Army) INSTRUCTION CELL
003 Arny yards gained per cany NUMBER CODE NUMBER
004 Navy score 101 RSA 001
005 No re Dam.c -or (against Navy) 102 SUB 002
006 Na-y yards gained per ,arry 103 ADD 003
007 One or Two (depending on Army 104 DVD 007
jerseys) 105 STR Oil
008 One or Two (depending on Navy 106 RSA 004
jeiseys) 107 SUB 005
009 BEAT NAVY 108 ADD 006
010 NEXT YEAR 109 DVD 008
Oil (einpiy) 110 8TR 012
012 (empty) 110 RSA 011
112 SUB 01,2
(007)] > [((04 - 113 JIM 116
If [(001 - 002 + 003)
005 + 006) +- (008)], print 009, otherwise 114 PCH 009
print 010. 115 0TP
116 PCH 010
(3) Flow Diagram: 117 STP
10011--* 002 -003--41 007 --* From this example it can be seen that even for
q such a simple problem a relatively large number
[ 0to-n of instructions is required. For problems of
__7igreat
complexity it is entirely probable that sev-
IRe.et and Add 0_!4 btrhct 012 eral hun&ded, or even several thousand differ.
J.-.n*ent instructions will be necessary. To obv/ato
this difficulty, modern computers are being de-
signed with the ability to program themselves
S00 *nt 10 internally, given only the statement of the prob.
[ lem. This ability has obvious advantages of
economy of time and money. In the pest it hos
3&7
•------ |IA
sometimes required hundreds of man-hours to desired degree of precision. it can operate au-
prepare a program which the computer can di- tomatic f.-w.wIes, compute guided missile trajec-
gest and solve in a few minutes of operation. tories and conect the missile in flight, prepare
It should be pointed out, however, that the payrolls or census figures, keep track of thou-
preparation of the program should amount to a sands of items in a warehouse, sort box cars, or
small fraction of the labor involved in manual prepare grade sheets. It has numerous applica-
solution of the same prol*-., or else the ma- tions in such fields as engineering, business, fB-
chine is of no practical use. I nance, transportation, and meteorology, The
The digital computer is not limited to any digital computer is also ideally suited to large
specific type of problem. It is capable of solv- scale, highly repetitive problems, such as the
ing any type of mathematical problem to any preparation of bombing and firing tables.
3-4 COMPARISON OF ANAL=€ AND DIGITAL COMPUTERS
At some point in the design of most complex requirements. In a general case there can be no
weapon systems the question of whether to in. clear cut advantage for one or the other. A
stall analog or digital equipment frequently number of outstanding differences and similari-
arisez. Since either type of computer is capable ties will be discussed in order to outline the per-
of solving any soluble mathematical equation. formance characteristics which wf'II dictate the
the choice mu:t hinge upon a number of specific final choice.
3&41 ACCURACY 3-4.3 SPIED

C;'
Accuracy may be defined as the number of The analog cumpute.r solves the problem com-
signicant figures obtainable which are in fact pletely the instant current begins to flow. The
correct. Any significant figures obtained, for ex- digital computer, on the other hand, calculates
ample, by rounding off or by eye interpolation sequentially, not instantaneously. For example,
are not considered accurate. An analog com- an analog computer can perform any number of
puter can seldom be mad- more accurate than integrations and constant multiplications at the
three significant figures, which is more than ,de- same time, while a digital computer must per-
quate for a wide variety of applications. The form each operition one after the other. T17here
digital computer is able to extend this degree of are, however, many cases in which a digital ma-
acciuAev to any desired limit, but at the cost of chine can do the work of several analog machines
size, speed, and complexity. Many present-day simultaneously by a time shaiing process. In
digital computers are accurate to twenty or more practice, either computer may be designed to
significant figures. provide a requirAd solution speed.
3.&2 PRISION 3-C4 ADAPTABILITY

Precision may be defined as the number of Since both machines are capable of solving any
sigiiant figures obtainable, without regard to equation, a choice might be made on the basis
absolute correctness. For example, in reading of adaptability, or the ability to change over
the number 963 on a slide tule three place pre- quickly to a new problem. If it is assumed tbat
cison is obtainect, but only two place accuracy. a new digital program has previously been pre-
Precision, therefore, may equel or exceed ac- pared, it will require only a few seconds for the
curacy. Analog computers seldom exceed four digital computer to begin a new problen,. The
place precison while digital computers, again, analog computer, on the other hand, rudt be ( )
may be extended to any desired limit, completely rewired and thoroughly ch.ck,-d
34I
K
before a new operation can he performed. How- arithmetic per dollar is obtained. Certainly cost
ever, if the preparation of the program is included is an important consideration, but not an over-
i-, the change-over time, the analog computer will riding one. There are many areas in which one
very likely save considerable time. computer or the other will obviously be the bet-
ter choice by virtue of the type of problem to
3-4.5 COST be solved.
In summary, the electronic analog computer,
or differential analyzer, is com~posed of eas-
Generally, the initial outlay for a digital com-
puter is many times the cost of a typical analog caded operational. amplifiers coupled with re-
'alls In addition, if expansion is d d sistive and capacitive circuits. Its operation is
insallation. nadiio dcontinuous and depends upon the representation
analog equipment may be added piece-meal in of physical quantties with d-c voltages. The
small quantities, while a whole new digital in- electronic digital computer is composed of logi-
stallation would be required. There is a rough cal circuits, memory devices, anJ transfer equip-
rule of thumb which states that with an analog ment. Its operation is discrete and depends upon
computer more calculus operations per dollar the representation of physical quantities or data
are obtained, while with a digital computer more with finite numbers.
0 REFERENCES
1 Advanced Course I fof Upper Sections, Part 1, Hill Book Co., Inc., 1954.
West Point, N.Y.: Dept. of Elect. Engr.,
USMA. 4 C. A. A. Wass, Introduction to Electronic
2 Millman and Taub, Pulse and DigitalCircuits, Analogue Computers, New York: McGraw-
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., Hili Book Co., Inc., 1955.
1956. 5 An Introduction to Electronic Computerv,
3 W. W. Soroka, Analog Methods in Computa- Newark, N.J.: Prudential Insurance Com-
tion and Simulation, New York: McGraw- pany of America, 1954.
D 39
3-9
- -- -- ---- - ~ -
0 CHAPTER 4
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
4-1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 5 of Part 2 (Ballistics) a variety of tially or wholly, in nearly every missile system
guidance techniques was described in terms of now under development.
their effects on the exterior ballistics, or fLight
paths, of associated missiles. The approach used The reference to missiles in no way limits the
in that portion nf the text was essentially a black application of inertial components to unmanned
box technique. In this chapter, emphasis will be vehicles. Many aircraft, ships, and submarines
placed on the principles of inert *al navigation now use inertial navigation, and its application
since inertial components are used, eithei, par- to land vehicles is not without merit.
4-2 INERTIAL GUIDANCE
An inertial guidance system is one which accelerometers which measure accelerations

measures actual motion with respect to a set along mutually perpendicular axes; and the corn-
of flied, or inertial, axes contained within the puter which monitors and directs the entire
system. There are three basic sub-sys;tems to operation. Each of these sub-systems will be
consider: the integrating gyroscopes which main- studied to determine its operating character-
tain the orientations of the inertial axes; the istics.
4-3 INTEGRATING GYROSCOPES

The first law of gyroscopic action is the princi- the law of precession. Any attempt to change
pie of rigidity in space. A gyro which is free :o the orientation of the spin axis will cause the
move in any direction will maintain its originel gyro to precess, or move its spin axis at right
orientation in space. Conversely, a gyro which angles to the applied tora ae so as to reduce the
is restrained in one or more directions will applied torque to zero. Figure 4-1 illustrates a
attempt to resist any overturning torque. This g&ro mounted in three gimbals, a so-called three-
resistance gives rise to the second law, which is degiee-cf-freedom gyro, which will maintain the
Gyro Rotor Rigid Mounting j
•'()• Fig. 4-1 Thr*.-degr..-of-fr..e,,m gyro..A
4-1
Direction of Motion I
of Spin Axis due to I
Precession
In
Precession AxIspt1
tad
V Applied Torque
at. ewi1 sec
rad
Fig. 4-2 Single-degree-of-freadom gyro.
orientation of its spin.axis in space. The rigid mounted which produces an electric signal pro-
mounting may be rotated in any direction with- portional to the angle 0, any attitude change of
out disturbing the gyroscope iself. a missile about the input axis will be translated
Figure 4-2 illustrates a single-degree-of- into a voltage proportional to that change. The
freedom
direction. gyro which is able to move in only one assembly, therefore, produces the first require-
An applied torque about the input ment for an analog computation, a voltage
aisection.
wAher isedandque
wall oducep sionp proý ortional to a physical quantity.
axis will be resisted and will produce precession 11"fke assumption that the precessional rate is
about the output axis. This precession will priportional to the angular input rate is only
change the orientation of the spin axis. valid wher angle 0 is at or very near zero. If
The rate of rotation about the output axis due 9 is alloy- et too large (i.e., such that the
to precession is directly proportional to the rate approxim, )•so : 1 no longer holds), addi-
of rotation about the input axis due to the tionnl non-ý._dr terms will be introduced due t,
applied torque, or w = K%., where K is a con- cross-coupling effects. 11'o keep 0 at the null
stant of proportionality and w, arnd ,,s are the position, the output voltage from the rional
angular rates defined in Figure 4-2. Since , is generator is used to drive a motor, also on the
the rate of change of 0, the angular positin of the output shaft, which will exactly Wialance the
spin axis: torque due to precessiou. Thus, very small output
angles are produced keeping the system linear,
do while a voltage proportional to the integmal of
d-t the input rate is still obtained. This voltage
therefore used to keep the three axes mnun
dO - K*,, dt (4-2) perpendicular A all times
In one commonly us.,d com.neicial gyro, the
9 = Kf wd (~ gyro wheel and its spin motor are encased in a
From (4-3) it is seen that the single-degree-of- sealed cylindrical can. This can is, in turn,
freedom gyro will actually integrate, thus the encased in a slightly larger oil filled can, so that
more common name of integrating gyro. If, the gyro case is free to rotate only about the
around the output axis, a signal generator is common axis of the two cylinders. The spin axis
42
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
\Spin
SinlAis |Torque
CMotor
show internal detail
is
Fig. 4-3 Integrating gyro assembly.
of the gyro is at right angles to the axis of the pendicular) axes to measure missile attitude with
cylinders. The signal generator and the torque respect to pitch, roll, and yaw. The three gyros
motor are mounted on the axis o! the cylinders, are placed on a single platform and are used to
which is the output axis. The whole unit is then keep that platform in a fixed, oi inertial, orienta-
" mounted in the missile at right angles to the tion regardless of the motion of the missile itself.
desired input axis. A schematic of the unit is Since these gyros sense only rotational motion,
shown in Figure 4-3. another sub-system must be installed to measure
in a typical installation, three of these units translation of the center of gravity of the missile.
would be placed on orthogonal (mutually per- This function is accomplished by accelerometers.
4-4 LINEAR ACCELEROMETERS
Newton's Second Law, F = ma (where mass is to the distance X. Thus, three orthogonal rc-
assumed constant), is utilized to measure acceler- celerometers will measure accelerations along
ations in a given direction. If a known mass the three axes of a coordinate system.
applies a known force, then it will have a known A more sophisticated component is the inte-
acceleration, and this acceleration is the force grating gyroscopic accelerometer shown in Fig-
divided by the mass. In its simplest form an ure 4-4. This device closely resembles the gyro,
accelerometer may be composed of a mass which shown in Figure 4 3, with the exception of a
is free to move in one direction against the action pendulous mass mounted on one end of the rotor
lb-sec2 spin axis. An acceleration, aj, along the input
of a spring. If the mass is in -ft--, and the axis causes this mass to exert a torque on the
gyro about the output axis, which attempts to
spring constant is K lb,
It the acceleration is rotate the spin axis through an angle 0,. The
voltage iiduced in the signai generator is used
a -- KX ft (44) to drive a servo motor mour ted on the input
"m sec"2 axis -khich applies a torque, producing a preces-
where X is the distance in feet that the spring is ,=on which opposes the acceleration torque,
compressed or stretched. Therefore, the ecceler- thereby keeping the spin axis at its null position.
Uation in the X direction is directly proportional If the spin axis should be allowed to rotate mort
4-3
WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS J >
-
t Direction of
Missile Motion
Torqu
0I
SMotor
Fig. 4-4 Integrating gyroscopic accelerometer.
the pendulous mass would

than a few degrees,torqMetor ml oul
pick up accelerations at right angles to the de- 60 --• f a~dt = -- V1 (4-i)
sired axis, introducing errors of coMsiderable
magnitude. where V• is ,he v~elocity along the input axis.
The toqeof the servo motor is h -,and From (4-5) it is seen that ihe angular velocity
the t, rque of the pendulous mass is mla 4, where, of the seruo motor is proportional t1 accelera-
about theo input

ngulr
h =mmentm
drical case axis clin -
the~ntre tion, while
position of from
the servo is seen that to
(4-7) isit proportional angular
theveocity.
d angu.ln_veoiyo
-fixed eaotteipt It is essential
rientation gyro soassembly
that inthespace that only the ac-aI
maintain
axis celeration along the input axis will be sensed.
m - mass of the pendulous mass Once more three identical units will be needed
t tmoment arm of pendulous mass from for the three coordinate axes, to measure ac-
gyro center celerations in the X, Y,and Z directions. Later the
h= acceleration alon thef axis nhownimportant role played by the torque motor
3nrut
Since the two torques are ha,..iunput
d un the axis of Figure 4-4 will be dis-
ai cussed.
h O== mias (4-5) In order to provide an inertial orientatio in
(4-o) Iaaue by three

for the
stabilized accelerometers,
integrating platform
gyros is acommonly
a, = alti
imltablizd
byintgrai
iscom
hpc The accelerometers are mounted on the
uted. for
iii
•I.
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
platform along mutually perpendicular axes, and gimbals, giving it complete freedom from mis-
the entire platform is suspended in a series of stle rotation.
4-5 STABLE PLATFORM
The stable table used in inertial navigation part of missile calibration during count-down.
should ideally maintain a fixed orientation in First, a guidance plane is chosen, being defined
space. If, however, there is any friction present by the launch point, the target, and the center
in the gimbal bearings, a certain amount of tAble of the earth. The trajectory is then in the same
tilt will be introduced. It is the function of the plane as a great circle through the launch point
integrating gyros on the platform to sense this and target. Before launching, the table is set
angular change by the method previously out- perpendicular to a line through the center of
lined and to correct the tilt by applying a voltage the earth. Next, the longitudinal and lateral ac-
to small motors mounted on the gimbal axes. celerometers are positioned along and perpen-
The gimbal motors, then, counter-balance any dicular to the tangent to the earth along the
gimbal bearing friction, keeping the table stable. trajectory. The components of the .earths gravi-
Now that an inertial reference plane is available, tational acceleration and centrifugal accelera-
accelerations with respect to that plane may be tion must be continuously subtracted from the
measured. In order to use the accelerations, readings of the accelerometers in order to pro-
) though, the direction in which the stable table vide true acceleration and, by integration, ve-
is stabilized must be known. Furthermore, the locity and range. The success of the mission will
acceleration of gravity must not be confused be completely dependent on the lack of such
with a true acceleration of the missile. errors as gyro drift, table tilt, and computer
The initial proper orientation of the table is a inaccuracy.
4.6 GUIDANCE COMPUTER
The function of the computer is to correct con- lar to the earth at all times. This feat is acc.om-
tinuously for predictable errors and to calculate ,plished by causing the platform to precess. at a
the position and velocity of the missile. The coan- rate equal to the angular rate of the missile about
puter corrects errors in position by commanding the earth's center. Both the range and the lateral
mnissile maneuvers through a servo control sys- accelerometers will then be able to measure mis-
tein. Errors in velocity are reduced -by v.wying sile accelerations without the added burden of a
the throttle setting or by adjusting the motor large bias acceleration due to gravity. The
burn-out time. Predicable errors are those asso- amount of precession necessary is calculated by
ciated with gyro drift, gimbal friction, variations the computer and applied to the three integrat-
in the gravitational field, Coriolis acceleration, ing gyros on the platform. When the missile
and oblateness of the earth. reaches the target the measured vertical will co-
I
.!
For trajeccories which cover more than a small
fraction of a great circle, iacreased accuracy is
obtained by keeping the stable table perpendicu-
incide with the programmed vertical at that
point and the computer will know the trajectory
has been completed.
4-5 1'. •=
- - -t
" t
(
N, X
0or yI L
Fig. 4-5 Inertial guidance plane.
In Figure 4-5, the following items are depicted: stable platform may be determined. The neces-
A: launch point sary rates about the X, Y, and Z axes are:
B: target w, = w sin- cosa
0: center of earth Wy = ( cosy + a
M: position of missile
E: intersection of trajectory and equator = ci sin-/sine (4-8)
ON: polar axis where again the dot notation (&) has been used
MN': reference line parallel to ON to indicate a time derivative.
AOB: the guidance playie Equations (4-9), (4-10), and (4-11) are the
AMB: the great circle path of the missile guidance equations which the computer must
X: axis tangent. to trajectory in AOB plane continuously solve. The derivation of the equa-
Y: horizontal axis perpendicular to trations is beyond the scope of the text. They are
jectory included only to indicate the complexity of the
At: vertical axis through center of earth in acceleration calculations and to show the num-
AOB plane ber of corrections necessary to allow for a non-
/rd• spherical, rotating earth. The quantities Ax, Ay,
w: rotational velocity of earth \ sec and Az are the accelerations actually measured
rtr se by the accelerometers along their respective
r: radiuis of missile (OM) from center of axes. The quantities k, Y', and Z are the true
earth missile accelerations with respect to the earth,
From the figure, the angular rates of precession
required to maintain a vertical plumb on the and e is the ellipticity factor of the earth 231
4-6
i0. INERTIAL NAVIGATION
- -(Az - 2r*- 2wr cosy + 2cyj siny sine Z -Az +g+r(o)-+2wr*t cosy
++ 2eg sin', sin'¢] (4-9) - 2wy sin-y cowt (4-11)
S- Ay +- 2w• siny coqar - 2wr uin'a sine Integration of (4-9), (4-10), and (4-11) will
produce velocity and distance travelled at any
-r+ 2e sn s (4-10) time in each of the three directions.
4-7 SCHULER PERIOD
One of the most outstanding features of all The solution of (4-14) is an undamped Aine
inertial navigation systems is the inherent Schuler r
oscillation, discovered in 1923. Schuler (a Ger- wave with a frequency of w,. , or a
man) correctly predicted that any inertial
system will cause an undamped sinusoidal os- period of T = 2-I 84 minutes. Obviously,
cillation with a period of 84 minutes, if an er: or the
ntrducd.For poi is
in osiionis example, if the teSchuler period will increase as distance
in position
assumed is introduced,
location e
of the launch point is in error from the
earth's earth become
surface increases.
moreAsaccurately
locations known,
on the
by one mile, the missile will, during flight, wan- and suidace become more pre-
"der back and forth across its desired trajectory and as guidance components become more pre-
with an 84 minute period, but always remaining cise, the errors in long range inegal navigaron
within one mile of the trajictory.
Figure 4-6 is an exaggerated diagram showing Desired Po •tion
an error in position of an inertial stable table.
Assuming a is a small angle, such that sinc, a,' Actual Puaitn
Act-,s-1 P ti
the acceleration of the table toward its desired
position is described by (4-12), (4-13), and "
(4-14).
Ru= -gr (4-12) R
RW: + g 0r 0 (4-1 3)
r + 9R =0 (4-14) Searth
e
g Fig. 4-6 Eighty-four minute period.
4-8 SUMMARY
Pure inertial guidance is ideally suited to long checking the missile's position. Another te-,h-
:ange, high speed navigation. For a long time nique recently developed is automatic raiar
of Right, however, some method of correcting map-matching, in which a radar view of the ter-
errors due to gyro -Irift is highly desirable. One rain below the mrssile is electronically compared
Ssuch method is celestial navigation coupled to with a previou~sly prepared radar map of the
inertial navigation, which provices periodic ac- same area.
curate fixes over the earth's surface as a means of Many of the components described in this
4-7
~ ~ - ,- -..-. -
4
k 1
o UU
1i000 o0oo
0 o0 50o 10•0o
Missile Range (miles) Missile Range (miles)
Fig. 4-7 Gyro drift rate per 1000 ft of miss distance. Fig. 4-8 AcceIeromeIer % error per 1000 ft of
miss distance.
chapter are currently being used in missiles current inertial componeits may be gained from
which are no' inertially guided. For example, the realization that an error of as much as one
air-to-air and surface-to-air short range missiles foot per semond in burn-out velocity or .05 de-
may utilize integrating gyros for attitude con- grees in burn-out pitch attitude will cause an
trol, and accelerometers for velocity control. inte-continental ballistic missue to miss tLe tar-
Guidance computers are used, but aret often left get by about one mile. Accuracy requirements
on the ground, or in the launching aircraft. are summarized. in Figure 4-7 for gyros and in
An appreciation of the accuracy necessary for Figure 4-8 for accelerometers.
REFERENCES
1 A. S. Locke, Guidance-Principles of Guided p. 17.

Missile Design, Princeton, N. J., D. Van Nos- 4 Je& Proption, Vol. 28, No. 2, New York:
trand Co., Inc., 195. American Rocket Society, February 1958,
2 Air3, University Quarterly
Maxwell AFE, Ala., Review,
Summer Vol.
1057,IX,p. No.
34. p. Ill.
5 Missiles and Rockets, Vol. 3, No. 2, Washing-
3 let Propulsion, Vol. 28, No. 1, New York: ton, D.C., American Avialion Publicatioms,
American Rocket Society, January 1958, inc., Februanr 1958.
4-8
I
CHAPTER 5
GUN TUBES
5-1 HISTORICAL SUMMARY OF DEVICES FOR LAUNCHING PROJECTILES

In the pre-gunpowder period, man tried to in- the present time, has rcsulted in the develop-
crease the range of his weapons by using vari- ment of artillery as we find it today, firing high
ous types of catapults and ballista. These velocity ammunition, breech-loaded, from im-
methods of projectile propulsion were nothing proved steel guns on mobile mounts embodying
more than great slings used to hurl stones and mechanisms to absorb the recoil.
other large, heavy objects for a considerable Rocket propelled weapons have been used in
distance. warfare as long as gunpowder has been avail-
The invention of gunpowder about 1250 A.D., able. Previous to World War II, however, their
brought into use the first smooth-bore cannon, effectiveness was limited because of their ex-
These cannon fired rounds of stones or darts of treme lack of accuracy. With the .dvnt of im-
iron. They were often laid on the ground or proved propellants and launching techniques
with the muzzle end raised up by a mound of during Woild War IT, rockets became an im-
dirt or a block of wood. One of the earliest re- portant element of the artillery arsenal. Since
corded uses of firearms in warfare is that of an that time, development of guidance techniques
attack on Seville, Spain, in 1247. History also and of rocket engines capable of propelling mis-
records that cannon were used by King Edward siles at extreme velocities over very long ranges,
III of England at Crecy in 1346, and by Moham- have made rocket and jet propelled guided mis-
) med II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Con- siles at lekst of equal importance to gun pro-
stantinople in 1453. pelled artillery.
The firz t firearms were large, heavy, and in- In the case e-- conventional artillery, the
efficient, and were not capable of being carried launching vehicle is the gun. Rockets and
by an individual soldier; hence the development guided missiles are launched using devices
of cannon preceded that of small arms by about known simply as launchers. TIe design of both
50 years. The tube of a gun was then made like guns and launchers entails cqt-ful study of all
a bakrel, of wooden staves bound togethei with system variables in order that the projectile or
hoops of iron; in the English language it has missile will be properly launched on its pre-
ever since been named a barrel. scribed trajectory.
The late smooth-bore period showed the Guns are discussed in this text in several chap-
gradual improvement of smooth-bore weapons, ters: Chapter 5 presents a general discussion of
iron and bronze being used for cast tubes; and tubes and associated components; in Chapter 6,
some of the first attempts to attain mobility by stresses in gun tubes are studied; Chapter 7 con-
placing the smooth-bore cannon on various typos tains description and analysis of recoil systems;
of carriages. During this period artillery began Chapter 8 discusses mounts and launchers, :n-
to be recognized as an arm independent cf in- eluding stress analysis; Appendix A gives a de-
fantry and cavalry. scription of methods of manufacture of jun
A period of transition followed (about 1845 tubes. Descriptive data concerning guns is
to 1885), during which breech loading, rifling, iimited in this text because space is not available
and fragmentation projectiles were tried and ac- for detained description. For the reader inter.
cepted. Distinction began to take place betweyn ested in the description and operation of wea-
guns, howitzers, ard mortars. The first crude pens and components, Department of Army
recoil mechanisms appeared, and smokeless pow- rehnical Manual 9-2305, Fundarmentalt of
der was invented. Artillery Weapons, is recommended. Missile
The latest or modern perld, Lontinuing up to launchers are b. Bly discussed in Chapter 8.
5-1
. . _... . . . -- . ... . ... . . . . . . .. _ - ... . .

Breech
Recess
Powder %
- Main Bore
/ Forcing cone
Breech Ring Centering slope
check seat
Fig. 5-1 Components of a barrel assembly.
5-2 GUNS-DEFINITIONS
In Figure 5-1 various parts of a gun are indi- to the muzzle.
cated. Thas- include the following: (j) Rifling: a number of helical grooves cut
(a) Barrel assembly" consists of tube, breech in the bore of a gun, beginning at the forcing
ring, and in some cases hoops, jackets, and liners, cone and extending to the muzzle (Figure 5-2).
(b) Tube: that part of the barrel assembly The surfaces of the bore between the grooves are
which contains the rifled bore and the chamber called the lands.
for(c) ammunition.
the Breech ring: that part of the barrel as- the(k)diameter
Caliber: the caliber
of the of including
bore, not thepiece
an artillery is
depth %
reribly which houses the breech mechanism, of the rifling (Figure 5-2).
(1) Breech recess: that space at the rear of The term caliber is also used as a unit to ex-
the barrel assembly 'or ned in the interior cf the press the length of a weapon, measured from the
breech riag to receive the breechblock. face of the breechblock to the muzzle. A unit of
(e) Chamber: that part of the tube extending one caliber in length is equal to the diameter
from the rear face ot the tube to the forcing cone. of the bore between lands. Artillery weapons
(f) Gas check seat: that portion of the rear in- are divided into types (Figure 5-3) which have
terior of the tube (in guns firing separate-loading characteristic lengths as follows:
ammunition) which is tapered to receive the gas Mortar: 10 to 20 calibers
check pad of the breech mechanism to insure A mortar has a smooth bore, usually, and a
proper obturation when firing. In guns firing low muzzle velocty. Fired at high elevation it
fixed or semi-fixed ammunition, obturation is can reach nearby targets that are concealed by
performed by expansion of the cartridge case intervening hills or other barriers.
against the wal!s of the powder chamber, so Howitzer: 20 to 30 calibers
that the tapered gas check seat is eliminated. A howitzer, intermediate betveen the gun and
(g) Centering slope: tapered portion at or the morta.', has a medium muzzle velocity ad
near the forward end of the chamber which delivers high angle fire to reach targets hidden
causes the projectile, during the loading opera- from flat trajectory guns.
ton, to center itself hi the bore. Gun: 30 to 50 calibers or more
(h) Forcing cone: interior tapered portion of As compared .with a howitzer, a gun has a
the tube between the chamber and the bore, in- longer barrel, higher muzzle velocity, flat tra-
cluding the tar ered origin of the lands. It allows jectory, and a more limited maximum elevation
the rotating band of the projectile to be engaged (except antiaircraft guns). It is used for long-
gradually by the rifling and aids in centering the range fire or for the delivery of fire requiring a
projectile within the bore. flat trajectory and high velociy.
(i) Bore: the cylindrical rifled portion of the Recoilless weapons, regardless of the number
tube interior extending from the forcing cone of calibers -)f length, are called recoilless rifles.
5-2
GUN TUBES
Fig. 5-2 Meesuremenit of caliber
Fig. 5-3 Types of artillery weapons.
5-3 BREECH MECHANISMS-GENERAL

In the era of the muzzle loading cannon, the (luring continuous firing. With automatic oi
cannon had to be depressed for loadling, the scini-a'itomatic weapons, the mechanism must
loadler m~as in danger, Muid the rate of fire was he adlapted to oIperition by a cam ;imd ]ever
limitedl. Since that time the continuial develop- arrangement.
nent in breech mechanisms has produced the Saifetv is anote eyipratrqieet
safety, high rate of fire, and convenience whid'ohrveyiprtn euieet
inthe oder weaon.
akenfor
arerantd For at guin crew, to operate most efficiently, the
gantd fri th moernwea~n.
aretakn men mnust have confidence that the%, %k11I not be
A satisfactory b: cech mechanism mnust be easy injured in serving the weapon.
and quick to opcrate. If it is operatedl manually,
its operation mu3t be quick enough that it does The obturation mnust be complete. Obturation
not dlelay the rate of fire, and easy enough that is the sealing of the pr )pellent gases in the chain-
the operator will not become unduly fatigued her, bo0th to the front and to the rear.
5-4 BREECHBLOCKS
The breechblock is the principal part of the back end of the b~arrel. The two general types
breech mechanismn andl is essentially' a largt' of breechbiocks arc: interru pted -scre w type and
heavy piece which positively closes or covers the Sliding-wedge type.
5.3
WNW.
green b,1chblocki
Th mos como typ of inerpe-srw by
Th osyp omo
finerutd-ce bl..
Fig.k
cu 5artwitha serieso f ig. Ftg. 56
he sliding-wedge breehbloc
irrchblcla
(Figure 5-4) so that when the breechblock is in cross section and slidts in a rectangular recess
inserted and turned in the breech recess, match- in the breech ring. Where the motien of the
irg sections of step'ned threads engage. Using breechblock is vertical, the mechanism is re-
the stepped type of turead, a large threaded sur- fer~ed to as the vertical sliding-wedge- (Figure
face cr holding area is possible.. This breech. 5-5). When the motion is horiZC-INd. the block
block Is used on modem cannons which fire is called a horizontal sliding-wedge bri-echblork
Separate loading ammunition because of the ease (Figure 5-6).
5.4
GUN TUBES
MNOUL~~rI•
fig. 5-7 Ddange obturator.
5-5 OBTUIATION
Obturation is the sealing of the propellent back and forth. Between the mushroom head
gases in the chamber both to the front and to and the breechblock is a pad made of asbestos
t) the rear. The rotating band, in the case of ar- and non-fluid oil, or, in some cases, made of neo-
tillery projectiles, end the gilding metal jacket, prene rubber. This pad is called the gas check
in the case of small arms bullets, provide for- pad. Two split steel rings, which are ground
;,,ard obturation. When considering breech accurately to bear against the walls of the bore,
mechanisms we are concerned with the preven- encircle the gas check pad. The spindle and
tion of t:he rearward passage of powder gases mushroom head have a small haie drilled axially
into the threads and other parts 0" the breech to a!!ow the flame from the primer to go through
mechanism. Thcsc gases, which have great ve- the breechblock and reach the propelling charge.,
iocities and high temperatures, would soon erode When the weapon is fired, the gas pressure sets
and ruin the breech mechanisms and would against the mushroom head, nmoving it back and
materially affect the ballistics of the weapon if compressing the pad. This causes the pad to
a means of obturation were not introdiced. In expand radially against the split rings, which
weapons usinag fixed or semifixed ammunition, in turn expand to make a gas tight seal agairst
obturation is performed by the cartridge case, the bore wall. After firing, the gas pressure is
which expands under pressure from powder dissipated; the pad returns to its normal shape,
gases in the bore to form a tight seal ,igainst the moving the mushroom head forward; the split
walls of the powder chamber. In weapons using rings contract to their original size; and the
separate loading ammunition, an obturating de- breechblock is th'n free to open. The gas check
vice must be included in the breech mechanism pad, split ri, gs, and mushroom head do not ro-
to prevent tl•- rearward escape of powder gases. tate with the breechblock during the closing or
The I)D:Bange obturator is used exclusively in opening, but the breechblock proper rotates
American weapons. about the spindle mushroom head assembly as
The DeBange obturator -s illustrated rcbe- an axle. In actual practice, there is always a
matically in Figure 5-7. The muishroom hev'd of small split ring around the spindle to prevent the
f '
the obturator is formed integrally with a spindle
which passes through the breechblock. Tlie
spindle and mushroom head art free to move
escape of gas at this point, and a filling-in disi,
which forms a bearing between the pad and rotat-
ing bloc'k.
... . . . . . ._
Fig. 5-8 Bore evacuator and muzzle broke.
M14'AW* CvICUAM9 aqw9Z h4AZI~
Fig, 5-9 Cross section of bore evacuator.
5-6 BORL- iVACUATORS

Gas ejector systems, also known as air scaven- A more ý-ecent method employs a bore evar'ua-
ger systems, have been tised for many years on tor (Figure 5-8), wvhich is at metal jacke. at-
large caliber seacoast and naval wvecpons to tached near the muzzle, accessible to bore gases
clear gases and residue ouit of the barrel after through ir'.clined orifices in the tube. Its action
firing. The system involves pipes and valves is simple and entirely aufrcnatik. Some of the
which aillow the injection of comnpressedI air powder gases fol~mving, behind the projectile
through the breech into kJie powdler chamber flow throug:-i !ie smudl orifices in the tube (Fig-
after each round. tire 5-9) into the evacuator chamber after the
5-6
GUN TUBES
projectile has passed the orifices. Pressure is gases then flow back into the tube in the direc-
thus bIilt up in the evacuatJr chamber and is tion of the muzzle and crsate a partial vacuum
nmaintained until that in the tube drops. The which, as the breech opens, clears the bore,
5-7
SAFETY DEVICES
Artillery weapons are equipped with neces- thev will preverit premature discharge, rearward
sary safety devices to protect personnel and ma- escape of powder gases, and unseating of the
terial. As needed, a given weapon may contain breechblock. Frevention of premature discharge
(devices which prevent: is accomplished by preventing use of the firing
(a) Premature discharge. mechanism, or assembly of it to the breeehblock,
(b) Powder gases from 'escaping from the before the breech is fully clcsed. Mechanical de-
Spowder 'chamber to the reavices such as cam operated, spring actuated locks
(c) The breechblock from opening or rotating and plungers function between the breeehblock
when the wcapon is fired mechanism and firing mechanism to make up
(d) High angle weapons from firing at too his safety device. On weapons that are fired
lw an aigle and endhanglewepnfrmiring
aelectrically, tempaceet eoo
lor friendly personnel. the electric firing circuit is broken
by means of circuit breakers or switches, and
(e) Firing when the cannon is disconnected firing is rendered impossible until all precaution-
, f
from thee recoil
o system.
sary measures and operations have been carried
(f) Operation of the firing mechanism when
•: out s
Pesitive stops and locks are provided on wea
Sthe breechblock is not fully closed.
tcupans if it is necesary to prevent accidental firing
(g) 7'ring when the cannon is not !n battery. at too low or too high an elevation, or into
(h) Firing with excessive head space present. friendly territory. Similar stops and locks are
(i) Firing into friendly territory. used on all mobile weapons or tank armament
(j) Accidental elevating or traversing while in order to prevent damage to weapon, undue
traveling. wear of gear trains due to road shocks, or in-
The breech mechanisms and firing mechanisms jury to personnel by accidental and uncontrolled
are so designed, equipped and assembled that traversing or elevating during traveling.
5-8 THEORY OF RIFLING

The term rifling was defined in Par. 5-2. The from the band projecting into the grooves pre.
purpose of rifling is to impart to elongated pro- vent the escape of gas past the projectile. This
jectiles the rotation necessary to insure stability function of the band is called forward obtura-
in flight. The projectile is constructed with one tion.
or more rotating bands of soft metal, slightly The twist of rifling at any point is the inclina-
larger in diameter than the bore of the gun. As tan of a groove to the element of the bore
the projectile moves down the bore under the through
ing, or athe point. It may
combination of thebe tw,,.
uniform,
It is increas-
usually
action of the propellent gases, the lands cut ingrorsacombinatio of the nu . ot isusuall
through the rotating band, engraving it to con- enres in temsothe number of e of
length in which the groove completes one cam-
form to the cross section of the bore, and caus- plete turn, for example, one turn in 40 calibers.
ing rotation of the projectile.* The ribs of metal In uniform twist, the degree of twist is constant
from the origin of rifling to the muzzle, the path
In recoilless wof the groove being a helix. In increasing twist,
* rcollssweapon
I systems the rotating band is prc-
engraved, so that th( lands do not perform the engraving the degree of twist increases from zero or some
function. This wall.
reduces
it stessies in thethe tube and
gunenergy srnall
at the value,
origin,forto example, 50 calibers
athinner tube also red||r-s lost allows
in the a sharperone turnatinthe
twist muzzle,
engraving process, so thab more of the propellant's en atcthe on, to iharperst
ergy content can be coivertcd into kinetic energy of The muze,
the projectie. crease may be uniform or beccme more rapid.
5-7 i
i
I
CC
ad 1B
-- • r•single
A A land ahown
Fig. 5-10 Developed curve of rifling.
Certain designers have emp!oyed the increas- The vogular velocity is therefore
ing twist to a point several calibers from the
muzzle and uniform twist from there on. Rifling , tan
is specified by the developed m.rve of the groove. (5-2)
For uniform twist, the developed curve is a Knowing tile muzzle velocity and the twist at
straight line as indicated by AC in Figure 5-10. the muzzle, the velocity of rotation of the pro-
In increasing twist, the form of the curve is jectile as it leaves the gun may be determined.
usually parabolic. Standard rifling design practice is based upon
theoretical computations of forces and stresses,
To consider in more detail the case of ini- experimental tests, data from service firings, and
form twist rifling, practical manufacturing considerations. Influ-
let 4* = angle of twist encing factors include the following:
n = number of calibers of length in which (a) Ballistics. The system of rifling and the
a groove completes one turn angle of twist selected depend both upon the
d = diameter of bore, ft gun and the projectile and must be such that
Then for the value of the tangent of the angle with the established muzzle velocity the neces-
oi twist sary rotation will be imparted to a proiectile
of a given design to insure stability in flight,
tan = =d - The type of fuze used may dictate the maximum
n (5-1) velocity of rotation permitted.
For rifling with increasing twist 0 is variable (b) Strength. The number, width, and pro-
but the value of its tangent at any point is n file of the lands must be such as to withstand the
To establish the relation between the velocity stresses set up as the projectile passes through
of translation and the velocity of rotation of the bore. The type and twist of rifling should de-
the projectile, velop stresses on both gun and projectile which
are within allowable limits.
let v = velocity of translation of the projec-
tile at any point of the bore, ft/sec (c) Wear. The accuracy life of a weapon de-
= angle of twist of the rifling at the
= pends primarily on the condition of the rifling.
same noint The degree of wear is affected by the type and
w angular velocity of the projectile at twist employed, and by the width, number, depth,
the same point, rad/sec and form of the lands and grooves. In one in-
d = diameter of the bote, ft stance the accuracy life of a gun of a certain de-
Then the linear velocity of rotation of a point sign was doubled by decreasing the degree of
on the outside surface of the projectile is evi- uniform twist, increasing the width of lands and
dently r tanO. depth of grooves, and decreasing the number of
541,
GUN TUBES
lands and grooves, as the twist of rifling increases, they must con-
The primary consideration is that the projectile form to this constantly changing angle. The re-
should emerge from the muzzle with the proper suiting disadvantages of the increasing twist are:
rotational velocity. The characteristics of both (I ) concen tration of driving pressure on the for-
the gun and the projectile are involved. Under- ward prt of the band, with high pressure on
spin will result in tumbling and instability of the driving edge of the land; k2) increased fric-
flight. In overspin, the longitudinal axis of the tion, abrasion, and temperature; s'nd (3) higher
projectile will tend to retain its same position dlur- value for total pa:;sive resistance although the
ing flight, not adapting its direction to the c',,rved starting resistance is less. Rifling with increas-
line of flight, and thus not insuring head-on im- ing twist increases manufacturing costs some-
pact. what. The apparent advantages of the uniform
Both the uniform and the increasing systems of twist over the increasing are reflected in the
twist have their advantages and both systems present general tendency of all countries to spec-
have been employed. However, the uniform ify the former type. There are sufficient pro-
twist is now specified for all U.S. Army guns, ponents of the use of increased twist, however,
except the 40-mm gun (Bofcrs), the 2 40-mm to warrant further stLdy of this type. One lead-
howitzer, and the 4.2-inch mortar. The 4 0-mm ing ordnance installation is at present experi-
gun (Bofors), for example, has a twist increas- menting with increasing twist of rifling for
ing from one turn in 45 calibers at the breech hypervelocity (i.e., greater than 3500 ft/sec)
to one turn in 30 calibers at the muzz!. Corn- guns.
paring the two systems, it is apparent that, to If the twist increases from zero at the breech
produce the same rotational velocity at the muz- uniformly to the muzzle, the equation of the de-
zle, the use of increasing twist will result in less velo
driving force on the driving side of the land and
on the rotating band, when the projectile is rear y = au + bu 2 (5-3)
the origin of rifling, and when it is at the point where u is measured parallel to the bore and y
of maximum powder pressure and aLceleration, is perpendicular to that direction. Differentiat-
than if uniform twist is used; at the muzzle, how- ing (5-3) twice with respect to tu, we have
ever, this will be reversed. However, if the rate
of increase of twist is properly selected, the maxi- d2y = 2b (1.4)
mum stress on the lands and on the rotating band du2
of the projectile will be less with increasing twist That is, the rate of change of the tangen tc the
than with uniform twist. The danger of stripping groove is constant. A twist in this form v
the rotating band from the projectile is thus re- offer less resistance than the uniform twist to the
diced by use of the increasing twist, but this ad- initial rotation of the projectile. Bit, to diminish,
vantage has been minimized by the development this resistance still further, a twist that is at first
of modern progressive burning powders, w~ith less rapid than the uniformly increasing twist
properly selected granuiation, which permit at- and rater more rapid, has been adopted fre-
tainment o;f the desired n:,uzzle velocity with quently for rifled guns. The equation of the
lower maximum pressures. With the uniform qentuy forarile
twist, the rotating band is engraved initially to semi-cubic parabola
the exact form which will be maintain I through- = 2 py (5-5)
out the length of travel in the bore and there is is generally adopted for the developed curve of
no subsequent displacement of band metal. rifling with increasing tvist (Figure 5-11). The
With increasing twist, however, there is a con- twist is assumed at breech and muzzle And the
tingaoue change an the angle of the grooves curve between these poin's is obtained from
ment of metal. Initially the grooves are approxi- any point makes (with the a,,is of u) an angle
mately parallel to the axis of the projectile, but, whose tangent is dy/du. The valie of the th ngent
5.9
.
WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONEI4TS
of the angle at any point is v/n (5-1). Therefore,

diifferentiating (5-5), y f
dy = V/2- =
du 4p nl
A cross section of the breech end of a cannor, ou

tube with right hand twist, showing the typical
shape of rifling grooves and lands, is shown in Fig. 5-11 Developed curve of rifl;ng
Figure 5-12. The number, width, and depth of (increasing twist).
grooves increase with the caliber of the gun.
The type and twist of rifling also influence the
desigr-.. Shown below are some design character-
istics with the advantages of each listed:
(a) Shallow grooves. Cause less weakening
of gun tube; less resistant to engraving of rotat-
ing band.
(b) Deep grooves. Insure longer accuracy -
w
life of tube.
(e) Wide lands. Withstand stress on driving •'-
edge. _ Driving
(d) Narrow lands. Less resistant to engrav- edge
ing of rotatingingofrotaing
and.Fig.
band. 5-12 Form of rifling 'ff'om breech end),
The. driving edge of the land is the side which Fogre
exerts the pressure against the rotating band
causi,,g rotation. It should be substantially however, must employ fin stabilized projectiles.
straight and radial in direction in order that the Experiments are being conducted on high ve-
force between projectile and land may be tan- locity guns also, using smooth bores nandfin
gential to the wall of the tube. Rounding of stabilized projectiles. The:e combinritions elimi-
corners facilitates manufacture and at the bot- nate disadvantages of rifled guns such as high
tom is necessary to prevent the development of friction, abrasion, temperature, and total passive
stress concenrration cracks. The shape of the :.esistance to the projectile; however, the prob-
non-driving edge is less important, so long as lems of gas pressure sealing and gun accuracy
the requisite strength is insured, remain in magnified proportions. In fact, in some
The rifling problems discussed above are test weapons of this design, high erosion due to
naturally non-existent for smooth bore weapons imperfect sealing of the propellent gases has
such as mortars and rocket launchers. Such guns, resulted.
REFERENCES
1 Department of the Army Technical Manual,

TM 9.2305, Fundamentals of Artillery Wea-
pons, Washington, U.S. Government Print-
2 Thomas J. Hayes, Elements of Ordnance, New
York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1938, pp.
1S3-247, 281.370.
I
ing Office, 1947.
5.10
,:CHAPTER 6
STRESS ANALYSIS IN CYLINDERS
6-1 GENERAL
In the dcsign of weapon systems, each corm- sure exerted by these fuels become,: considerable.
ponent must be ct-refuliy studied to determine the In order that proper strength caJI be built into
stresses to which it will be subjected. Because tho-se components, still keeping weight to a mivi-
of the extremely high performance characteris- mum, the designer must analyze' the stresses -o
Stics of modern weapons, these stresses may ex- which the component will be subjected and base
ceed the maximum allowable if components are his design (partially) upon these considerations.
improperly designed. Accelerations of the order Since many weapon systems components are
of 20,000 or 30,000 times the acceleration due to cylindrical or nearly so, (e.g., gurn tubes, pro-
gravity are imparted to modern artillery projec- jectiles, missile luel tanks, rocket engine combos-
tiles, causing very high stresses in the walls of tion chambers) this chapter presents a review
these projectiles. Pressures on the order of of the stress analysis of cylindrical configurations
40,000 pounds poer square inch are not uncom- in general, followed by specific discussions of
mon in hypervelocity artillery weapons, subject.- stresses in gun tubes and artillery projectiles.
ing the gun tube to extreme stresses. Long range Principles discussed in relation to these examples
missiles carry large weights of propellants in f'nel can readily be applied to other cylindrical com-
tanks. Under even small acceleration the pres- ponents.
6-2 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
When a rigid body is subjected to applied the maxirn,:m stress theory, which is based solely
stresses in several directions at one time, the true on the maximum prirn-ipal stress; the maximum
criterion which determines failure under such strain theory, which states that plastic flow wifl
conpleýwconditions is in doubt. It will be shown occur when the strain in any direction exceeds
later that, under such conditions, each stress the strain corresponding to the elastic limit; the
modifies the strain produced by every other maximum shear theory, which is based on the
stress, and there may bc stresses in particular greatest difference between the principal stresses;
directions in excess
the resultant strains ofinthe elastic
these limit, whereas
directions remain Mohr's Theory
Theory, which areand the onVon
based Mises-Hencky
special interpreta-
less than the strain corresponding to the elastic tions if shearing stresses.
limit. It is also possible that conditions may be Any one of these theories probably could be
such that the resultant strain is excessive, ,vile used successfully in designing cylindrical corm-
the stress in the same direction is below the ponents provided the proper interpretations
Vlastic limit. Hooke's law, stating that stress is were made and the safety factor adjusted ac-
proportional to strain, is applicable only for an cordingly. ti the design of gun tubes and pro.-
applied !oad, and the corresponding strain, in jectiles the Army Ordnance Corps and the Navy
one direction. Bureau el Ordnance have adopted the maxim,,us
Among the number of theories which have strain theory. This theory has equal applicatin
"been advanced relative to the conditions caus- to conbustion cF:. -ber walls and other cown-
, ing failure, some of the better known ones are: ponents. The fnlle-.ving basic principle will bt
6-1
-i-
_____ WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENrS c :
adopted based on this theory- formed, usually evidenred by a permanent en-t -
largement of the diameter.
NO PART OF THE CYLINDER SHOULD BE Before discussing further the component de-
STRAINED BEYOND THE STRAIN CORRE- sign one must develop the tools for applying this
SPONDING TO THE ELASTIC LIMIT principle. More exactly, the relationships gov-
OF THE METAL erning the magnitudes and distribution of stresses
and strains in a thick-walled cylinder subjected
Failure, therefore, is considered to have occurred to internal and/or external pressure must be es-
when any part of the metal is permanently de- tablished.
6-3 BASIC THEORY
Simple stresses. Hooke's law states that up to the cube will elongate approximately 0.003
the -lastic limit, stress is proportional to strain, inches in the direction of the applied stress and
or more particulart.• E - This basikŽ state- measure in this direction approximately 1.003
inches. Upon release of this stress, the block
ment relates a simple or unidirectional stress to
the strain in the direction of the applied stress
(see Figures 6-1 and 6-2). Yf against a cube of noted, however, that to obtain this elongation
-e! (modulus of elasticity, E, eqva! to 30 X 106 in the direction of the applied stress, there
psi) one fich on a side, a stress equal tc the elas- existed along the y and z anis a decrease in di-
tic limit (100,000 psi, Figure 6-1) is applied, mensions (Figure 6-2)),
" 41 POISSON'S ATIO .1) steel has been determined to be approximately

Poisson, upon investigating the relationship of Ii. From th" relationship it may I seen (Fig-
stress and strain in various mateAals, determined uire 6-2) that the strain along the y and z axis
that an applied stress ia one direction caused not will then measure 100,0 and will be a decrease
Gn:y q strain in that direction bit also strains in 3E
the perpendicular directions and that these in len-zh of either of these sides making them
strains were proporticn.l. The specific ratio for then approximately 0.999 inches long.
100.000. ,
1tres0 u00,000p
p... 1 . 1 P.k / ,:lo psop
.03 .05 .07
Strain (in/in)
Fig. 6-1 Stress--train diagram Fig. 6-2 Cube of gun steel, onn i,'• on a side. 4
(mild steel).
6-2
4' S
St St
it Fig. 6-3 Stress convention.
.6-3.2 EQUIVALENT UNIDIRECTIONAL ,, which would result in the tangential direc-

STRESS tion is then represented by (6-1).
The total strain to which most engineering 1
materials are subjected does not result, however, E (6-1)
from a single'stress applied in but one direction, Using a similar analysis, (6-2) and (6-3) may be
but is normally a :strain resulting from simple determined for the resultant strains iii the radial
simultaneous stresses of varying magnitude and and longftudinal directions:
k, sense which may be applied as resultants along
the three coordinate axis system. To better C,= 1[,- ;s1- A,] (6-2)
visualize this, consider the cubt- of Figure 6-3, E
with the arrows indicating the positive direction 1
of S, (radial), S, (tangential) and S, (longi- e - P[a- As, -- W'] (6-3)
tudinal) stresses. In the condition of simple E
stresses (Figure 6-2), it was seen that a stress The fictitzus tensile stress which, acting alone
along one axis, t, resulted i-i a unit elongation in in the t cG.ection, would produce the strain c,
r that direction as well as a proporticnal decrease

in dimensions in acco;dance with Poisson's ratio
in the r and I directions. In the condition of
is Y, : Fe, Similarly, 1, - Ee, and,%,-- E1, are
stresses %hich, if acting alone, would produce the
strains , and ,. These fictitious stresses are
stresses applied simultaneously in all of the three called equivalent unidirectional stresses. The
coordinate directions, however, a resultant strain equivalent uwdirectional strerses are:
in a degree varying from that realized by a Z, = Ee, - [s, - As, - p.sd (6-4)
single stress will result. tZ, - Et, = [8r, - 1s, - (6-)
Assuming that stresses are applied in the r, t, Z - Eel = [as- M8, - 's'I (6-6)
and I directions and in a positive sense as ir.- With these basic principles in mind the stresses
dicated by the arrows, the resultant total strain, in the walls of cylinders can now be determined.
6-4 STRESSES DUE TO INTErINAL OR EXTERNAL PRESSURES

i The major military application of thick walled the discussion of thick walled v--ylinders will be
cylinders is in artillery gun tubes. Therefore, directed toward the solution of the problem for
6-3
\\ I
a. b.
Fig. 6-4 Principal stresses in a gtun tube.
a gun tube. Let Figure 6-4(a) represent the cross section

First, (6-4), (6-5), and (6-6) wvill be modi- of a gun tube subjected to internal and external
* fled to conform more nearly to the actual case of pressures p1 and p.,, respectively. Consider (Fig-
* a gun tube. under the- stresses of firing. Ia an tire 6-4 (b) ) the forces acting on one-half of or,e
open cylinder there should be x~o principal Iongi- of the imaginary concentric shells of which the
tudinal stress. Although a gutr, tube is neither thick cylinde, is assumed to be composed. The
completely open nor a completely closed Sa cylin- imaginary shell has a radius r, and a thickness
it w•il be assumed to act as an open Sder,
cylinder dr, the stress on the inner surface is s, and that
it acts very nearly as one. This Sbecause
assump- on the outer surface is (s, ± ds,.), where ds, is
tion tha s, equals zero, although not strictly the increment in s,. in the distance dc due to the
* true, errs on the side of salety. int th'at it cau~es difference of pressure p1 at the inner surface of
the tangential strain •t, usually the deciding fac- the tube, and p2 at the ot~ter surface. Since the
P22
* tor in the safety or failure of a tube, to appear half shell is in equilibrium, the sur, of the comn-
or~dar
larger than it actually is. With s, _0 (6.4), ponents, in the direction of s,, of a~l;forces acting
(6-5), and (fi-6) become: on the h•:lf shell must be equal to zero; or, what
S •= s,-. (6-7) i• the same thair, g, the resultant •f the forces on
Z,= g ,= s,--u, ( -8) the inner and outer surfaces of the halt shell must
3
,v •= -Ms, - M I (6-9) be equal to the total circumferential (tangential)
These are equivalent unidirectional stresses,. oc nada'ta ln.Frcneine
They are not actually existing stresses and should the length of the shell is assumed to be unity.
be clearly distinguished from the principal From these consideraitiorns the following rela-
stresses, s,, s,, and sI, which are the actual stresses tionship can be' found."
to which the metal is subjected.
The values,,, tie princpipe stresses s, and s, , = .s, *, r -- -1d)'
and their dependence on geometry and pressures dr
inside the tube can be found by making three This equation gives one relatrion be'tweu-n r, atnd
basic assumptions: (1) that the tuhc is com-
pose ofconcntrc
tin-selld clindrs:(2) s,, another is needed to complete the sohm~tion.
that the strains of all longitudinal fibers of the
tubeareequl,
c., hata panetran~ere sc. Actuatll;' the (Ollditiion gives 2s,dr ::2rs, (+
(s
tubeare
i~e, qual
tht a lat~ trasvere se- d,) (r + dr)2, but the term dr ds. n~t ber-n n.A.ected.
tion remains plane and parallel to itself; and ('! ) bec'au'e it *s very smrall co•mpared to th," other quahmti'io•
that fibers act homogeneously throughout .'WI"1 involved.
6-4
"STRESS ANALYSIS IN CYLINDFRS
Another relation is found by using the assump- in (6-17) and (6-18) to obta;n the final objec-
tion that the longitudinal strains of all fibers are tive, a pair of exressions for "• and sr at any
equal. The longitudinal strain of any longitudi- point a distance r !,om• the center of the cylinder.
nal fiber due to the stresses s, and s, is The expressibns are:
(I [t-/"s, - As,] (6-11 ) pir,2 -- P2r•l
E r2 2g - 1
But i is assumed to have the same value for AFi P2r2 2J (p,-- P2)
fibers, ind p and E are assumed to be constant +r 2r (p P) (6-20)
2
Thus,
in all axes for the material.
81 + s, = a constant (6-12) and
Let this constant be denoted by 2a; then (6-12) = p2rsi
2 2
becomes L r -r1 "
s, + s, =•:2a (6-13) -1r=117+-,,
22(p, - , j1
l (6-21)
yielding a second relation between s, and s,. r2r J 2
SNow, NIt by combining (6.10) and (6-13), the is seen that `.le maximum value of s, occurs
eaoat S~equation the inner surface where r has its minimum
2a -- 2$r + r ds (6-14) value, r. The stress Sr is always a compressive

dr stress, and its maximum value will always be the
larger of the two pressures p1 and p2.
is obtained. But the right-hand member of The magnitudes of the equi',-lent unidirec-
this equation when multiplied by r becomes the tional stresses (tetermine the success or failure
derivative, with respect to r, of (rls,) and hence, of a gun tube. Substituting the expressions given
the equation may be written by (6-20) and (6-21) for s, amd s, in (6-7) and
r28')
ý'(rs = 2r.r (6-15) (6-8) the follow.ng fundamental equations of
gun tube designs are obta.j-d:
S~dr
The integration of this equation gives I2 p l[r: - p: r ;
+ ~~~r~s, = or" + b (-+;I
whe~e b is a cons;tant of integration. Therefore. + -
S3L r12-ri- TT)',IIt (62)
b (6-17)
r2 E1, = • ilr, vr,2
and, using (6-13), L Y r,
"[frt'r2 (pt -. (6-23)

El- r -3) - - r:' J r2
The "alh's of the constants a and b :tre found The equatiin for the e-luivalent longi.tidinal
"- n t ,- w rstress has heen omitted hivc, .!,ecause that stress
is ntver the decisive one in the investigation of
- p,. when r = r.,. S.thstittiting these values su( tube safety.
cessive,, in (6-17) and solving the resulting B-•a~i that these s~resscs are or..y hy,,h'tie'il
e(qluatioins simultaneously for a anO b. onf o1- that what actmallv tists is a start of 'tr.an whos
tains the relations c'tmponct.- in tat- resý,pctivv directions ;r ,.
ar. r,. and ,. \l'ltiplecatiuns of these strains
W W ti ohta. i the equivalent munidi -ctionai str\ •<
,-,- ,,,' - ,given above. is simply a conveniet de"ce.
Thesv., values of a awn b aay now be suilibtittited al,. ke tot0 iw dire ily th& elastic limni. ,
6-5
gun steel in applying the basic principle of tube [

2P ir-,1
1
dvign. According to the maximum strain theory, - 2-
equivalent stresses exceeds the
if any of these
3 1 - r-
elastic limit, the tube will fail.
In the above equations the independent vari 4 Fri' (p. - p) 1 -1
able Is r, the radius to the point being considered; 3
thus, for a given tube under specified pressures 1-
r12
J r2
we can, by substituting the given conditions in For a monobloc tube, with p2 s 0, maximum
the equations and varying r, investigate the con-
dition of the stress at any radius. In all the
equations a positive result for the equivalent
[
stress will occur at r1, and (6-24) becomes,
2/P 1;;2/
1-_
4 p.
unidirectional stress indicates tension, and a 2 P1
- + (
negative result indicates compression. 3 [ [
For a single cylinder of any dimensions, with Similarly, the allowable pressure
any assumed values of rp and P2' it can be shown r_
that at the inside surface of the cylinder ( r - ) 3 rs2 - r12 3 7, I
there will be a combined equivalent stress equal 2 r 0 + 2r,2 2 2 -+/
r,-'
to or exceeding in numerical value any com-.- +2
bined equivalent stress at the outside surface of If r2 is made very much larger than r1, then
the cylinder (r = r.,). And this maximum equiva-
lent stress is always one of the following, de- P 3 (6-26)
pending on the values of p, and p2; tangential 4
compression, tangential tension, or radial com- Equation (6-26) illustrates that for a very thick
pression. The conditions which must be met walled cylinder, if interior pressure exceeds
for the equivalent radial stress to be the greatest the elastic lirmit of the metal, the cylinder will
of these is deform inelastically, and further increase of r2
S1will not contain a greater interior pressure.
I< .- < _ Figure 6-5 illust.'ai.es 1, as a, function of maxi-
ps 021) mum allowable intrior pressure in terms of wall
It follows that for a monobloc tube (one cylin- thickness expressed n calibers.
der), where ps = 0, it is necm ary to consider .63
-
only the equivaient tangential stress at the inside

surface in investigating the safety of the tube.
.34
It is of interest to note that there is a maximum
chamber pressure which a given caliber mono-
bloc weapon can be designed to withstand.
Increasing wall thickr.ess will not bring a corre- . . 1as
£ ,0 i.s
sponding increase in allowable inerior pressure. Fig. 6-5 Effect wall thickness on
Consider (6-22) rewritten in the following .cmiz: allowable nw.ximum powder pressure.
6-5 SOME ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE10

(a) Interior Pressure Only (Figure 6-6). Con- P1 50,000 psi
sider a tube in which p= 0
r, = 0.2 in. These are approximbtely the conditions at the )
r, = 0.5 in. chamber of the -al. .30 rifle, M-1, when the rifle
STRESS ANALYSIS IN CYLIHDERS
is fired. Substituting the values above into

(6-22) the equivalent tangential stress is found
to be:
= 2 (50,000(0.2) 00.5)-
3 (0.5)2 - (0.2)2 /
(0.2). (50,000- 0))1

-(0.5)
(0.5)2-(0.2)2 r2
-6350-+-3175 I
At t•ie inside surface (r =r, 0.2 in.)

2,I = 85,725 psi (tension) AD
At thc outside surface (r = r2 0.5 in.) •) .

I,, = 19,U50 psi (tension)
Tntermtdiate points on the stress versus radius 0'-
curve may be found by using interr 'liate values 20, 0
of r. The curve is concave up,,,r '1 (Figure (b) di/

6-6(a) )80,00
A graph of the equivalent radial strep.ses is
shown in Figure 6-6(b'. Values for thL curve
are obtained by making, in (6-23), the .ame sub-
stituticas used above. It is seen that all the
stresses obtained are well within the elastic limit Fig. 6.6 Equivalent unidirectional
of gun steels, which in many cases, exceeds streues.
M1•,000 nsi.
(b) lrterior Pressv.-e Only. Consider the de-
sign of an 8-inch gun tube (r, = 4 in.) to with- whence z = 9.998 in. = r,.
stand the same interioi pressure as the M-1 barrel This means that the 8-inch gun tube must have
above. Further, suppose that the maximum a wall thickness of almost 6 inches if it is to con-
equivalent tangential stress is not to exceed that tain as much pressure as the M-1 rifle, with its
obtained abov,ý in the case of the M-1, namely, 0.3-inch wall. Actually, for a given interior pres-
85,725 psi, i.e., assume the same elastic limit and sure and elastic limit the wall thickness is propor-
the same factor of safety. How thick must the tional to the anside radius. The 8-inch gun tube,
wall be? Will the same thickness, 0.3 inches, be under these conditions, would be excessively
sufficient? Substituting the values large (approximately 20 inches, outside diam-
eter) ano heavy. Practically, we must reduce
r, -- the pressure, get higher strength steels, use other
p, 50,000 psi techniques of design, or follow a combinaiOn oi

to overcome this difficulty and
.,=0 make procedures
these the gun sufficiently light and mobile. Note
into (6-22) that it is the inner fibers oi the gun tubc that
bear most of the stress. We would gairs in tube
85,725 = 2 r5oooo(
' 4)2 - 0(x)3 strength if the outer fibers could be utilized more
3 (x) -() J fully.
+4 7(4)1(x)1(50,000 - 0)] 1 (c) Both Interior and Exterior Pressut .s. As-
3
L_(L
2 x)2(0oY
(X) -
-( (4"
s-ume that, by some means, an exte-ior pressure
of 20,000 psi can be applied to the 8-inch gun
6-7
4
.11)- Of the pAecediigL examuple. WVhat shouldl considered ats at basis for this calculatioll, because
the thickness of the w;ll he then? it 's the largest equivalent stress it- this case. In
From (6-16): greneral, i~owever, one should examine a orobleml
2 50,000(M2 - 20,00OO(X)l carefully to ascertain whether or not this is so.)

M5,725______ We hm~. now atwall thickness of 1.679 inches, as
3L (X - (4)2 cornparedl to the 6-inch wall needed when -to
[(4)!(.0 (50,000 - 20,00) 1

2
exterior pressure w~as applied. The outer fibers
+ 4
-I
3
-- l.-
(-1)! (4)! J have been utiflized more ftillv: hut we have yet
to work, out the iricans for applying the external
whnc
prhsnure These masusually involveadn
x=5.679 iii. = r... components with considerable weight. hut there
(Only thle equmivalenit tangential stress has been is still a large net reduction in weight.
6-6 BUILT-UP GUNS

To put tile losson of e.iamples (b) and (c), The jacket is then expandled by heat until it fits
Par. 6-5 in another form, the eqn-.ivalent stre~-ses, over the tube. Later, as it 'cocis, the jacket tries
both tangential and radial, set uip in a gun tube to shrink back to original size and s,: squeezes
of prescribed radius and wall thickness by the the tube into a state of conipression. More than
action of an interior pressure, may be grt atly one ja4et may be vsed where necessary. T'his
t reduced if an 4exterior pressure is caused to act solution to the problem iF called the built-up
at the same ti~ne. (Similarly, the equivalent method of gun con!:tru-tion.
stresses due to tin exterior pressure are rniudified Whlen a built-up gun is at rest (vnot firing)
ifan inter*or pressure acts at the same tirre.) there is, consideriog tc-igential stresses, a com-
f This implies that, if the tulue e Ž(5Iiiped
hod pre-ivc stress on the tub2 due to ýhe shrunk
initially causing tangential compression. then tie jacket and a tensile stress in the jacket due to
internal gas pressure applied wvhen firing takes the tube. When tl ' gun ib fired there is de-
plale would first have to overcome this compres- s-eloped, in addition to the stresses mentioned
sion in the tube before it could stretch the tube abvtgeiltnsestssnbohtead
tangentially in tension (Figure 6-7). This would p ket dae to the gas pressuee .vithin the bore.
succeed in extending the range of allowvable gas I~i.- the algebr~iic s-im of these superimposed
th sae weghtandwal thck-
presurewit effects which must not exceed safe limits if the
ness of tube, solving one of the designer's majtor gun is to ý.ucceed. In both the rest condition
probierps. and the 'iriuig c-indi~ion, the radial stresses in the
There are se%-crJ way's in whic'i this idea hs lithe and iacket are comoressive and again, the
been put to use in actual gu Iesign. The ey- -Uni of the stresses uinder the twvo superimposed
tornal pressure may be applied b-, a tight wrap- 'diinmstr wti pecbdlmt.A-
ping of high tensile strength wvire around the c rd ing to the condition stated in Par. 6-4, it is
t'w ~k-~~'
-- '-- ''~'' necessarv to coosider the- follo-viug cases in in-
later, in which a tube forging or casting is ini- vestigatinig the safeiv o. the vomponents of a
tially stressed by applying hydraulic -'ressiirc to 'Lilt-up gull:
the inside of the hole, is, in part, another appii-
cation of this idea. Still another wav of obtain- (1) For the ttlbe iln~ any inte;-i-r jackets),
ing, this dlesiredl sclucvz-. on a gun tube involves the equivalent tangential and radial stresses at
'he shrinking of a conc-:'ntric Myinder, calledt a d iiesrae
jacket or a hoop, around the tube. In *his mnedhod (2) For the (extcdoio ) jackel p. = 0), only
the inside diameter of th~e jack-et is mnade slightly the novivalent tangerti,)l ,,tress at the inside
sinaller than the out.;ine dlanwtcr of the tube, surface.
6-8
I
I
S...STRESS ANALYSIS IN CYLINDERS
maximum allowable tension (elastic limit)
II
II
before firing
can tolerate only this can tolerate 'his total

Sfrom stresspressure
total gas resulting
it
stress resulting from
gas pressure if metal
metal rooar bore is not near bore is pre-

pre-compressed compressed
Fig. 6-7 Effect of precompression.
II -6-7 CALCULATIONS IN BUILT-UIP GUNS

When a built-up gun is at rest (Figure 6-8),
the only stresses present result from the shrink-
genti•al
age stress occurs
pressure at the inner
(p,). Maximum surface, of tan-
compressive thef r tube,p-'-•r" -;-l
t03e, aria maximum tangential tensile stress oc-

curs at the riner surface of the jacket. To find •s Ps
the tangential and radial equivalent stresses on A A
(6-23) must be
the tube and jacket (6-22) and
applied separately to the tube and to the jacket, I
taking care to use the pressures and radii appro-
priate to the element considered. I .
There are two free body diagrams that apply
to the built-up gun at rest (Figure 6-9).
imposed is in action
guiicondition
When. atheAtress there
due to gassuper-
the is pres-
sure in the bore. This stress is computed as if the
tube and jacket were simply a si.ngle., ni-
(Figure 6-10).
The total stress at any point
when the gun is
h. action is then the algebraic sum of the stress
due to shrinkage pressure and the stress dite to
gas pressure. The stresses throughout the tube
Jacket
Fig 6-8 1, due to shrinkwge pressure
IV
and jacket when the gun is in action are obtained, only (symbol 3,,).
6-9 _ _ _I
V
4
p, = 0 (atmospheric) p, = p, (shrinkage
P2 = p. (shrinkage pressure)
pressure) p 2 = 0 (atmospheric)
Fig. 6-9 Gun at rest.
jcket /
tube
r5 Tube
A A
3~
iA
Limit Eta t
,,).Elastic
(smbol
Its
SFig. 6-11 2, when gun is in action (X,).

.A A 2'. = I, Jue to shrinkage
4 tube jacket pressure1
Fig. 6-10 1, due to powder gas pressure 3,, = 2, due !ti propellant
only (symbol 2,,). pressure.
therefore, b) combining the curves in Fgures 6.8 greater than the elastic limit of the metal, and
and 6-10 (see Figure 8-11). yet the metal is not actually stressed beyond its
It is apparent from the above figures that by elastic limit. Note that !" the tube and jacket
putting the metal of the tube in an initial state are considered as a unit, then we have put the
of compression there can be tolerated a change outer fibers of the unit to work to a greatet de.
in stress due to gas pressure (2,,) which is gree to relieve the hard-pressed inner fibers.
6-10
To summarize, in solving buiit-up problems: pellent gases only, consider tube jacket as one
(a) To determine any Otress caused by shrink- cylinder.
age pressure only, consider tube and jlcket (c) To determine any stress caused by gas
separately. pressure and shrinkage pressure jcintly, combine
(b) To determine any stress caused by pro- steps (a) and (b) above.
6-8 :LLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
GIVEN: A ,section of a two cylindcr built-up add them algebraically. Maximum stress for the
gun with dimeasions and pressures as indicated, tube will occur at the inner radius (r,) and for
the jacket at r,.
The problem can most conveniently be solved
rz by constructing a table similar to Table 6-1.
r- = 3 in. Thus the stresses at the inner radius of the
Sr, = 5 in. tube and jacket, at rest and in action, can be
F, r., = 8 in. computed using (6-22). Total in-action stresses
p=, 8907 psi can then be computed by adding algebraically
u is_ /the stress due to shrinkage pressure at either
SP2 radius to the stress due to gas pressure at the
same radius. Successive substitution of the
S
.. With tho. gun in action the powder gas pres-
values in the table into (6-22) yields the follow-
ing:
sure, is 41,000 psi
REQUIRED: Find the maximum equivalent If, = -27,800 psi
tangerntial stress in the tube and the jacket with 1,=, = 66,400 psi
the gun in 'action (1)j . - ,'36 psi
SOLUTION: The in-action stress in any part ,,-- 26,670 psi
of the gun has two components: (1) that due Thus it is seen that the in-action stress at , is
r, shrinkage pressure, and (2) that clue to gas
pressure. Find each component separately and ,, = 66,400 - 27,800 = 38,600 psi
TABLE 6-1 CALCULATION FOR IN-ACTION STRESO
Cylinder Pressure
Considered Due to R, Rt R P, Pt Zi
IShrinkage
Tube h(Rest) 3 1e3 0 8907 Z,.
Only Gas -
(In Action) 3 8 3 40,000 0 Zfet
Shrinksge
Jacket (Rest) 5 8 5 8907 0 Zt
Only G'~
as
(In Action) 8 5 40,000 0
6-11
Similarly the in-action stress at i, is will not necessarily occur at the inner radius, but
1,. = 26,670 + 23,300 = 50,000 psi may occur at the surface between the tube and
','or the built-up gun, then, inaximurm stress the jacket.
6-9 EFFECT OF OVERSTRAIN OF METAL

Another method for obtaining greater pres- and OG will ie.n represent the resultant perma-
sure limits for gun tubes, a cold-working process, nent deformaticn. If the metal is now restressed,
depends for its strengthening of the tube partly it will follow the new path of elastic deforma-
upon a jacketing effect, putting the fibes near tion GB, and permanent deformation will begin,
the bore in a state of compression, and partly this time at B. Thus the new elastic limit at B
upon an itcreased elastic limit in the metal due is at a higher stress than the original, and the tn
to the cold-working. While the method itself yield strgh sress tspondingly increased. In
will be discussed in the following paragraph, it obtaining these gains, however, part of the duc-
will be helpful to review beforehand its under- tility and toughness of the metal is sacrificed.
lying principle and recall briefly what happens
when a metal is overstrained, but not to the point I
of rupture.
When the elastic limit of metal is exceeded,
the proportionality between stress and strain, 9 ENowElastz Limit
which existed below the elastic limit, no longer • Aftar Cold Workin0
holds true. The metal becomes partially plastic, A ftA O Limit
showing an increased but varying ratio of strain " riginal IiestIl Limit
to stress. The stress-strain diagram shown in • I
Figure 6-12 illustrates the influence ef cold- I
working on elastic limit and yield strength. If _ _ __.
the stress applied to this steel is carried beyond 0 t 6 F'
'he elastic limit located at A to some poiv'A B and Stroll tin/In)
then released, the metal will partiuliy regain its Fig. 6-12 Typtcal stre.s.stroin diagram for
original size along the path BG (Parallel to AO). cold-worked gun steel.
6-10 COLD-WORKFD GUN TUBES

As was mentioned earlier, a coi,. vorked gun when the hydraulic pressure is released the tube
tube has increased elastic strength due to two is left with some permanent set and an increased
causes. Part of the gain is due to strain harden- elastic limit. Figiue 6-1.3 shows the tangential
ing, discussed in Par. 6-9, and shows tip as an stresses involve,:) iri a typical cold-worked tube,
actual increase in the yield strength which can plotted as functions of the radius. (It has been
be measured by tensile tests. The remainder of stated in Par. 6-4 that, with only interior pres-
the gain results from the residual tangential sure acting, the equivalent stress is greatest in
stresses lett in the m:,terial after the pressure is the tangential direction.)
releised. The new elastic limit, 2oinciding approximately
In the cold-working process the unfinished with the rtress dev-1opAd during cold-working, is
tube, without being heated, is stressed beyond shown by curve (a). Note that it is not constant
Its elastic limit by hydraulic pressure applied to throughout the wall of the toabe, but decreases as
the bore. According to Par. 6-9 and Figure, 6-12, the radius increases, being greatest at the inner
6-12
STRE5P ANALYSIS IN CYLINDERSz
Tuoe I
/
A
g (Stress due t'r gas pressure)

i /
Nev' Elastic Limit (a)
Driginal - tr- (Resultant Stress)
/3
Limit
J (&R!Wg-.A1S"tress due to Cold

Etr
Fig. 6-13 Stresses in cold worked tube. ..........
surface where the meta! wass overstrained the of residual stress as would be found in a grun
most. The permanent set ci'used by the over- built-up of an infinite number of layers.I
strain, also greatest where the overstrain was the The actual stresses in a built-up gun in action
greatest, causes the fibers toward the inside of a.ie the algebraic sum of the stresses due to
the tube to resist the attempt of the outer fibers shrinkage (residual stresses ir&a cold-worked
to return more nearly to the original dimension. gun) and those due to the propellent gas pres-
Thus, the metal of the tube contains internal sure. Exactly the same principle holds true for
stresses called residual stresses, and the metal the cold-worked gun. Thus, the equivalent.stress
*near the bore is in compression while th Atnear when the gun is in action, ý*., is ubtained by add-
theoutidesurface is in tension. Curve (b) igagbaclyteeul~n tesdet a
thewoutspidal distribuition of these residual prgalebsraicallyan the requi'lletitress, dure (b).a
stresses. For eq~jilibrium, the curve must cross prsuTin-action
he stress1
n mutntecurvte
, (b).
the axis of ze~ro stress at some point r,,, and the Telinaction simtcrves (a) musth gniotex ceed.te e
area between the tension branch of the curve eltcliture()ifhegnitosced
and the axis must equal the area between the In computing stress due to gas pressure, the
compression branch and the axis. This residual eq--ations developed earlier in this chapter are
stress correspOl~ds co the shrinkýge stress in the applicable because the m~etal is perfectly elastic
cylinders of a built-up gun at rest. In fact, a within its new elastic limit.
cold-worked gun will have the same distribution The ei'ect due to th. resideal stress-es is known
6-13
by the French name autofrettage, wbich means, little being gained from strain hardening. To
literally, self hooping. From Figure 6-13, it is differentiate, the Army generally speaks of its
seen that there is a hoop of residual tension on process as cold-working.
the outside and a hoop of residual compression A thick-walled cylinder which has been cold-
at the bore. The entire process described in this worked, and then properly heat-treated, will
paragraph, as a matter of fact, is sometimes called withstand the subsequent application of any
the autofrettage process. bore pressure which does not exceed the pressure
The autofrettage process as used by the U.S. applied to accomplish the cold-working. In gen-
Navy and foreign nations, however, involves eral, the allowable pressure is almost doubled.
lower pressures with smaller expansion than that Oi this increase, about half is due to the increase
Cmployed by the U.S. Army. In those processes, in the elastic 1imit and the other half to the resi-
strength is gained largely from autofrettage with dual stress condition.
6-11 THIN WALLED CYLINDERS
The equations of Par. 6-4 are a-,licable to r 2 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.15 1.1 1.05
cylinders regardless of wall thicknesi. If the r
wall thickness is decreased in proportion to the
inner radius until it is in the vicinity of 1/10 sL._ 1.67 1.3 1.17 1.11 1.08 1.05 1.03
the radius, (6-20) can be greatly simplifled. s,,
Consider (6-20), letting r = r, in order to ob- From this table il can be seen that if wall thick-
tain maximum tangenial s ness is less than 1/10 the inner radius, tangential
p- ar12
2psr1 pirs, - pirs, stres: can be calculated using this siml~lifled re-
r-it rl+ rl- lationship
Now let p2 - 0, the case when external pres- -r6-
sure is atmospheric and internal pressure much r2 - rj

grea~er thin atmospheric,--
The resulting error is about 5 vercent.
. Since -, is very nearly equal to r, in the thit-

p~(, + ,, I r i walled cylinder, tangential stress is considered
r- r ,r- r,- ro + r to be uniform across the wall of the cylinder.
[GY)
r 1.±-
Furthermore, from (6-21), radial .:ress at r, is
equal to p, the internal pressure. From (6-28)
S(6-27)
-a- -1,t it can be seen th.st
ra i 2 is only slightly greater than 1, s, will be
S-pira much greater than pl, and consequently s,. For

Srt - ti this reason, radial stresses in a thin wailed cylin-
i d-r -an be neglected,
"11efollowing table list. values of the ratio , remains only to evaluate p, the internal
for presm're, t• determine stresses in the wall of a
decuarn-vi " thin w~led cylinder. 4
6.14
KP STRESS ANALYSIS IN CYLINDERS
6-12 STRESSES IN A ROTATING PROJECTILE

Before a projectile can be soundly designed, When a projectile under the action of the pro-
the forces which act on it and the stresses they pellent gases moves forward in the bore, the
produce must be thoroughly understood. This property of inertia causes it to resist any force
requires more than just familiarity with the which tends to move it.. This resistance naturally
formulas involve], for until the nature of the sets up within the projectile walls stresses whose
stresses resulting from setback and centrifugal magnitude in any section depend, "pon the mass
force is mastered, no intelligent approach to the ahead of that section and the acceleration of the
design problem can be made. projectile at the instant under consideration. The
In high ex:plosivc shells the designer endeavors force which produces these strasses is called set-
to produce a projectile with adequate wall back, and for any section, is a inavimum for that
strength and yet capable of holding the greatest section when the acceleration is greater'; that is,
amount of explosive filler possible. Naturally, at the instant the propellent gas pressure reaches
each of these factors interferes to some extent its maximum value (Figu:e 8-14).
with the other, and hence some compromise must The setback force also affects the explosive
"be made. The question, then, is how thick the filler but not in the same way, for this substance
projectile wall must be to withstand, without behaves more like a liquid than it does a solid.
failure, the maximum resultant stress set up by In this connection, setback produces within the
all the forces acting. explosive charg., a hydraulic pressure which is
Assuming that the strongest most suitable ma- transmitted equally in all directions. Of special
terial is used, the problem reduces to one of significance is the hydraulic prec ,ire which is
determining the optimum wall thickness for transmitted radially against the shell wall pro-
every section of the projectile. Examination of ducing additional stresses therein.
standard pr.mjectiles which have been section- In addition to translation, tne rapidly expand-
alized will re%eal that shell walls are not of uni- ing propellent gases cause the ridiag to impart
form thickness throughout, but rather, thickest inpo the
pioectle to impart
wherever the c.erall resultant stre.s is greatest. rotation to the projectile, a f4ctor which results
For obvi',us reasons, stresses in projectile walls in wall stresses created in wo slightly different
are calculated by sections, and the following dis- ways. One set of stresses results from centritugal
cussion of the forces encountered and the nature force acting on the wall itself while the other set
ot the stresses they produce is presented as a is produced by centrifugal force acting on the
practical aid towards understanding and apply- explosive filler, ca,'ring it to exert an additional
ing design formulas, pressure on the shell wall.
!.-
'i
i.Note: Sp n rate •
I /•"• proportional to linear '
... •Fig. 6-14 Vto/it cand prcasswi, as 'u,

ions of proj~ilcti trve/.
6-15i
WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS -_
6-.3 CALCULATIONS
613.1 STRESSES RESULTING Y = caliber = 3 in.
FROM SETBACK P = maximum propellant pressure = 20,000psi
(a) Setback of projectile exclusive of explosive IV = weight of projectile = 12 lb
filler. W1'= weight of projecti!e ah, .d of section
Stresses calculated previously in this chapter z - z = 6 lb
had as their basis a uniformly distributed internal t 4,=- wall thickness
density of fillerat-=0.006
section lbi
z - inz' = 1/4 in.
and/or external pressure. When a projectile is = dita o figur 6 cons
subjected to setback, there is a stress induced in cylindrical) =Fig in.
the wall due to the irnertia of the wall. This stress v = muzzle velor;t ' = 1700 f t/sec
is longitudinal and compressive. The calculation 7 f /s
of this stress involves first the determination of' A== density
rifling: 1ofturn
stee!
in wall inin25wall 0.3 lb/in3
calibers
=1.2 = in.
the force exerted on a transverse section by the ri inner wall radius = 1.25 in.
accelerated weight of that portion of the pro- r2 outer wall radius = 1.5 in.
jectile ahead of this section. This force is then
divided by the area of the section to deteai.ine
"he stress.
(b) Stress in projectile walls resulting from
setback of explosive filler.
Sinrc the explosive filler acts as a fluid (Par.
6-12) it will exert a pressure radially against the
projectile walls. This pressure must be calcu-
lated, then (6-28) can be used to find the tan-

gential stress. -
613.2 STRESSES RESULTING
FROM ROTATION
(a) Resultant tangential stress in projectile ••
walls due to rotation of the explosive filler. ared
This stress is determined by calculating the r2 r
centrifugal force exerted by the filler, and divid-
ing by, the area over whi-h it is distributed to Fig. 6-15 Stress in projectile
determine the pressure on the walls, p,. Equation wall du* to setback acting on
(6-28) will then give the stress due to this in- projectile.
ternal pressure.
(b) Tangendal stress in shell walls due to Additional symbols to be used
rotation of the projectile.
This stress is calculated by determining centri- A - cross-sectional area of bore, in.'
fugal force exerted by the projectile wall as a a = acceleration of projectile, ft/sec'
function of radius. The total ta' gential force act- a - .'ross-sectional area of the projectile wall
ing is then calculated by double integration, at section z - z, in.'
The tangential stress caki then be found by di- f = longitudital force in projectile wall due to
viding this tangential force by the area over setback, lb
which it is acting. Ir.- weight of explosive filler ahead of section
z - z lb
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE P, - hydraulic pressure exerted by W1, psi
F. - centrifugal force o: filler against projectile
Caiculate the stresses acting at section z - z wVall, lb
(Figure 6-14) in a projectile wall given the fol- P, - presure against wall due to centrifugls
lowing data: force acting on filler, psi
S~6-16
- STRESS ANALYSIS IN CYLINDERS
w = angular velocity of pr(jectile at muzzle, now

radians/oec
F, = centrifugal force exerted by projectile w(rad/sec l2_v
-
body, lb
Fe = tangential force resulting from F,, lb
SOLUTION -2(rad/turn) X v(ft/sec) X 12(ii,./ft)
(1) First calculate the stress s, in the projec- 2R(in./cal) X n (cal/turn)
tile wall due to setback acting on the projectile. -- rad/sec
then
f = (Wl/g)x(a)
6 ,r'
but, 9 nt R2
a = PAg p,. 1.84 ,g (vr,\'

W \nR/•
thereforeW'PA W4 ' p!- 1.84>>..O (1700X125)

61--0 1.25p )
. . . .. .X k 2 1.5 p
W• W1r " r1 2) 1.25 _
__.-r2)s_
354 X = 1770 psi
6 X 2OW,0 X XX 1 .2 1.5 - 1.25
12 X r- 1.5 - 1 252) (4) Calculate the tangential stress i,, due to
= 32,700 1,, (eonwress:ve' rotation of the projectile body (Figure 6-16).
(2) Calculate the stress s., due to setback act-
ing on the explosive filler
-sh r, = W..a
' × I__× r___.w._
rW X- X r_
2
q s'rl 2r - rl
=A, Ix P x A X r"
W r2 - r,
0.06X6 X20.000Xtr X.2 XL 1.5

12 - Fig 6-76 Cross sectimm of o,-o
12 | jochle wall of u,,t lenj•,b. 1jl-
- 21,210 psi cutatton of utroy in wall duo t,
(3) Calculate the stress sa, due to centrifugar -entrifugal force acting
force acting on the explosive filler, on proecile.
ri F. r,
Ss - p/ it - r, 2vr,- - 1-
F.
but 12
F, M rs__
_2 ,. 1;" If1
"F.- dF,.
12
M-4- per u' : It

hv'h hilt
• d.'. : 't: d: ,. 'I" uni.,it lengtl/)
therefore ,
Pt .1 dF, -
N4g! 2g
6-17
*j -WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS -
now W'At r, (1 + c + c")

•ff~isine
dF,,•= dF, rtnow 36o
dF, r sinO dr de
129 12rv
=F
129 r, f 0 r2 sine dr do then
r2 4
.r2 84 = -- (1lc±+ c) At
-- -A., dr -Cos
r
I~
" "j' 1 [r Let
601 ridr K =-(1 +c+c) =3.4 for this problem

S6a,
.
F, W rFi) For most sections of the projectileL is very

18g nearly unity.
F, Then
2(r2 -(r_)
01•A2 (r2 - r-) (r22 + r2r, + Wl)81= K6 n
36g(r, - r1 ) When c =- (viz, r, r 2 and the shell wall has
_W1 As (r?'+ rtr 1 + r1') no thicknesj), the upper limit of K may be es-
.369 tablished as:
Let SK (I
41-T2 (+ 1+1) =3.68 ...
c = r2 = 0.833 foi this problem then
then 841 K .()
cr, --= rn
and84
W/2At (r,2 + crl' + C"r,')
=3.4 X 01.3 25
36g 4710 psi
6-14 CALCULATION OF EQUIVALENT UNIDIRECTIONAL STRESS
S Having detennin,•d the individual stresses act- s, (tangential) = 4710 psi

ing on section z-z of the shell wall due to setback
and centrifugal force, it is now possible by using
(6-4), (6-5), or (8-0) to determine the equiva- s,
8 s8 (27,690)
lent undrectiona! stress which we may use to 21 = s------32,600-
determine if the projectile wall will fail. Tue 3 3
stresses as computed are: = -41,830
s, (longitudina!) = -32,600 psi Some appropiate failure criterion must now
St (tangential) - 21,210 psi be applied to determine if this equivalent stress f
ss (tangential) = 11.770 psi is within allowable limits.
6-18
I, ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . .
ANALYSIS IN CYLINDERS
SSTRESS
6-15 OTHER APPLICATIONS

Although the specific examplei discussed in am very much less u mot missiles) but &!•prob-
this chapter have been entirely from the field of lem is essentially the same; i.e., developing a
atillery, the princi)les are equally applicable to structure with the minimum weight to perform
aay cylinder subjected to wall stresses. Thus, the job demiately and safie.
the stresses dcveloped in the wavlls of a missile rxket
m-_-t-enginxs lubecte to nterior
fuel tank would be analyied on the same basis. pressures cvm be analyzed uriug 0-- e-;•;mso
The magnitudes of the ½orces might bc gkeatly of Par. 6-4 or of Pa-. frii depending upon the
different (rotationl speed .-nd linear accelerat.in wall thI.,s of the motor.
RFIERENCES
1 Hayes, Vemews of Ordtince, hew York: 3 Singer, Strength of Materials, New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1938, pp. 153- Harper and Brothers, 1951, pp. 39-45,
240. 414-419.
-- 4 Departbent of the A&my, Technical Manual,
2 Seely, Resistance of Materials,New York: John TM9-2ao5, Funm/mentaL, of Aitil We#-
SWiley and Sons, Inc., Third edition, 1947, poew, Washington, U.S. Government Print-
pp 42-47, 388-397. ing Ofe, 1947, pp. 1-37.
- I
6.19
Now
CHAPTER 7
RECOIL SYSTEMS
7-1 GENERAL
The stresses to which a gun carriage is sub- convenient length, the recoil syrtem returns the
jected are caused by the action of the propellent gun to battery for further firing. The recoil prob.
gases on the breech of the gun itself. The force lem, however, is not limited to artillery carriages.
tending to move the gun to the rear may be very Mounts for aircraft cannon, tank artiiiery, and
large, amounting to several million pounds in self-propelled artillery must be protected from
* the major caliber weapons. If -he gun were stresses due to firing, applying techniques of
" r ounted rigidly, i.e., without any i -, oil system, analysis similar to those discussed here.
so that neither gup nor carriage could move, it The recoil system is a recent development as
would be most difficult to build a carriage strong the history of canno,, goes. It was invented in
enough to withstand the firing stresses without 1888, by a German engineer named Haussner,
rupture ngr overturning. Or, if the gun were and was put to use by the French in 189i, in the
mounted on a mobile carriage without a recoil famous French 75. The greatly improved rate of
system, tb- entire gun and carriage would be fire and accuracy made possible by recoil sys-
moved to the rear, and it would be necessary to tems amounted to a revolution in artillery, and by
wheel the piece back into position and relay it the end of World War I all nations adopted
before firing again e them.
beforTo bring the carriage stresses down to area- Because gun carriages are constructed to limit
sonable value and to obtain carriage stability, a the recoil to a mode-rate length, it is necessary to
recoil system is interposed betweca the gun and determine all the circumstances of recoil in order
the carriage. This acts as a cushion, allowing the that the forces acting at each instant may be
gun tube, and sometimes part of the carriage, to known. The parts of the carriage then may be
be driven to the rear a limited controlled dis- designed to withstand these forces and to ab-
tance while the carriage or the remainder of the dsig toe withstandthedsied fes and toa
carriage, remains stalionary. The energy that sorb the recoil ir the desired length. Since it is
goes into recoil is expended then as work done awkward to determine directly the circumstances
by the recoiiing parts in moving against the re- of recoil when oppised by the various resistances
sistive force of .the cushion; and there is trans- of the recoil system (retarded recoil), the hypo-
mitted to the carriage only that resistive force thetical problem of free recoil will be solved
which may be very much less than the force of first; then the effect of the re!istances will be
firing. After absorbing the recoil energy over a added.
7-2 VELOCITY OF FREE RECOIL !
Free recoil assumes that the gun is mounted the gaseous portions). While the projectile is
so that it may recoil freely; that is, wi'hout any in the bore, if air resistance be neglected, none of
resistance. On explosion of the charge, the pro- the energy of the pwa.-•r gases is expended out-
pellent gases act upon the whoh system, includ- side the system: and the momentum of the re-
ing the recoiling parts, the projectile, and the coiling parts is equal and opposite in direction
propelling charge itself (the propelling charge to the momentum of the projectile and propel-
'V including at any instant both the unburned and 'ing ch.rg-
7-1 1
* WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
(
The assumption is made that the velocity of v= ff1(u) = au (7-3)
the center of mass of the products of combus- b + u'
tiow is half the velocity of the projectile; hence, where a and b are empirical constants (see Chap-
while the projectile is in the bore, and only while ter 2, Part 2, Ballistics) and u = travel of pro-
it is in the bore, the following reaction exists: jectile in bore at any instant, ft.
W -- - p +1/2
+ 1/2 C) vov, or Figure 7-1 is a graph of (7-3). This provides
9t 9 a relation between velocity and distance; we
+ 1/2
/1(p (- want a relation between velocity and time.
where>
wve =velocity of free recoil, fi/sec
v, - velocity of projectile, ft/sec p f(U)
W - weight of recoiling parts, lb
V - weight of projectile, lb
c - weight of charge, lb
Note that the quantity p +1/2 c is a constant 0
for a given situation; hence
Vi Vjc o. distance of projectile travel in bore (u)
Since
gun propellent gases continue to act oii Fig. 7-1 Plot of LeDu's equation.
the gun for a brief time after the projectile leaves
the muzzle, the maximum velocity of free rocoil
will be greater than the maximum value given by To obtain this, use is made of the relation
the above equation. Based on experiments, the du
following •knpirical equation has been accepted: V = --
V, . pV + 4700c (7-2) which ct',n be written
W vdt = du
where or
V, - maeximum velocity of free recoil, ft/se1
V, - muzzle velocity (instrumental), ft/sec dt = - du
4700 - empi-ical constant representing velocity
; of propellent gases after projectile It follows that
leaves the im,,zzle, ft/sec = du (7-4)1

Once the maximum velocity cif free recoil is
attained, the gun would continue to recoil at this From (7-3), a value of 1iv, can be found for
velocity indefinitely, since in this hypothetical each value of u. A plot can then be made of 1/v,
condition absolutely no resistance is offered. versus u. This plot is shown in Figure 7-2.
Because the velocit" Lf free recoil is directly Now, from (7-4), the integral of 1/v, dv. is
proportional to the velocity of the projectile dur- equal to time. Thus, for each value of u, a value
ing the time the projectile is in the bore, it is of t can be found by measuring the area under
possible to determine the relztdonship between the curve out to the desired value of u. This
the velocity, time, and distance of free recoil area determination can be made graphically. In
during this time by first "ootaihin8 such data for order to s ioid the infinite area resulting as the
the projectile, curve approaches the ordinate axis asymptot-
From LeDuc's equation the velocity of a pro- ically, the integration is performed using some
jectile (not the recoiling parts) at any point in small distance, t, as the lower limit of integration,
the bore is rather than zero; i.e.,
7-2
RECOIL SYSTEMS
4,p
VP
"V
A- IN
area time, secs

Dis:ance of- Projectile travcl in bore (u) time (t)
Fig. 7-2 - versus u. Fig. 7-3 Velocity of projectiie versus time.

Vp
vZ
(r'f
wt approx. 7 VJ) Vf
time (t)
Fig. 7-4 Velocity of free recoil versus time.
"f'i out to time t', when the projectile leaves the

t f du muzzle. Specifically, if the vertical scale of Fig-
c
ure 7-3 be multiplied by the ratio p + 1/2
Values of v, for each value of u are known W
from (7-3). Values of t for the same values of then the curve for v, out to time t' (Figure 7-4)
u can bre found from Figure 7-2. It is now pos- will be obtained. At the end point, v, will have
sible to plot vV as a function of t by using'these the value v1 ' corresponding to time t. For ron-
corresponding values of v. and t. This plot is venience, in the followi.,g figures the velocity of
shown in Figure 7-3. it of course parts
theis recoiling is p!otted
opposite in eiretion to thealthough
as p. sitive, velocity
It should be noted that we have dealt with the of cue p osite remain o the velocit
arno
far, the reoiingpars.This
not th
proectleso
projectile so recoiling parts.he re re-- of ;he projectile.
Figure to V,remainder
7-4 from v,'The
of the curve in
is constructed by finding
la~onship must now be ai~apted to the recoiling the value of V, from (7-2) above, and continu-
parts. ;ng the curve as a smooth one from v to the
While the projectile is in the bore the velocity point where it becomes tangent to the horizontal
of free recoil, v,, is directly proportional to the line at the height Vf. There is no formula, em-
velocity of the projectile, vp, as shown by (7-1); pirical or otherwise, which will yield a plot of
hence, a curve showing v1 - f(t) may be plotted this portion of the curve. It is done by eye.
7-3.
Note that the time at which v, becomes V, is At any instant, according to Newton's second
denoted by the symbol r. Time r is the total time law, a force F must be acting on the recoiling
the powder gases act on the recoiling parts. Note parts such that
du
also, that since 7- = v, u = f vdt and the area
under the curve out to any time t repres•.'.ts dt
the distance of free recoil up to that time. where M is the mass of the recoiling parts.
7-3 RETARDED RECOIL-TOTAL RESISTAN(! rO RECOIL CONSTANT
In the discussion so far all resistances to re- from (7-5) and

coil have been neglected. When the gun is J'Rdt = Rt
mounted on a carriage, the recoil brake and other since R is a constant, this equation becomes
forces begin to act as soon as recoii begins. The
velocity of retaided recoil is consequently less - Rt = lv,
at each instant than the velocity of free recoil and dividing both sides of the equation by the
shown by Figure 7-4. Let us assume for the pur- mass, A1, the following equation re•,ilts:
pose of this treatment a constant resistance to R
recoil, R, acting in opposition to the force, F, , - - - t (7-8)
of (7-5); therefcre, the net force acting on the
recoiling parts will be F - R, and the following Note that (7-8) is a velocity equation since -
result i: obtained: "11
is a force divided by a mass yielding acceleration, .
whichzdowhen multiplied by o time . becomes a
carragw e aret ivelocity term . in can be tsee tha vi t of the
where v, is the velocity of retarded recoil or velocity tat would be attained ian time t if a
\1,1ocity of actual recoil. If both sides of (7-6) force R were acting alone on a mass M.I
Sintegrated with resFect to time the following Aneas under the vmcurve in I'igure 7-5 represeiit
rest is7-obtained: the distance recoiled at the corresponding tihes,
f[ •'d - f Rdt .111', (7-7) since the distance of retarded recoil equals
.•, the
sinve pntrgral ofr'r witharespectitoltlmen. h .
.fFdi Mtv r 1ar)
7-4 STABICITY OF MOBILE CARRIAGES
During the firing of gun mounted on a mobile is hazardous

n to the crew. To praovent this jumpr
carriage there are two upposing moments. One the resterini moment due td the weight of the
tends to overturn the gun and the other teaan a d clirriage must be reaer than the over-
keep it on the ground. For the gun shown in turning moment due to the recoil force. This is
Figure 7-6 the center of moments is the spade at the principal consideration which determines the
S the end of the trail, and the gtrm tends to pivot a~iowable totol resistance of the recoil syvstem in
S in a vertical plane abou"' this point. atwheeled carriage. Artillerymen, hov-'ever, ar!,
wvilling to accept a certain amnount of jump rather --
Carriage jumip is undesirable as it interferes than contend with the itdditional weight nmces- ! !
with rapid aiming and firing of the weapon and sary to eliminate all jump. -
7-4 !
RECOIL SYSTEMS
- T
T
0 T it____ I_____
timne W
A.
Fig. 7-5 Velocity of retarded recoil versus time.
Fig. 7.6 Moments an whoeled carriage.
With refi nnce to Figure 7.8, let 11 - lever arm of nonrecoilim- parts, ft
3'- weigh of recoiling, parts acting %t their R - total resisten. e to recoil, lb (acting
eel,"ter of grav'ty,Ib through centr of gravity of recoiling
1, lever tirm of recoiling parts when gun is parts)
in h&attery. ft h -lever arm of R, the perpendicular dimtduce
-wriglit of r ,rweoill,,g parts of carriage from spade to the recoil path of the center
giet ig & I" e enlttr of K'ravity, lb of gravity of W, "'t
7-5
The condition for stability during recoil is determined by the wnrk necessary to stop the
that the overturning moment be less than or recoiling parts. T!,is work is represented on
equal to the restoring moment. Consulting Fig- Figure 7-7 by f RdL. Thus, the area oi the rec-
ure 7-e, the force R, which is the effect of the tangle ?,2I,.OL, represents the work necessary
resistance to recoil on the carriage, multiplied •, stop the recoiling parts cf this system. Since Re
by the dittance h gives the overturning moment is always less than R., there will be no car-
(clockwise), which must be at least balanced by rivge jump. The margin of stability is R.-R,
restraining mon.ents (counterclockwise) to pro- at various distances of recoil. The factor of
vide stability. Therefore, in order to find out stability isR
how large a value of R any given weapon can R,
tolerate, clockwise and counterclockwise mo- The length of recoil can be further short 'ned
ments about the spades are equated and we and stability maintained if R for the in-battery
solve for R, which is the nraximum allowab!e positk'n starts at some value greater than R, and
resistance to recoil. As the recoiling parts move decreases so as to be less than R. at all points.
rearward in recoil, all pJssible values of R. may The line RdRfI shows such a solution. With a
be calculated. However, ordinarily it is sufficient greater force acting on the recoiling parts, the
to calculate h. for the in battery condition of work necessary to absorb the recoil energy can
the piece and the full recoil position. The value be accomplished in a shorter distance L,. The
of R, for the full recoil position is a smaller work area RdOLdRd is equal to the'area R:{OL,.R,
value than that for the in battery position which since the work is the same. Thus a variable re-
shows that a value of R small enough to pre- sistance to recoil allows a shorter recoil.
vent juinp of the wheels in the early part of re- If the gun is stable at zero elevation then it
coil might still cause jump toward the end of will be even more stnble when elevated since
recoil as the restoring moment decreases. the levei arm h of he overturning moment de-
In Figure 7-7 the line R.,R., indicates the creases as ei,-ation increases. This situation al-
maximum allowable values of R plotted as a lows a greater Nalue of R and thus a shorter
function of the instantaneous distarnce of recoil. length of recoil at high elevations.
This R.,R,,., 'line is conveniently obt.ained by
plotting R., for in battery above 0 length of re- ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE:
coil and R.. for full recoil above L, length of GIVEN:
recoil, and connecting the two points. If the re- A certain howitzer weighs 3000 pounds. The
coil system be designed so that R has some con- weight of the recoii'ng parts is 1000 pounds.
stant value P., the length of recoil will be Their center of gravity vhen horizontal and in
R
0
UR
S~ mZ
-7-
0
-'7-6
RECOIL SYSTEMS
firing position is 40 inches above and 100 inches Then at maximum recoil the constant resistance
forward of the point of support of the spade. to recoil (R,) computed with a factor of stabilit7
The non-recoiling part., of the cpiriagR weigh of 1.5 iF
2000 pounds and their center of gravity is 90 6000
inches forward oi the same point. 1.5 = . = -60
REQUIRED: R, R,
(a) Determine t!e maximum value the re- 6000
sistance to recoil can have to insure stability R, = - = 4000 lb
bcth when the gun is in battery and when it has 1.5
reached the end of a 40-inch recoil. (c) Having est.lished a margin of stability
(b) If the factor of stability at full recoil is of 2000 pounds (see figure in (b) above), the
i.5, what is the value of the constant resistance work p :rformed by the recoil system with a
to recoil? variable resistance to recoil is represented by
(c) If a constant margin of stability of 2000 the area of the trapezoid 0 L,,Rd2 R,:. Since the
pounds is maintained, by how much can the total work performed must be the same as that done
length of recoilSOLUION:by
be shortened? a constant force then:
SOLUTION:
(a) With reference to Figure 7-6, let Area 0 LRCR,, = area 0 L,: Rd, lid,
W = 1000 lb Equation (1) 4000 X 40
1, = 100 in. (in battery) = 1/2[5,000+( 4 0 0 0 +Y)I (40-:)
60 in. (in full recoil)
W,= 2000 lb (2 Rd R t 40
eR 1000 40
S- 90 in. Equation (2) or
h 4o in. 1000Z
In battery computations: y = - = 25z
"hX R,= W X 1, + W, X 1, 40
40 in. R,. = 1000 lb X 1
100 in. + 2000 lb X 90 in. 4000 X 40 = - f5000-- (4000 + 25-11 (40 - x)
40 Re. = 100,000 + 180,000 2
R. = -, -. =7000 lb 320,000 = (90W0 + 2z) (40- x)

40 320,000 = 360,000 + 10(kx - 9000z - 25x2
At the end of a 40 in. recoil. 25z2+ 8000z - 40,000 - 0
hXR,- WXl,+W,×Xl z'-+ 320z -1600 - 0
40 in. X R., - 1000 lb X 60 in. +
2000 b X 90 in Solve for the value of x using the quadratic
40, =60,000 + 180,000 formula,
240,000 =6M1)
4.=±-=0 00b= --b vb-VP-4ac
(b) Plotting the values of R, obtained from 2a
requirement (a): -320 -
=70032R0 * x/000240
RdI = 5000R~. =4000- Rd R 2 6 000 00 Z -32 - V108M0

Rci = 4000 R 2 RcZ = 4000 -2
-320 ý&330
Xw taking positive value
2
Ld
0 - 401 -4L c x"04"
10 5-in. rccoil shortened
7-7
7-5 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A RECOIL SYSTEM

The nodern recoil system has three principal (b) Counterrecoil mechanism to return the
parts: gun to battery and to hold it there until fired.
(c) Counterrecoil buffer to reduce the shock
(a) Recoil brake to stop recoil. an the carriage at end of counterrecoil.
7-6 RKIOIL BRAKE
The recil brake is a knydbauli,- brake and con- a varying resist.vnce to rectoil. To effect a smooth
sists essentially of a piston which moves in a retardation of the recoiling parts the rate of
cylinder fil'ed with oil. The recoi) brake is at- liquid flow must be controlled and coordinated
tached to the weapon in either of two ways with other variabips such as instantaneous ye-
listed below. In either ",ise, when the tube re- locity of recoil. This can be do ie by varying the
coils, there is a re.dove motion between the pis- orifice area durdig recoil, using a throttling
ton and the cylinder and the operation in both device.
cases is fundamentally tho same. There are several devices for throttling the
In one arrangement, the cylinder is attached liquid flow-throttling grooves, throttling bar.m,
to the tube and moves with it during reco'l and throttling rods, and throttling valves. Al' these
counterrecoil, while the piston is fixed to the devices offer varying orifice area to the flow of
carriage. oil suzh that when recoil velocity is greatest,
In 'he other arrangement, the piston is at- orifice area is greatest; thus, the pressure is rea-
tached to the tube and moves with it duiing re- sonable while the tube recoils most rapidly. As ,%-
coil and counterrecoil, while the cylin&d r is fixed recoil velocity decreases, the restricted orifice
to the carriage (Figure 7-8). For the purpose area maintains the fcrce of resistance to recoil.
of subsequei t discussion, this particular art rnge- In some artillery weapons, particularly anti-
ment will be assumed. aircraft, a variabie ,ength of recoil is used to
As the propellent gases push back on the bar- permit long recoil at low cievations to improve
rel the piston exerts pressure on the oil. The stability, and short recoil at high elevations to
equal and opposite reacfion ta ihis pressure is a p'event the breci h trom striking the ground or
pressure exerted by the oil on the piston. It is firing platform. Variable recoil can be accora-
the reaction force on the piston which retards plished ir. several way6, but generally it involves
the velocity 4 the recoiling parts. The magni- superimposing another orifice controi in addition
tude of the oil pressure on the piston is partly to one of the basic arrangement described in the
determined by the orifice area, which is the paragraphs above.
total cross-sectional area of all the holes through A simple type of variable recoil mechanism is
which the oil may flow at any monient. A large shown in figure 7.1 in conjunction with the
oriice areR will allow greater flow and thus pro- basic throttling rixi type c,' recoil brake. A hol-
duce less pessure; whereas a small orifice area low piston slides nma. ccntrol rod which has
will produc higher pressure and greater retard-
ing force. REcoK --
A later paragraph will show that the resistanct -
to recoil d, pends not only on orifice area but
also on other factors, inclutding install'aneouiis
velocity of recoil. The greater the velocity of
the piston through the oil, the greater the ac-
cplerA!ion of the oil through the orifices. and the
greater the iorce of reaction on the piston. The ,t'M( m i
arrangeinent shown in Figie 7-8 would produce Fig. 7-8 Simple *,oilbroke.
S~7-8
RECOIL SYSTEMS
t ;e
- ~~Fig. 7-9 Recoil mechanism for 105-mm howitzer, shmo',ng mo-vement durirg roc".~al
Fig, 7-1O Recoil system for 90 mm antiaircrahff ujm
throttling groove' in . The rot;,lion of the rod liquid is then possible. To i-cduace the length ofI
is controlled v0,-. .gle of ck-v~atio., cf the gunr recoil, the control rod is rc-tated. and the throt-
through gears and c-ons. Maximum recoil is at fling groov'es move out of lIanw s the porfts u
b ained when these groo~ves line up wjith ports This action reduceK the ordfice through whacis
inthe piston head. since a maximum ik-w of the li~uid can Row, thats shortening, the recoil.
_ _7 9
-O C WJ3 t €l t)
I Pnm am
1K1 - ~ - ATEr(~OF ROD.~ -
AT OFNI BY
Fig. 7-12 Spring couneecoil n7-1naiale Figt 7-13 Pneumaic
iountlecoul meanism
7-7 COUNT|LRECOIL MECHANISM
A counterrecoil mechanisrm is one which has tional function it also assists the recoil brake in
the primary function oE returning the barrel stopping recoil, furnishing about 20% of the total
from its recoiled position to itr firing position and braking force. There are two basic types of -
holding it there .intl fired again. As an addi- counterrecoil devices: spr~n•. and pneumatic.
S7-7.1 SPRING TYPE A nare compact arrangement can be used

SIn this case the entire syst.em is known as a where the spring is placed in the recoil brake
hydrospring recoil system. The essential parts of cylinder (Figure 7-8) and expands against th~e
a spring .,icchanism are a spring, & cylinder, and brake piston. In this case the, spring and the
a piston and rod (Figure 7.12). liquid ,ccupy the s.•n~e part of the recoil cyliI?~er.
* With the barrel in battery, the spring is com-
pressed only enough to hold the recoiling parts in 7-R.2 PNEUMATIC TYPE
Sbattery at all angles of elevation. When the wea-
pon is fired, the barrel recoils, pulling th.• piston In this case the entire syste~m is known as a
rod and further compressing the spring. At the hydropneumatic recoil system. Th.. essential -
end of recoil the spring expands and returns the parts of a hyd~ropneumatic mechanism are shown (
barrel to firing position, in Figure 7.13.
7-la
II
V RECOCL SYSTEMS
W\Vth the gun in battery the gas, usually nitro- moves against the gas, comiliessing it further.
gen, is urder some initial compression to bold the At the end of recoil the gas expands and returns
,ctoiling parts in battery. When the weapon is the barrel to flhirg position. A respiratm alows
tired the liquid is forced through a throttling &ir to enter the recoil cylinder dating recol and
device and against the fioating piston, which allows it to escape during counterrecoiL
7-8 COUNTERRECOIL BUFFER
A counterrecoil bulffer is that part of the re-

col: sysiem which controls the final movernint
of the recoiling parts as they come back into uVt am V
bate'r. Its purpose is to decIerate the miving A o
parts snmoothly and :)revent damage by sio-k,
-vet not retard the movement to the extent that
"r-ic of fire w'uld suffer.
A siinp!- tYlp, of buffer is ýhe dashpot (Figure
-11). This consists of a taper-ed rod (buffer
rol) whif-h slides in and out of a cylindrical Z! , // • /
C.i"•.. or dashlpot. As the barrel recoils, the buf. X L-v Pm
fer rod is withdrawn from the dashpat, wh. A
then fills with liquid. During the latter part of AT START OP O UNTECOI
' nitntern.oil, ;he 4iquid-flled dashpot rides
over the buffer rod and the escape of liquid from
inside the dashpo~t is permitted only thriugh the ___
iar:uow clearance between the rod and dashpot.

As te da(:Jipot enicloses the buffer rod, tie orifice
for •'hease of the liquid becomes smaller, and
the motion of th•c piston rod and its dashmo'
inect%with great resistance in the last few inches
4f(•,•iterre•oil. The barrel thus is eased into
Iatt.-rv witliut jarring the carriage.
Theerv are other types of hydraulic buffers, but KA PD 'OM
they ope~rate on the same principle of a tapered
rod restiieting the flow of oil to provide increase,
rusistance toward the end of counterrecoil. Fig. 7-14 Doshpot counurecoi buffer.
7-9 COMPLETE RECOIL SYSTEMS
The modern recoi! sys;tem, particul.arly hydro- (a) Hydrospring advantages

pneumiwtic, is actually much more complex than Simplicity of design
indicated by the schematic figures above. The Ease of manufacture of system
hydropnt'.mrnatic systemn is more complex and ex- Low initial cost
pensive. but it has almost replaced the hydro- Rapidity of repair in the field
spring systeni in currrent weapons. One notable () Hydrospring disadvantages
exception to the trend ;oward elimination of the Wide variations in serviceability of springs
hydrospring system is the concentric rcoil sys- High replacement rate
tern. This finds application where space iimita- Bulkiness (except in concentric system described
tions arc critical. A comparison follows: below)
7-11
7- -
Di~culty in sectmng required physical charac- cradle and the outside of the gun tube enclosed
teristics for springs by the cradle. When ready for operation the re-
Weight p~rohibitive for lai;ge calil.,r mobile coil cylinder is completely full of oil.
maerel
(Disadvanb~ges increase with increase in caliber) As the gui. recoils, the piston compresses the
counterrecoil spring and at the same time forces
(c) Aydiropneumatic advantages the recoil oil frz~m the rear io the front oi' the
Relia~bility of performance piston. The inside dliameter of the cradle be-
Durability comes less as the recoil progresses, practical'y
Smooth Pei~ shutting off the flow of oil at Cie end of recoil.
Adjustable to slight variations This throttling of the recoil oil and the high com-
pression of the spring stops the rearward move-
(d) Hydroproeurniati.: disadvantages ment of the gun.
High initWa cost,
Repairs rtequire special facilities and expert The compressed spring immrediately starts the
mechanics counterreco*1 action, forcing the oil past the pis-
Maintenance is required while in storage ton from front to rear. Near the end of counter-
recoil a buffer chamber restricts the flow of oil
The concentric system a~chieves its compact- and thus sets up a cushionir~g effect which per-
ness by havring the gun tube art! as both recoil mits the gun to return to battery without sev'ýre
piston rod and countp"rncoil piston rod, and hay- shock.
ing the racwi! brake piston, the recoil cylinder,
and rUt counterreccd s,, iing mounted concen- The recoil action;ýs so well conitrolled that the
trcally with the gun tube (Figure 7-15). The average !ength of recoil of a tank gun is from
recoil cylinder is formed by the inside of the 9 to 12 inches.
Cradle
Fig. 7-15 Concentric recoil mechanism.
7.12
RECOIL SYSTEMS
7.10 MUZZLE BRAKES
A muzzle brake is a device, attached to the muzzle brake would put the tank gun out of
muzzle end of a gun tube (Figure 7-16), con- action. Thus, modern tank guaIs of the United
sisting of one or more sets of baffles. 7hese States are not being designed for or equipped
baffles deflect the escaping gases and thus by with muzzle brakes.
momentum transfer cause a force to act on the A muzzle brake reduces the recoil force trans-
gun tube which mitigates the recoil force. Prior m;tted to the mount, and also reduces obscura-
to and during World War 11 the Germans did tion crf the target. After the projectile leaves the
extensive research into the practicability of n uz- muzzle, some of the powder gases are decelerated
and deflected tn the sides and rear (Figure d-17).
zle brakes and developed many different designs.
Continued research is being conducted by the The reaction to this decelerating force exerts a
United States and foreign countries. forward pull on the muzzle and thus redu( ýs
Although a muzzle brake offers several advan- the net force which makes the gun recoil. The
tages, these are offset by several practical dis- result is gieater carriage stability, improved ac-
advantages. While it ison
advanages
iut is trhe
true thauzle
that an
a muzzle brake
rk curacy because of less gas turbulence affecting
prohcli
may reduce the length of recoil, it still adds the projectile iust beyond the muzzle, and auz a
shorter length of recoil.
weight at the muzzle of the gun which puts a
large torque about the gun support (i.e., trun- Since the baffles are positioned to deflect the
nions) requiring the employment of equilibrators blast to the sides rather than up and down, dust
"toassist ir, supporing the tube. If a tank turret disturbance is minimized. The gun crew can
.s designed allowing only for the recoil of its therefore observe the target much better and
gun with a muzzle brake, then failure of the maintain a higher rate of aimed fire.
-V"
Fig. 7-16 Muzzle brake for experimental, self.propelled 155-mm gun, T80. The single baffle is 3pproxi.
mately 85% as effective as multiple baffles, but much eoair to manufacture.
7-13
_=
A mazzle brake may be used, therefore, where threaded at one end to screw onto the muzzle
it is important to have a short length of recoil, of the gun tube. Two holes are bored laterally
such as in a tank turret, and where obscuration through the front of the diffusor, allowing the
is an important consideration, ;uch as in tank diffusor to act as an antiobscuration device, A
and antitank guns. portion of the muzzle blast is directed to the
The present model gun being installed in the sides, thus reducing target obscuratior. caused by
90-mm gun tank, M47, does not have a muzzle blast cloud and dust disturbance. Since diffusors
brake. The muzzle brake has been replaced by have little surface perpendicular to the axis of
the diffusor (Figure 7-18). The diffusor is a the tube, they have but 1tvle effect on reducing
hollow, straight, one piece casting, internally length of recoil.
7-11 TOTAL RESISTANCE TO RECOIL
The total resistance to recoil is the resultant W sina, and since this component diminishes the
of fv.-ces due to five devices or factors: total resistance, it is negative, -W sina. If the
muzzle is depressed, then a is negative and
(a) hecoil brake. The brake furnishes the the term is positive.
greatest part of the total resistance. This coin- (e) Friction. The force of friction contributes
ponent was discussed about in Par. 7-7, and its to the total resistance, and it is a function of W
resistance is denoted by the symbol P. and a. The component of W which acts per-
(b) Counterrecoil" mechanism. This com- pendicular to the sliding surfaces hetween the sta-
ponent was discussed above in Par. 7-8, and its tionary and the recoiling parts is W cosa. The
resistance is denoted by the symbol S. friction force is the product of the friction co-
(c) Muzzle brake. The force due to the efficient f and the weight component, or fW cosa.
muzzle brake does not start until the projectile The total resistance to recoil, in pounds, is
leaves the muzzle, and its value varies during then
recoil. The symbol for this component is B.
This force is lacking, of course, in guns which R P + S + B - W sia " fW cosa. (7-9)
do not require the particular chaiacteristics af- It is interesting to note the tremendous amount
forded by muzzle brakes. of work that must be accomplished by a recoil
(d) Gravity. In horizontal fire the gravity system, and the importance of careful design and
compl;nent would be zero; but as the gun is ele- manufacture of every detail in the system. The
vated to an angle a, gravity will oppose the effort total resistance to recoil fur a 155-mm gun is
of the recoil brake and will tend to increase 51,000 pounds. If the same braking force of
the length of recoil. Th;• force involved is the 51,000 pounds were applied to a 3200 pound
component of the weight of the recoiling parts automobile going 60 mph, the automobile would
which acts in the direction of recoil. This is stnp in a distance of 7.5 feet.
7-12 SPECIAL RECOIL DEVICES
The recoil mechanisms illustrated have rep- recoiling parts to include components of top and
resented standards for design of L'rtillery weapons bottom :-arriages, vacuum systems, and rigid
for many years. Systems. involving electromag- •-,unts have been tested and many used in spe-
netic forces, design of twin guns linked to recoil ciai ipplications.
without displacing the composite center of mass, Development work is progressing on a type
firing during forward mption, increasing mus of of recoil device designed to reduce the maximum
7-,•4
RECOIL SYSTEMS
CAA
Fig. 7-1IY Action of 90-mm double-baffie

muzzle broke. No.'mally, gases are dispersed
to the sides; in this case the broke was turned
900 to facilitate photography.
Fig. 7-18 90-mm gun with bore evacuator and diffusor.
7-15______________________________ .;
forces exerted on weapon trunnions through the It has been found that this system substan-
use of soft recoil. For weapons having a high tially reduces forces transmitted to weapon trun-
rate of fire (usually small caliber automatic wea- nions, a characteristic which would be most
pons) it is possible to reduce the deflection rate helpful in the design of weapons for use in air-
of the countercoil spring (make the spring soft) craft.
to the extent that the time for the full recoil The development of the carriage for the 280-
cycle is greater than the time for the gun's firing mm gun represents an application of double re-
cycle. That is, the gun has not been fully recoil. In this arrangement two separate recoil
turned to battry at the timc the succeeding systems are employed. One is conventional, re-
roand is fired. In this manner, the momentum tarding the movement of the sleigh in the craule.
of recoil is partially counteracted by the momen- The oth.t is somewhat out of the ordinary, how-
turn in counterrecoil. Length of recoil is there- ever, in that it provides for movement between
fore shortened and trunnion reaction lessened. the top and bottom carriage. This second
A problem arises in the firing of the first round, mechanism is also a hydropneumatic systera; its
however, as there is no momentum of counter-
recoil for this mouid. One possible solution to only departure from convention being its loca-
this problem is to simulate recoil by cranking tion between the top and bottom carriage. With
the gun out of battery prior to firing the first double recoil, the force transmitted to the hot-
round. The gun is then allowed to return toward torn carriage is reduced; therefore, elaborate
battery f:eely and the first round is fired before preparations for emplacement of the gun are not
the battery position is reached, exactly is in necessary and it can be put into action quite
succeeding rounds. rapidly.
REFERENC2ES
I Kayes, Elements of Ordnance, New York: 2 Dept of the Army Technical Manual, TM 9-
John WiLy and Sons, Inc., 1-938, pp. 74-77, 2W05, Fundamentals of Artillery Weapons,
?A1-283. 'AYashington, U.S. Government Printing Of-
fice.. 1948, pp. 42-57.
7-16
q) CHAPTER 8
GUN MOUNTS AND MISSILE LAUNCHERS
8-1 GENERAL
A mount or carriage is an assembly which may support it in travel. In this chapter the
supports a weapon in firing and traveling. A general aspects of gun mounts and missile launch-
missile launcher is a device which furnishes ers will be discussed, and a method for ana•yzing
*stable support for a missile or rocket, may give stresses in a structure of this type will 'be pre-
it initic ! orientation and guidance, and which sented.
8-2 GUN MOUNTS
The names and shoirt descriptions of compo- that part of the carriage assembly which sup-
nents of gun mounts are given here. Refer to ports the top carriage and has, attached to it,
Figures 8-1 and 8-2 for their location on a typical portions of the mechanism for rotating the top
carriage. For detailed pictures and description carriage in traverse.
of operation of these components the reader is (e) Elevating mechanisms An elevating
referred to Department of Army Technical Man- mechanism consists of devices for elevating or
ual TM 9-2305. Fundamentals of Artillery Weap- depressing ihe weapon and holding it at the
ons. desired angle while being fired. The final mo-
The main barrel supporting members on a tion is generally applied through an elevating
carriage are: the sleigh, cradle, top carriage, and rack attached to the cradle and an elevating
bottom carriage. Depending upon the design of pinion attached to the top carriage. Whenever a
the carriage, cert~'i' of these components may or rack and pinion are used, a wumi and worm
may not be present. wheel are usually placed in the gear train to
(a) Sleigh. The sleigh is that part of a carriage make the system irreversible and to hold the gun
which forms the immediate support of the barrel, at the elevation set.
The sleigh recoils with the barrel on the cradle (f) Traversing mechanisms. A traversing
and, in many of our weapons, houses the recoil mechanism is a device for making lateral changes
mechanism. in the direction of the barrel. The moving parts
(b) Cradle. The cradle is that part of the may consist of only the barrel and the upper
carriage which supports the barrel and sleigh. part of the carriage; or in some cases, the mov-
Where no sleigh is used, the cradle houses the ing parts may consist of the entire barrel and
recoil mechinism. In generql, the cradle iLa U- carriage except the axle.
shaped trough which has shides or rails on paths (g) Equilibrators. To perrit higher angles of
or guideways along which t6e gun recoils and elevation in artillery weapons, the horizontal
counterrecoils. axis about which the barrel revolves for elevation
(e) Top carriage. The top carriage supports
(c) op arrige.Thetop arrage upprts is located well to the rear of th±e center of gravity
the cradle in its trunnioo bearings and carries the
elevating mechanism. It moves with the cradle of the barrel. The 4oarxel thu.- is unbalanced and
in horh ontal traverse but not in changes of cle- tends to tip forward. A-' eqi ilibrator is a device
vation. When the weapon is traversed, the top which overcomes this unbialanced weight and
carriage rotates horizontally on the axle or bottom keeps the cannon in balance at all angles of
carriage, elevation so that it may be elevated and dc-
*0
(d) BOttom crirriage. The bottom carriage is
8.1
pressed easily by hand Figure 8-.).
Ii
_ ~-jv
ASA,,..
Fig. B-1 1OS-mm howitzor, left rear view.
Fig. 8-2 1OS5irme howitzer, jight frot view. (

8-21
SL GUN MOUNTS AND MISSILE LAUNCHERS
EQUIUS11RATOS1
CRALILI 0 PRN
0 WAILW
Fig. 8-4 Eq.aliz~r
VIM fired from the bogies in emiergencies.

(i) Equalizers. An equalizer is a mechanical
device which permits the four points of contact
with the ground, the two wheels and the two
trail endr, to be in different planes. It compen-
sates for irregularity of the terrain, so that the
weight 0 - the weapon and the shock of firing
are transmitted to the ground through all of the
four points. Equalizers are required only on
those split trail carnages which, when emplaced,
rest on two wheels (or two firing segments) and
on the two trail ends.
Figure 8-t shows an equalizer where an equal-
.__" _ _ - iwer bar, &;ed to an extension of the pintle, ro-
.8-3 Applications of quilibrators. tates in a filane parallel to the axle. By moving
Fig. the trails, the position of t.he equalizer bar is
controlled through equalizer irms whieh rotate
(h) Bogies. A bogie is essentially a cart which abeat the axle.
is used with certain artillery weapons for the Some weapons which are directed by remote
purpose of supporting the weapon during trans- control equipment (e.g., ntitircrair weapons)
port. When the weapon is placed in the firing must be accurately leve1led so that they will
position, the bogie is either removed or so ad- t-averse through true horizontal angles. For this
justed that it no longer supports the weight of purpose a lew'ling mechanism (e.g., levelling
the weapon, although some weapons may be jacks) is used.
5-3 M!SSILE LAUNCHING TECHNIQUES
Missile launchers perform some of the same guidance is provided after launch, the launcher
functions as do artillery weapons. They provide must relep., the rocket so that it will follow a
static support for the missile and in some cases desired ballistic trectory to the target.
its initial orientation and guidance. The launch- Generally, missiles, use-d in the U.S. Army
ing of guided missiles on a precise trajecsory is employ o..,e of three launching techniques: (1)
not usually of paramount importance, as changes launching from rail launchers; (2) launching
to the trajectory can be made after launch. from zero-length launchers; and (3) vertical
In the case of free rockets, however, since no launchings.
8-3 -
1
Fig. 8-5 ype missile iauncher.I~
fRowI
IIf"
F4. 8-6 Dart missile on zo..-4-ength launcher.(

P
8-3.1 RAIL LAUNCHERS before guidance becomes effective.

As the most common type in u&se by the Army, Zero-length launchers are extremely simple,
they consist of a structure supporting a set of small, light, and potentially mobile. Their use
rails which
linear These supports the missile will probably be limited, however, because of
during or
helical launch. launchers are of varying inentdsvaagsniaedbo.
are ofinherent disadvantages indicated above.
lengths, some being shorter than t'e
.rmssile being 84.3 VERTICAL LAUNCNINGS
launched; others considerably longer (Figure 8- This launcher (see Figure 8-7) is used for most
5), For free rockets, !aiml;ehrs must be of greater ballistic missiles. The irissile is set on end, some-
length than for guided missiles, so that the times Thepmissile
its ons , s-
rocket is constrained for a longer proportion of times suppored on its own lif,fu• launcrh. Ballis-
the booqt phase of motor burning. tic missiles are sually very large and h_,vy and
The larger this proportion, the less will be the a rail type launcher for these missiles %u.;Id itself
,I-.- A•;--!
fl-ý n fr ,t.•,;•,•.•
..... raiect3ry. F
c_^_l Iaieto13. For a r be'oaunduly cff-•,•
• ,•rlheavy, ngtl,. Further,
sC because of the ballistic s
necessitym.of
relatively small proportion, if the booster burns - silt-;a re..au. n gh.d Furt hall isnod
hti s
for a relatively long time after launch, any small site are launchcd vertically in order that thy
itisaiignmfiit, of th•" b .st ... u:t v , ,ay may o-pratep ,,tside of the sensible atmospherv
cause serious deviatioms iru m the desired trajec- oi er most of their trajectory. Since thrust is
tory. greater in thin air than in the dense air near the
One problem which ai ses iv the use of rail surface, it is advantageous that .!cih missiles h
'ype iaunchers is tip-off This refers to the reach rarefied atmosphena as soon as possbe.
n iaae9 nrn thip nissile acquir if its The quicletst path out of the sensible atmosphere
front supports leave the rail before its re.t
Ssupports. is straight up. Highly specialized handling equip-
leavity
acting o the b
forward portion ment is required to place the missile in the.
of the missile w,-!l cauoe its nose to drop before launch position. Ofter other specir, equipment is
separation of the rear supports from the rail. requied to fuel and service the missile after it
Tip-off ca, L-: avoided by using separate rails has been placed in the vertical position (i.e.,
for front and rear supports so that both leave the liquid fueled rockets). These disadvantages are
ra~s simultaneously. accepted, however, in order to gain the advan-
Rail launchers are light and simple in design, tages of vertical launch.
and can be mobile or fixed. They can serve as a
transporting device kfr the missile when they are
mobile, and can support the missile for fueling
and lau --hing. • ,.
83.2 ZERO-LIENGTH LAUNCHERS

This lauincher (.see Fig~uvý "4) releasec the
missile as soon as motion relative to the launcher
begins. They do not control the ".ght path of

•. •]-..
I
the missile, but do determine initial orientation.
This launcher is not used to any preat extent by
the Army, a notable exception being the Dart
antitank missile.
In order for zero-length launching to be suc-
c-ssful. the guidance system must ha,.' the .-apa-
bility of immediate control 4f the ir..ssile after
launch. The thrust unit must 1w*carefuii) aluied"
so that the line of action of the thrust vetor "
passes through the center of gravity of the ,y.is-
D sile. Otherwise a pitch angle may be introduced

which will canse the missile to fly into the giound
Fig. 8-7 kxoenp of
v*efic I launching.
4
7
-o~--- S i~ I
i.4.
I - WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS -
8-4 STRESSES IN MOBILE GUN CARRIAGES

The problem of the designer consists of pro- by resolving the forces into components and Tak-
vidieS itdequate strength for -ll parts without ing moments about convenient axes.
exceeding inaximuii, limits for weight and size. To illustrate the method of computing the
In addition, he must satisfy other requirements stresses which occur in the various parts of a
such as those for stability, case of operation, moa- mobile carriage in example is worked out using
bility, and convenience of maintenance and the 105-mm howitzer, M2, and its- carriage. The
repai. principles embodied in this analysis can be ap-
The computation of stresses hinges on analysis plied to aiay structure of this type. Other car-
of thr forces acting on the various parts. If riages a,•.3 laur• ýhers can be analyzed using the
certain forces are known others may be computed techniques descrilm. in this paragraph. An
Piston rod
outer .- iu
Cradle
Elevating
pinion spur
- ni.
* I P~l1OflTranni~on
Left elevatinR
car:i
Pintle •-
Bottom
carrias~e
Equilibrator
SLeft trail
Fig. 8-8 10S-mm howitzer, M2.

8-6
o. GUN MOUNTS AND MISSILE LAUNCHERS
appreciation of the engineering involved in Note that the centee of gravity f W. is 5t on

armament equipment can best be gaiucd by the axis of the bore. The other p,,tkus of the
doing some of the pick and shc-,el calculations. recoiling parts such as the sleigh ;;d piston are
To covor !ýilly the critical conditions for this not shown in this schematic sketch.
howitzer. calculations should be made for combi- Find:
nations of n'axi-mir, and minimum elevations
with maximum and minimum traverses, both %, the force exerted by the cradle on the for-
while the piecewhieis
isin nd out
and
teinpec utot batt-y. TO
o ~ff3/.To w force
D, th oi
p exerted by the cradle andthe rear
parts, on
illustrate the computation of one set of thesc
data, an analysis is shown with the piece out of part of the recoiling parts.
battery (just as the piece comes to rest after Even though the gun is comidered just as it
recoiling 42 in.) at 00 traverse and 35* elevation, reaches the end of recoil, there is a ret force
The work on the following pages is for the acting and therefore there is a value of accelera-
most part from actuai data used in the design of tion. In order that this may be analyzed as a
the 105-mm howitzer. It is modified in some static system, a hypothetical force (drAlembert
particulars to su~t the needs of this presentation, force) equal and opposite to the actual net force
In one or two instances tl.d location of the center acting is added at tie center of gravity. This
ef gravity has been assumed. force is indicated as
The analysis will start with the recoiling parts, dtx
and work down through thi. various parts to the M •-2. Now the solution may be based on sum-
ground, in each case evaluating the forces acting ma-ion of forces and moments.
on the part.
lThe f7!owing general data are given for the
105-mm howitzer:
"muzzle velocity, H.E. shell, charge 7 = 1550 ft/sec
weight of prjectile = 33.0ib
wevht of powder charge = 2.8 ib
maximum range - 12,200 yd

weight of piece (approx.)= 4300 lb C,. 1o6'
weight of recoiling p ras = 1525 lb N.t -p
elevation - 50 to +65"
traverse - 220 30" rigb, 224 30' left
recoil (normal) - 42 in.
trail spread - 23*
&.4.1 FORCM ACTING ON

RECOIUNG PARTS
byThe recoilingin parts

the outline a:e8-9.
Figure indicated schematically
The forces acting on, •
these parts are indicated by the arrows. " V
Given:
W,, wt of recoiling parts - 1525 lh VA
W, sin 650 - 1M80 lb
W, coo 65' - 645 lb
41, coefficient of friction - .15
4, piston pull due to recoil systeni - 12,600 lb Fig. 8-9 Forces on recoiimg ports.
J0
SYSTEMS
SWEAPONAND COMPONENTS
0
\G
04340 650
_If
\2
C 5 " •
T
N&
"2DNWtc
Fig. 8-19I Forces on top carriage. ••*•
ddi' (1) --645 - C + 1640 = 0

D = 1640 lb (approx)
C = 990 lb (approx)
8-4.2 FORCES ACTING ON THE CRADLE
Fig. 8-10 Forces on cradle. Refer to Figure 8-10.
(1) IF, =- -W, cos 65* - C + D = 0 GVN

(2) IF, - Wr Sin 65° -- fC - fD - AWwofcade=40l
d2 z W, sin 65* = 416 lb
+ M - = 0 W, cos 65* = 1951lb
d12 E, equilibrator pull -- 740 lb
(3) Z:M,, -f J€ ",'4.775 + fD X 3.655 E sin 10" 4Y' = 137'1b
-31.5C - 29.28D + 6.155A = 0 E cos 10' 45' = 725 lb
Since there are only two unknowns, only two A = 12,600 lb
equations are needed. In order to avoid being C -• 990 1lb
involved with the M dx term, equation (2) can
F3= 65r -C D=0
Dfi160b
e, tof rade
GIVEN:
be dropped. (1) W~cs ID =8-01
ti) --.040- u +r D1-0 G, the force exerted or the elevating spur

(3) .7113C + .548D - 31.5C - 29.28D gear. Note that in this case the elevating rack
+ 77,500 - is part F
of the top ccrriage.
-,'0.784C - 28.732D + 77,500 - 0 K' and T', components of the force on the
(1) - r + .933DD -- 2518
645 Again force and moment equations can be
trunnions.
1.933D - 3163 written and sgved smultaneously. The results8
are given below.

G = .5080 lb
K'= 6000 ibW
T'= 13,480 11) resultant = 14,760 lb)
8.4.3 FORCES ACTING ON
TOP CARRIAGE
Rcfer to Figure 8-11. r:
GIVEN: '0
G = 5080 I1) To
G sin 340 = 2840 11) -
G cos 34' = 4210 I1)
7' = T' cos 65' - K' sin 65' = 260 lb
K = T' sin 65' + K' cos 65' = 14,750 lb T
E = 740 lb
E sin 540 15' = 600 lb
E cos 540 15' = 433 lh
14',,, wt of top carriage = 172 11)
FIND:
], N, and L, the forces exerted by the bottom ,
carriage through the pintle.
Again force and moment equations can be r (w eah
written and solved simultaneous!y. The results SIDE ELEVATION ach
are given below, trai.)
.1 = 22,000 11)
X = 12,630 I) Nig. 8-12 Forces on bottom carriage.
L = 17,000 II)
8-4.4 FORCES ACTING ON * Left Trail
BOTTOM CARRIAGE
Refer to Figure 8-12.
GIVEN: W,
II'b,, Wt of bottom carriage = 2143 I1 .- t
J = 22,000 Ih1) 104"
N = 12,630 l1) foi'ces un the pintlh. Fig. 8-13 Forces on trail.
L = 17,00() 11)h
FIND: 8-4.J FORCES ACTINe ON EACH TRAIL
11 and V, the forces on each spade. Refer to Figure 8-13.
(1) _% Alto I=•1 .V + 2Q + 21- 0 GIVEN:
(2) !b', - .1 - 1 - 211 =0
(3) .. W&IX 24 + .1 X 34.0(1
- Il'h, - - H coN 2 - 2300 Ih
X 18.75 + .X x -,.75 + 2H X 3 Hr -1 Hin2" - 9801'
- '21' X 118 - 02360 Ib
(2) 22,(NN) - 17,0(N) - 211 - 0 Iii,, wt of trail to the right oi s.ection a.-at 250 1;)
(3) i1 ,4(X) + 7.19,(NX) - :19,a(X) + 10(W
00 Hill 130 , .225
+ 15,•0) - 2361' - 0 coN 13" - .1)74
2:361' - 556,4(X) me al area - 4 ca in.
(2) II - 2.1N) 11h FIND:
(3) I' - 23W 11) x\lximum stress in sectic.; it-- (Figure 814).
8.9 .1
M. = -VX 104+HLX23.6+ I, X53

y = -245,000 + 54,300 + 13,300
Section a-a -177,000 in.-lb
,.2 Thi' maximum stress due to M., occurs at the
stiriaces 1-2 and 3-4.
Along these surfaces
= M,.c _ 177,000 X 4.31 = 18900 psi,

Sll , 11.I 40.43
compression aloZg surface 1-2 and tension alonig
surface 3-4.
3oneThe bending moment (M,) about the y-axis
at section a-a due to h is:lo
2S ~~M, ='Hr X 104 = 980ox L04
4: S6 cos 13- .974
105,000 inl.-ib
The maximum idue

stress to Ms occurs at the
fiý. 8- 14 Cronss d'ton of trail. surfaces 1-3 and 2-4.
Along these surwaces
In the solution of this problem the trail is con- e dMct A e 15e esis
sidered as a simple beam with forces acting upon , 15.011
Sit as shown. Each of the fores H,,, HT, V, and compression along surface 1-3 and tension along
W,
stresscause a bending inin one
of compression section a-athecreating
half of trail anda surface 2-4.
It is apparent that, due to ti,'.a bending moo-.'"t
tension in the other. The stress due to bending, ments, the maximum compressive stress will be
may be found by multiplying the bending wo-
mea~t, M, by the distance from the neutral axis atcre1(8,0+1590=480ps)
to the fiber in question, C, and dividing by the adtemxmmtniesrs ilh tcre
moment of inertia, 1. 4 (34,800 psi)
M The three forces Hr, V, and IV, have com-
S = _¢ponenits; causing a direct stress in the trail. This
I ssniess must be determinfed abv added to the
The maximum st-ess will exist where c is a maxi- stress due to bending.
mum, i.e., in the surface farthest from the neutrai The direct force avting along the trail is
axis.T~ oeto nri farcagemyb -HL cos 13P - V sill 13" + 11" Hill 1:3,
obtain ment
u ofinrgtia ofoalow fotng muay
l be -2240 - 531 + 56 - -2715 Ib,
obtanedby
sirg te folowng ormla:and the stress is
I = '- -2715
12 ~~~4 nq in. k(cnp
About the z-axim we have
4.50 (83)1The
4.5(9-1)8- comb~ined stress is the bending stress pills
-4.• - .25(8.P .40.43
!, (861) in.' the direct stress. At corner I the stress is
12
and about the y/-xis -34,800 - 680 - -35,480 pmi (comp)
I,-8.01 (4-30)' - 8l.3 (4.25).i,0 i. and at corner 4
12 +34,800 - (180 - +34,120 psi (teumion).
The bending moment (M,) about t•,e x-axis at Actual streps conditions in the trail will not be '
svtion a-a is obtained: as great as the value found above, due to the
1.10
fact that the ground into which the spades are an eiastic limit of 50,000 psi
buried has a certain amount of resilience, thus
lessening the stresses 2alculated. Factor of safet,
The trail is constructtd of low-alloy steel plate 3,40
vhich has a tensile strength of 100,000 psi ana = 1.4! based on elastic limit.
REFERENCES
1 Hausman and Slack, Physics, New York: D. 4 Merrill, Goldberg, Helmholz, Principles of
Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Third edition, 1948, Guided Missile Design; Operations Re-
pp. 140-158, 183-186. - search, Armament, Launching, Frinceton,
2 Hayes, Elements of Ordnance, New York: New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1938, pp. 1956, pp. 372-84-, 4O6414.
-370. 5 Department of the Army Technical Manual,
3 Higdon and Stiles, Engineering Mechanics, TM9-2305, Fundamentals of Artillery Wea-
"NewYork: Prentice Hall Inc., Second edition, pons, Washington, U.S. Government Print-
1935, pp. 92-125, 169-190, 20)9.240. ing Office, 1948, pp. 57-130.
w- - --
CHAPTER 9
SMALL ARMS AND RECOILLESS RIFLES I

9-1 HISTORY OF SMALL ARMS
9-1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE service for about two hundred years. The dis-
MILITARY RIFLE advantages of this ignition system, foremost of
The earliest missile used by primitive man which was the difficulty of keeping the match
probably was a stone, first thrown by hand and burning, and the slow method of preparing for
later by use of a sling. Piercing missiles such as firing, led to the development of the wheellock,
the javelin and spear were developed in very about 1510, in Nuremberg, Germany. This sys-
ancient times. The simple bow, the first weapon tern
whichprovided a piece serrated
spring-driven,
revolved a against whee
or' iron pyrites
to discharge a piercing missile, came into use
almost as early as the sling and remained of held by the cock, producing a shower of sparks
mi!itary importance until the eighteenth century. to ignite the priming powdcr. There was no
Among the developed forms of this weapon was burning ember to be put out by the rain or to
the famou:t;, powerful, English longbow, which betray the shooter's presence, and the weapon
was in servicz until 1590. could be fired from horseback and carried in a
The first knowi. wrtten reference to a formula holster ready for us,,-.
for gunpowder datez from about the year 12m0, Although the wheellock eliminated the objec-
and firearms probably ca.ne i~nto being about tionable, match, its high cost and the general un-
1.300. By the end of tha.t century the earliest reliability of the weapon brought about the
hand firearm (called the hand cannon) appeared, deveiopment of the snaphance lock, the fore-
derived from the early crude cannon. This in- runner of the true flintlock (1630) which was to
accurate weapon of little military significance serve as a standard military arm for 200 years
was mainly used for its terror value, because Uf and more. Serving the American pioneer and
the sound of its explosion, the flash of fire, and Revolutionary War soldier, the flintli.ek (Figure
the volume of dense smoke emitted. 9-1) did not disappear completely as a military
Most of the major improvements in small arms weapoi, until after the close of the Civil War,
before the 1800's were concerned with better when the percussion system of igniiCion came into
methods of igniting the powder charge. The, general use.
serpentin. lock, which made ;ts appearance The advantages of rifling were known about
about 1450, represeits the first improvement over tile time of the wheellock, and r!T!.g systems
the hand cannon. The idea of the trigger was had been developed long before it was prac-
horn. A further develop,.l "'srsion of this idea. ticable to adopt rifling in military weapons. The
the? matchlock, appeared about 1470. Simple in difliculty was in devising a proijetile which
construction and not difficult to use when con- could be readily passed down the btre and ex-
ditions were favorable (no rain), it remained in pand into thr rifling when ired. The inveetion
(ii) :ig. 9.1 Flintlock musket, Springfield model of I0SM.

of the perumssion primer early in the nineteenth well as to fill strict military srz-incations. The
century, which madIe use of the newly developed U.S. rifle cal. .30, Ml, -wpvadopted as standard
percu&.ion powder that would explode when in 1936.
cruhed and the development of the metal car-
tridge'case which pro-ided effective obturation, 9.1.2 ptdj hnpaa,. OFl AUTOMATIC
resulted in the adoption of the breech loading WwLsOS
system. Then the use of rifling became prac.
ticable in all weapons. The first successful breech The development of automatic features and
loader appeared in 183, while the self-contai',-i of full automatic weapons was in response to the
4cartridge (bullet, propellant, and prir-.4r in one demand for increased firepower. The early wea-
* unit) came into use eight years k:er. It was in pons employed multiple barrels on a single mount,
1842 that the Army finally ad'pted the percus- which coidd be fired simultaneously. Other ar-
sion system, modifying its 'Arge stocks of flint- rangements which were developed permitted the
locks to produce the pcumssioa lock rifles that firing of multiple barrelk successively, or brought
served through the Civil War period. multiple chambers successively to a single bar-
As weapons improved and better aminuwtion rel. These did increase'considerably the volume
became available, the magazine rifle was de- or rapidity of fire but automatic loading had not
veloped to meet the demand for increased fire- yet been worked out. Moreover, they were very
I
power. The famous Winchester 73 was among heavy and cumbersome.
the early successful magazine rifles. It provided The development of automatic weapons was
a magazine which held several rounds of am- hastened by the invention of the percussion
munition, and means for transferring them to primer, the adoption ot breech loading, and in-
I
the chamber. Reduction of caliber, improvement troduction of complete rounds assembled in a
in propellants which permitted use of smaller metal cartridge case. The first practicable ma-
charges, and reduction cf size and weight of chine gun was the Gatling, invented by Dr.
cartridges simplified the problem. Gatling about the time of the Civil War (Figure
After the period of the Civil War interchange- "%-2). Its adoption was followed by others of
ability of parts was provided. This era had been the same general type, which in effect combined
ushered In by tl Whitney (of cotton gin fame) in cue mount a considerable number of breech
who first applied the principle of interchange- loading rifles that could be loaded and fired
able parts and mass production iiu the manu., mechanically.
facture of a large number of rifles for the In 1884 Sit Hiram Maxim, an American en-
government. gineer, designed the first truly automatic ma-
The modern military rifle was perfected in all chine gun. 'It ciployed a single barrel and
its eentials by about 1890. Since that time de- utilized the principle of recoil operation to se-
tlls have been refined, smokeless powder has cure continuous and automatic functioning as
replaced black powder, improved ammunition long as the tnigger was held down. This weapon
has been provided, and better metals have be- was an immediate success; the soundness of its
come available The trend has been toward design and principle of operation were imnmdi-
hiher velocities, greater firepower, mud less ately recognized. It revolutionized machine gun
weight taces and stimulated the development of other
As e•uly as 1902, the Chief of Crdnance recog- automatic types. In modified and improved form
nired 1t6 possible desirability of the suhititu- it was still being used by the British, German,
tion of a u.nantomatic musket for the hand op- and Russian armies at the beginning uf World
urated mapazim rifle.' The mechanical invention War I; it has appeared also among the variety
sa-ryto E this need, however, required more of wv-pons used by the communist fores in
tma th.-y va6w of devekoqxent. Among the Korea.
major problem was that of making the action The prnc/pie of gas operation, utilizing a small
s 2tdt ruggd and dcpenab. for the Army
wanftd to use the sftandad cal. .30 cartridge. as
portim of the expanding powder M wa. first
succesdwly employed by John M. Browning, C
SMALL ARMS AND RECOILLESS RIFLES
I ~ )Fig. 9-2 Gdfing gun.
an American, who brought out the Colt machine development very much as it is today. The
gun in 18b1. This was followed by the Hotch- Browning Automatic Rifle, (BAR), answering
kiss, employi.g the same system of operation. the need to combine the light weight and Reii-
During the period covering World War I, Brown- bility of the conventional ride with the greater
ing's short recoil machine gun, which was origi- iepower of the machine gun, has served also
nally patented in 1901. reached the stage of through the two World Wars.
9,2 CLAUSIFCATION OF MILITARY SMALL ARMS
A defilnltion of small arms must be approached aircraft gun would formerly have been called
with care, for the dividing hne between small cannon, but in their emioloyment they it the role
arms and artillery is not a stable one. In general of what we wish to call arms. In some dilscm-
as compared to artillery, small ams ure actually sios the shoulder fired rocket launcher and re-
small arms, hand transortablc in combat We coilless rifle are also ca'led snmal urns.
may undertake a definition for the purposes of
today's weapors in the follwng form: small There are thiee irain tyes of smal arms:
arms are those rems whose caliber is n.)t (1) hand wepatri, (2) shoulde weapons and
pester than 90 mm (cal. .79). A recert mmep- (8) machine-,. -,= distinctions r n
tdoa to this defnton is a proosed t -mmvu- ri and, depeni.ir upon the weapo, sme
twmatic aircrft gun, this gmn and the WOmin dm
imesoerlap.
Fig. 9-3 IRifte 7.62-mm (NATO) M14.
9-2.11 HAND •flVRPU or as serniantmatic (self-loading). 71eir op-

Hand weapirs are those fired with one hand. eration will be conside-ed later.
A revolv, ig a hand weapon that fires successive kb) Carbines are essentially short barreled
shots by means of a revolving cyinder. A :%stol rifles. While they do not hove as great a range
is a hand weapon that provides for the feeding as rifles, because of their shc- barrels, their
of cartridges from a magazine. shorter length and lighter weight facilitate their
The revolver is the older of the two forms of use from vehicles and in other situations where
hand weapons and is being rapidly superseded the greater length of a rifle would be disadvan-
by the pistol in most of the world's military or- tageous. Carbines are either manually operated
gpnization. The principal advantages of the pis or semiautomatic.
tol over the revolver are: it allows faster loading, (c) Shotguns are shoulder weapons with
it is simpler and compact in construction, and it snooth or urtrifled bose-, designed for the dis- (' "
i easier to clean and maintin, cliarge
The of a mass of round pellets called shot.
Army uses various ty-pes of shotguns, all
of
9-2,2 5SNOU WEAPONS which are commercially manufactured with very
Shoulder weapons tre those weapons noror-ally slight, or rno changes incorporated to adapt them
fired from the shoulder and supported by the to military use.
shouldeT and the hands. They include rifles, (see (d) Submachine guns are shoulder weapcns
Figure 9-3), carbines, shotguns, and submachine designed ýor close range dispersion fire. Thei-
guns. short length facilitates their use from vehicles,
(a) Rifles are shoulder weapons, capable o and they are iapable of leliverinp a heav)
considerably greater range and accuracy than volume of fire in a minimum of time. The sub-
hand weapons. Military rifles are usually sighted machine gun is essentially a weapon of oppor-
up to approximately l*O0 yards in ,-ange. pac- tonity, and is used to protect time personnel of
tical consideration, such as the fact that the front ew served weapons, small groups of personnel,
sight will obliterate from view a man-sized target or wherever a heavy volume of f.re is needed in
at ranges greater than 0W yards, cofrines the a close combat situation.
efective range to approximately that distance.
The greater staLility provided by the usc _9 both 92.3 MAChIN GUNS
hands mnd the shoulder, combined with the su- A machine gun (see Figure 9-4) is a fully
perior sighting qualities of the rile, permits con- automatic weapon, capable of sqstained fire,
siderably greater accuracy than a hand weapcn, These weapons are fred from a mount, which
even at noremal pistol range. The barrel length may be either a fixeu or flexible type, and may
of most military rifles is approximately 24 inches;
barrel lengtl formerly varied between 24 ano
31 inches. It was eventuaioy shortened for con-
venlence in carrying and handtiag &,t a slight
sacrifie in velocity and sighting accuracy. Mih-
be capable of adjustment to give controlled di-
rection to the gun. Machine guns are fed by a
detachable magazine, cbhrger strip, hopper, or
belt. In order to meet the Ameri-an Army's re-
quirenf.ents for a machine gun, the weapon must
I
tay rifles may be classified as manually operated be belt fed. Weaponms which. ncomally employ
9-4
tK
Fig. 9-4 Muchins (rur. 7.62-mm (NATO) M60.
automatic fire will become hot rapidly, and re- weight.. ýht or 'heavy. A weapon which
quire a means of coolinig. Thus, we have air weighs ...n 35 pounds is a light machine
chine guns are classified, according t-) their ciansified as heavy.
9-3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A~ 111MM
The components needed to fire ammuni- regardP/ss of type, must have four basic corn-
tion safely, accuately, and with the highest ponets. (1) receiver;, (2) %,arrel;(3) breech
required velocity may be considered to uonsti- mt-JAmnism (bolt); an~d (4) Bring machanism
tute the basic firearm. Every small arms weapon, (Figure95)
943.1 RECKWNR (c) To house the firing mechanism (brigger,

The receiver is the metal housing about which hziesa)
the w~hole weapon is assmembled. Its counterpart (d) To hokI the efecti (usually).
on the artillery piece is the breech ring. The pur- (e) To hold the rt-A (prips in socue wea-
Poses of the receAver ame:
(a) To hold the breech end if the barrel. Pons1
(b) To house the biolt (or breechblock). (f) Io hold the fe-ex! mechanism.
WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS (
r
.Z
Ki
Fig. 9.5 Components of a baidi Arsorm. J,
94" UAREL 94.3 IrNC0I MICHANISM

TM barrel is similar to the artillery tube and To be Aective a breech machanisia murt be
bas, in genu..aI the same components (chamber, safe, provide a secure lock to prever:t opening
bare. etc.). ThIe bore af the barrel is rfled to under the terrfllc gas pressure during firing, and
g(ve the bullet i.•ta " stability in flight, minimize the danger of premature discharge. It
T7m maximum diamete ,t ,he bullet t- slightly must operate smoothly and rapidly and its parts
greater .han the dkaumter of the borw b, tveven must be strong and durable. The parts should
lands, so that as the bullet travels down fa,. jore be dt.i-',ned to permit easy disassembly for
the lands engrave the gilding metal jacket of th,. proper cleaning after firing, and for quick repair
bullet, thus Imparting rotation ard providing a -o tha- hbe mechar im will not be disabled for
sool which prevents the toward ascape of the .ong perluds of time. Most of the individual parts
gPA. should be Interchangeable in mec&taisms r4 the
Of the sevaral types of rialng twist fowud same modti. Mechanically, the bolt incorporates
anong small arms, only or e type, uniforr.. tr'Izt, the locking device, Iring mec-hanism, and ex-
is used presently in the rL~inp of U.S. military tracting device.
small arms wakpons; mod the direction of twist 'tfe locking of the breech mechanism may t.
is almost universally right hand, so ti t the ro- accomplished In any of severil wayz. It may
tation of the bidlet is clockw-ise at viewed from consit, as in the cal..30 rIfle, M1, of two lugs
Sthe bwec nd& One notable exception is the. a]. protruding from the sides of the bolt. Them lugs
.45 pstol, M191A!, which has 6 lands and enter deep notches in the receiv-r when the bolt
grooves and un1f1-m left haeiO twist. Thz rifling is rotated in its forward position On some wea-
of the cal. .X rife, MI, Wt four hinds ai~J four puns a sliding or hh,ged block .n'-e- into a re-
Voovs, n,-,.t hand twist, and one tua Ifr 10 cess locking thi bolt against the reje/ver. The
inches; te rifing 4i Identifed by the abbrevla- Browning machine guns and t&e Browning All-
tiom: 4B 10.
S91*tomatlc WPfle BAR) use variations of this idea.

,-) SMALL ARMS AND RECOILLESS RIFLES
On some other automatic weapons, such as the

cal. .45 submachine gun, M3AI, the bolt has no
locking di.vce, but depends upon its inertia to
keetp the breech closed until the propellent gas
pressure h"s dropped to a safe limft.
"9.4 FIRING MECHANISM

The firing mechanism (Figure G-6) is a firing
pin mrstriker usually hosed in the bolt or breech-
block. Its purpose is to move forward, strike the
primer, and fire the cartridge; this is accom-
plished with the help of firing components such
as the hammer, sear, and trigger. Firing pins are
classified as m6vable or fixed.
A movable firing pin is a steel rod that runs
iongitudinally thru the bolt and is driven for-
ward either by spring expansion or hammer ac-
tion. There are three types of movable firing
pins: A free floating firing pin is driven forward
by a sharp blow of a hammer and is retracted
by cam action. An example of this type of
mechlarism s found in the cal. .30 rifle, Mi. Fig. 9-6 Firing nwchanisa.
No spring force is used on either the forward or
rearward movement of the pin. The percussion
firing pin is driven forward by the %orce of a
compressed driving spring. This type of mecha-
nism is cocked by engaging a projection on the
firing pin (in this case, usually referred to as a
striker) with a sear, connected to the receiver.
When the bolt or other type of breechblock is
moved forward the firing pin snring is com-
pressed. Bolt action rifles and numerous pocket
type pistols use this type of mechanism. An in-
ertip firing pin is shorter than the length of the
recess in which it is housed. This type of pin
incorporates an excellent automatic safety device
into the weapon in which it is used, as it requires
a full, intentional blow of the hammer In order
to funcUon as intrnded. A spring, compressed
on the forward movement, retracts the pin to its
rear position after firing. This type of firing pin
is used on the caliber .45 pi-tol, Ml9llAI. A FP. 7.7 Firing cmponn .
fixed firng pfi is tn integral part of the bolt or
hammer of a weapon. In the case of the sub- the hammer o:' firing pin, or sometimes the bolt,
machie gun, MSAI, it Is a projection oL. the face in a cocked or nonfiring positian until the trigger
of the bolt. When the bolt moves forward the is squeezed.
I frlung pin strikes the primer of the cartridge

the round bcomnes fully chambered.
The bimmner, sear, and bigger are shown in
Although not a part of the firearm in the seon
that they are needed for Bring the safety mechan-
ism and the sighiting devices are essential CoM-
Figure U-7. A sear is definod as a catch that holds ponents. The weapon must be safe to handle
967
I
!• even though it is loaded and meady to fire. The stops the rearward movement of the ..artrib, ge
device fils this requirement ifSsdety
it positively case when firing takes place, i.e., the face of the
Mlocks movement of the trigger, hanmmer, sear, or bolt. If this dimension is too large there wi'.1 he
omnetimes the bolt. excessive headspace, and the pressure of &ing
There are two types of sights on small arms: will usually rupture the case and allow gases
metallic sights and optical sights. A metallic to escape, enJangering th. irer as well a.- lower-
sight includes a blade sight at the muzzle end ing the chamber pressure. If the head,,pace is
of the barrel and an aperture., folding leaf, or too sinall the bolt may not close or te mutridga
open (U-shaped) sight at the breech end. An case may be damaged in the charribe7.ing step;
optical sight may be simply a telescope attached the latter result would lessen the initfal volume
to the weapon, as on the snipers rife. for the combustion of the propellant, i.e., increase
Headspace should be considered in avy dis- the density of loading, and ca'use exessive, pos-
sibly dangerous pressure to be built up. Faulty
cussion of safety and dependability feature headspace, causing damage to crxtridge cases,
small aurms. Hedspace is defined as the distance may also cause difficulty in the ,-traction of tl.e
from that part of the chamber that stops the for- case after firing. In most weapons, an idjust-
ward movement of the cartridge case in chamber- ment of the headspace must be made whenever
ing (e.g., the shoulder of the chamber in the cal. a barrel or bolt is changed; the importance of
.30 rife, Ml) to that part of the weapon which this adjustment should be appreciated.
9-4 CYCLE OF OPERATION
In firing successive rounds from a weapon, the carýiAdge case from the chamber a~ter firing. ....-
there is a definite sequence or cycle of operations (d I Ejectiug. E;ecting is the expulsion of the
which must be followed. In automatic weapons cartrAdge case from the weapon after it has been
the sequence varies according to the type of op- withdrawn from the chamber.
eration, as discussed in Per. 9-5. In manual weap- (e) Feeding. Feeding is the transfer of a new
ons the cycle is broken down into eight round into a position between the chamber and
mechanical steps: firing, unlocking, extracting, the bolt.
ejecting, feeding, chambering, locking, ancleck-
ing. For all weapons the cycle is relati-,ely the (f) Chambering. Chambering is moving the
same, although not always in the same sequer., new round forward into the chamber as the bolt
cls.
closes.
(a) Firing. Firing is the tripping of a sear or
spring so that the firing pin may strike the primer (g) Locking. Locking is the sealing of the
of the cartvldge, breech end of the barrel to contain the high
(b) Unlocking. Unlocking is the release of chamber pressure.
the bolt from the breech end of the barrel after (h) Cocking. Cocking is the retraction oi the
the chamber pressum has dropped to a safe limit. fi'ing mechanism to provide sufficient energy for
(c) FAtracting. Extracting is th,• removal of the firing pin to strike and fire the cartridge.
9-5 BASIC TYPIS OF OPURATIOC
The type of operation which supplie , the force weapen Is capoiie of Bring a burst or sucmession
for firearms to function may be manual, recoil, of shots by a sxgie, continuous depression of the
gas, or blowback. Weapon.q using the last three trigger. Semiautomatic means that the weapon
types of operation j•e referred to as automatic is capable of firing only a single shot with each
or semiautomatic. Automatic mbans that the pull of the trigger.
9.8
9-5.1 MANUAL required operations. As in recoil operated weap-

A manually operated weapon requires human ons, a spring is used to store energy for the for-
errgy to perform the phases of operation, n- ward motion. The bawel does not move with
cluding loading, firing, and ejecting the cartridge. respct to the receiver. Gas operation is adapt-
Thus its fire cannot be automatic or semiauto able to either automatic or semiautomatic
matic. The action is designed to be simple aud actions.
fast, however, requiring only a minimum of op- 9-5.4 BLOWBACK
erating effort. Manually operated weapons are
fast disappearing from the military scene. The Blowback operation utilizes the piessure of
bolt action rifle is a classic example of a manually the propellent gases in the barrel to force the
operate•.1 rife, bolt to the rear. It provides no device or me&h9-
nism for locking the breech. The inertia of a very
9-5.2 RECOIL heavy bolt or slide, backed by a powerful spring,
keeps the cartridge case seated in the chamber
Recoil operation utilizes the rearward thrust duing the short period of time necessary for
of the cartridge case against the face of the bolt safety. In weapons firing from an open bolt po-
(the kick of the weapon) to push the bolt, bar- sition, the round is fired before the bolt is fully
rel, and other parts rearward. This rearward forward so that the blowback force must over-
movement of the barrel and bolt inside the re- come the final momentum ot the bolt and impart
ceiver causes cams to unlock the breech and a rearward mormentum before the breech is
actuate the operating mechanisms. Springs are opened.
used to return the recoiling parts to battery. In Blowback is the simplest form of operadoai on
recoil operation the bolt is locked positively automitic or semiautomatic weapons and is
(mechanically) during firing. It must remain ideally suited to submachine guns and relatively
locked and must recoil simultaneously with the low pressure semiautomatic pistols. The cal. .45
other parts until the gas pressure has subsided, pistol, M1911,
so that it will not endanger the operator by re- back. The M3 issubmachine
recoil operated, bunta not
gun has blow-
blowback
leasing hgh pressure gas into the action. After type of operation. This system is not used in
the bullet has left the barrel, unlocking takes weapons that fire high pressure ammunition, be-
place; the moving parts separate; and the bolt cause an unreasonably heavy bolt would be re-
travels to the rear. quired.
9-5.3 GAS The principal difference between recoil and
blowback operation hinges on the presence or
Gas operated .eapons utilize a portion of the absence of a method of locking the bteech. If
expanding propellent gases to unlock the breech no form of loc• or mechanical disadvantage,
mechanism and move it to the rear. This is usu- other than the weight of the recoiling parts and
ally accomplished by using the gas, diverted the tension of certain springs, is present, the
irom the barrel through the gas port, to move a weapon is said to be olowback operated. If any
piston, which in turn is connected to the bolt or foirm of lock or mechanical disadvantage is in-
breech mechanism. The resulting motion un- corporated into the action, such as locking cam
locks the bolt from the receiver; drives the bolt surfaces, rotation of the barrel, or pivoted link.
to the rear; and transmits the energy for all age, the weapon is said to be recoil operated.
9-6 CURRENT PROBLEMS AND TRENDS OF DEVELOPMENT

The small arms designer of today is faed with
S ever, progress is not st~agnant, aisd since the
problems which are so complex and varied that termination of World War II, every .;nall arms
development in the field has becorme slow. How- weapon ha, been evaluated with a view towards
9.9
111
Fig. 9-8 Gun 20-mm T171E (six rotating barrels) on tei" mount.
reducing the total number of weapors employed complishing these become development trends, as-
and at the same time improving the overall char- sociated problems involving recoil, irrength, heat,
acteristics. The present quest is for less weight and erosion, corrosion, lubrication, and production are
greater firepower (Figure 9-8). As ideas for ac- involved to an extent not encountered before.
9-6.1 RECOIL (b) Have some sort of built irt recoil system.
The requirement of developing a rifle of mini- (c) Incorporate a muzzle brake or Lompensa-
mum weight, capable of piojecting a bullet of tor.
given size and weight at a specified velocity. (d) Provide a gas tap off to the rear or the
Thu presents to the designer a proilem basic to recoiless principle.
all small arms design: the edcient absorption Each of these four energy absorption methods
and dissipation of energy. If a certain mass is to na.. been used at one time or another in th,',
be propelled from a rifle barrel at extrem, ac- history of small arms development; however, for
celewation, the reaction to the forýe caur.ng the
acceleration must be capable of being witstood he sake of simplicity and sa;ty, the first named
by the firer. In the light of current knowledge, has been most widely used. Experiment •s
thlere are four ways of •bsorbing eni,uga ! this presently under way on the use of cc.mpensa.
reaction force to permit a man to hold and fire tois. which act in the manner c! a muzzle brake
the wsapon: tc reduce recoil, since the reduction in weight
(a) Have the mass of the weapon great of the piece mearis leqs mass to absorb recoil
enough to abiorb some nof the energy. energy.
9.10
9-6.2 ST. IGWTH The trend today is toward the use of heavy, air
cooled barrels of special alloy steels that retain
Reduced weight also poses the problem of normal properties throughout a wide tempera-
maintaining sfficient strength to withstand the normal propedee i deasema -
force of firirg grenades (roughly one additional tre rnnge. This provides increased mass and
pound of weight is required on the M14 to en- greater heat capacity and will keep temperatures
abledterifletofweih• standugrendonte laucheg) within reasonable limits. Thus to increase heat
and the rugged treatment unavoidable in train- capacity these barrels are several times larger
ing and combat.
rgedtre ment inatidirection tis- is
in this direction than would be necessary for ballistic strength
in and ed Exl>'-!riment
requirements.
concerned with plastic stocks and stami'ed (hol- A further step in the control of erosion is the
low) metallic (e.g., aluminum) stocks and hand- standard practice at Springfield Armory of in-
guards with a plastic, ruhberlike coating for serting a 9-inch stellite liner in the breech end
desirable handling characteristic.-. The develop- of aircraft machine guns and plating the re-
ruent ol lighter stronger metal plays a large part mainder of the bore with chromium. Stellite is
in weapons engineering, and it i3 apparent that a nonferrous alloy consisting primarily of cobalt
the small arms designer must not only have a and chromium. It is a very hard material, and,
complete knowledge of basic weapon action but an cromium.it e, it retains ita hardness at
"oustalso be -nust
ometh
aso beoof aa metqllurgi.;t
something II" in his of greatest importanicei ean t ad sa
in his high operating temperatures. The chrome plat-
ing in the bore also retards erosion.
9-6.3 HEAT AND ElOSION 9-6.4 CORROSION
The problem of erosion is a problem both in The role of the metallurgist is an important
temperature control and in metallurgy. This one also in connection with the corrosion of
problem is, of course, accentuated in automatic metal. There are three finishes in general use by
weapons. A high rate of fire generates a great the Ordnance Corps for finishing small arms and
amount of heat. The temperature of the barrel parts thereof:
rises, the steel weakens, erosion occurs more (a) Parkerizing, a zinc base phosphate.
rapidly, muzzle velocity drops, and accuracy is (b) Parco Lubrite, a manganese base phos-
lost. Erosion is, of course, most severe near the phate.
breech, but is also a problem in the remainder (c) Pentrate, an oxide.
of the bore. Parkerizing is by fir the most efficient ad
The barrel temperatures of ground weapons durable rust preventive finish and is therefore in
are held to a minimum basically in two ways: very wide use by the Ordnance Corps in lazge
by heat transfer using a liquid coolant within a manufacturing and depot installations.
jacket around the barrel; and by direct heat con- On some small moving parts which have close
duction through the barrel steel to the surround- tolerances Parkerizing and Parco Lubrite can-
ing air convection currents. not be used, because the slight amount of build
Of the two metho6s of cooling, water cooling is up which occurs in phosphating will change the
th' most effective. However, this system in- dimensions of the parts. The tzxtufe of a phos-
creases the weight of the weapou and reduces phated surface increnses friction and is there-
mobility. The barrel is encased in a jacket which fore not used on such paits as cams; however,
holds water to cool the barrel dining firing. such a sudace is more resistant to abrasion thw
Although not as effective as water cooling, air a Pentrate finish.
cooling is simp•le and reduces the weight require- Although Pentrate is at the bottom of the list
ment. Air contact with the barrel dissipates the as a rust resistant finish, it is in wide use because
heat. Aircraft weapons, which may be openly of its simplicity of application and the fact that
orposed to a great rush of air when the plane it causes no change in the size of parts, there
is in flight, can have relatively light barrels. This being actually a surface penetration of .OO35 to
b ,nple exposure, however, Is not sufficient In .00043 inches. The blue finish sometimes seen on
ground weapons, and integral fins, ribs, or rings commercially produced small arms ;s an oxi-
may be added to the barrel. dized finish similar to a Pentrate finish.
9-11
Two types of finishes are used cn the same ditions. In addition to the weapons design prob-
weapon in many cases in small -rAti. For ex- lem, this presents, of course, problems in
ample, the Browning Machine '"uui, -al. .30, explosives and in lubricants.
M1919AS, has a Parkerized receiver, barrel
jacket, and barrel, but the bolt and other small 94.6 PRODUCTION
moving parts are finished with Pentrate. Suitability of the weapon for mass production
at minimum cost is another must for the military
9-6.5 LUBRICATION small arms designer. At the same time, however,
Whether or not a weapon requires frequent care must be taken that in reducing production
lubrcation is an important consideration in gun problems critical dimensions are not changed to
design. Several fine actions have been developed the extent that functioning is impaired.
only to be rejected because of the operational The importance of designing with mass pro-
requirement 3f careful and continuous lubrica- duction in mind will be appreciated when it is
tion of mo:)ving parts. It is important also that it recalled that small arms are used in vast num-
be unnecessary to lubricate the cartridges to in- bers. During the years 1940-1945, Springfield
sure proper ft-nctioning, because of the dirt and Armory alone produced over 4,000,000 MI rifles,
grit to which ammunition is subjected in the with a peak pruduction of 122,000 rifles per
field. month. During this period increasingly efficient
Considerable attention is being gýv•'n to the mass production methods brought the direct
operation and maintenance of weapons under labor and material cost per rifle down from the
arctic conditions and other severe climatic con- original $214.54 to $26.06.
9.7 RECOILLESS RIFLES-INTRODUCTION
The rapid movement of modern warfare has an investigation of the practicability of firing a
given emphasis to the long recognized necessity conventional type projectile from a weapon
of providing the infantryman with incrcased fire- which would counteract recoil by tbh- discharge
power. One of the first steps toward hand ar- of a portion of the gases from the propellant, i.e.,
tilleri for the infantry was the rifle grenade. leaving the rocket motor behind in the gun, so
This makes the rifle a.large caliber weapon, but, to speak, and still letting the exhaust gases es-
of eomrse, range is short, accuracy is poor, and cape from the rear. Such a recoilless artillery
the recoil is considerable. The shoulder fired piece would eliminate the need for a recoil
bazooka rocket launche- which appeared in 1.943, mechanism and materially decrease the weight
solved the recoil problem, and being actually of the mount, giving the sold~er hand artillery.
recoilless, improved the range and accuracy, and The recoilless rifle, in 57 -mm and 75-mm versions,
fired a larger projectile, but there was an urgency made its debut in 1945, and a 105-mm ifle fol-
for still greater accuracy and range. This led to lowed soon after.
9-8 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
A recoiliess rifle delivers no recoil to its mount q howitzer may weigh one hundred times as
or, if it is shoulder fired, to the person of the much as the projectile it fires, a recoilless rifle
firer. The recoilless rifles of the American army weighs onty about ten times the weight of its
are large caliber weapons of light weight, great projectile. A price is paid for this, however, in
striking power, ai., accuracy. They can be car- that the complete round is heavier for the re-
tied by hand and, in the case of the 57-mm rifle coilless rifle.
(Figure 9-9), fired from the shoulder. Whereas Althogh recoilless rifles are in one sense light
9-12
V •
ii
Fig. 9-9 Phantora view of recoilless rifle showing loaded round, trigger linkage,
breech, and firing mechanisrm.
artillery pieces, in =oncept, design, and tactical from the rocket (as does the standatd artillery
employment they might i-e classified with small complete round) in that the projictile or pay-
armns, in that they are weapons carried and used load is the only part that travels f om the weapon
by the individual man or a sma., team of men. after the propelling charge is expended.
The recoilless rifle has an abnormally large As in any mobile weapon design, weight and
chamber (Figu-e 9-9) and is only partially size are critical factors. Increase in maximum
closed at the rear )y the breechblock which con- pressure would require increased strength and
tains the nozzles or venturis for the rearward re- greater weight. Increased projectile travel would
le.se of the gas. permit a decrease in pressure but an increase in
Like the standard artillery piece the recoilless w,ýapon length and weight. An increase of the
weapon has a rifled bore a:id fires a conventional ratio of average pressure to maximum pressure
projectile with a standard fu~e, although the to- could be attained, as in conventional guns, by an
tating band on tatngthe projectile
rojctie is
he andon i pre-engraved,
pr-enravd. adjustment
weight of of loading density, powder web, and
propellent charge. Such P change
The ammunition in use is a fixed type in whh wiho f ropule cha resur ange
the cartridge case differs from the conventional travel at the expense of increased complete
in that it permits escape of the gases to the rear round weight. No practical solution near the
throughi perforationm in its walls after a certain ideal exists. The opposed weight and ballistic
comparatively low pressure has been reached. performance criteria are compromised to yield
The density of loading is high in these rounds, the basic proportions incorporated in American
The iecoilless rcind of ammunition differs recoilless rifles.
9-9 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
In a cýosed mecha-iical rystem, acted upon by conventional guns (Figure 9-10), recoil inecha-
internal forces on!y-, the total change in momen- nisms notwithstanding, great external force must
tyr imparted to all the elements of the system be applied through the carnage to keep the ce.r-
"in a given reriod of time must eq,,al 2ero. This riage in equilibrium. Similarly, the kick and re-
isS eescrib ,, Newton's laws of motion. In coil one exiperiences when firing a rifle is evidence
9-13
K
K WEAPON SYSTEMS AND CS)MPONENTS

I
I
lteeelftl rpats"8 Nr•lh's

• -i
Fif. 9-10 `ta.,idord artillery piece.
ftFwerd-.
Fig. 9-11 Recoilless rifle.
of the exti=a force he must exert to hold the Thus, for the rifle to be recoilless (v, 0), we
weapon. Neither of these types cf weapons, must have
therefore, is a closed mechanical system. IBut MV II+ tts M
if we ask for a weapon which fires a projectile mnv 3 = m~v, + m,v,. (9-2)
and yet sustaini no force from its mount, a re- That is, the momenta of the forward moving pro-
coilless weapon, then this weapon we seek is jectile and gases must be equal and opposite in
subject to the laws of a closed mechanicmi sys- direction to the momentum of the rearward mov-
tern, and the net momentu'm obtained in tl•e sys- ing gases discharged through the breech.
tern as a result of firing must eq,•al zero. The frrces of propulsion are operative fcr only
The elements of this sys'em are indicated about 0.01 second. If (9-2) holds true for ve-
schematically in Figure 9-11. The projectile is locities of the gases and projectile at all times
one element, moving forward. Let its mass be durng this firing period, then the momentum
a, and its velocity be v,. Some of the propellent of the weapon, jnv,, mus' equai zero at all times
gases, of mass ins, move forward, too, behind the during firing, and the net force on the weapon at
projectle with sorine vlocity v2; but most of each instant must equal zero. This situation
the gases, a mass Pis, escape to the rear through characterizes absolute recoillessness; the force
the nozzles, with a discharge vel-bcity v.. The re- tendinq -o make the gun recoil at each .ntant is
coilless rifle itself should have zero momentum, opposed by an equal and opposite force. Jf, On
i.e., be stationary, as a result of the firing. Let its the other hand, we require only that (9-2) hold
mass be tn, and its 1'3oclty be v,. All velocities true at the end of the firing period, i.e., that the
are uAen at the same tiae. Now, the law given final velocity ard momentum of the gun equal
above rway be stated in the following equation, zero, then the momentum mv. aeed not equal
taking each velocity toorreponingarrw
tionof he in the 9~l):
be positive(Fgur direc- zero
zero atthen
all tie during firing,
times during frn, and
andourotweapon
eap is
tion of the cor'responding arrow (Figure 9-11): scid to have mean recoillessness, or be recoilless
(Projectile (Forwa0d (Rearward (R'Mol0e4 in the mean. The total momentum applied to it
Gases) Gases) Gases) Vifle) over the firing pe-od it still zero, but it may sus-
- 0. (9-1) tamn large forc-n, unneutradized during parts of
9-14
II
Fig. 9-12 The 75-mols

a rs Ma on tripod mount. e
the pressure interval and other oppositely di- axis.

rected forces during other portions of the inter- Let us return to (9-1) and (9-2), considering
val. Recoilless rifles are usually recofiless in the velocities to be those at the end of the firing
mean. period, to explain some more facts about recoil-
Visual (ibseration of a recoilless rifle will less rifles. Since the mass of the rearward moving
probably give no clue to the type of recoilless- gases, n%, is small compared to the projectile
i,•s it exhibits sine, %,'ith the short time in- mass, m, we can see the need for a nozzle, or
volved, no motion will be apparent with either nozzles, to give the jet a very high ,elocity and
type of balance. Mountings, however, nmust take make the product mivn sufficiently large. The
account of the difference since a weapon, recoil- ratio of the throat area of the nozzle to the area
less in mean only, i iay transmit tremendous of the bore is roughly I to 1.45. If thn nozzles
stresses to a mount not sifficiently flexible to per- shculd become restricted so that the man %s is
mit their absorption by the inertiA ,tf the weapon less than it should be, then 09-2) will not he
itseT. An absolutely recoilless weapon will place satisficA, and (9-1) tells us that m~v,, the momen.
no firing stresses on the mount. In either case turn of the rifle, will have some negative value,
the weight of the mount may be held to a Pnini- which is to say, the pi"'_ will kick to the rear
murm (Figure 9-12). Even thi torque transferred when fired. And if th•e nozzles should wear and
'- the weapon as a reaction to the rotary accelera- becoire too large, then nt will be too great,
"tionof the pojectile is neutrahld by inclination (9-2) will not be satisfied, and (-1) indicates
of the venhui apenings with rtispect to the borb that tf'e rifle will jump forward upon firing.
9-15
MM WA 0 A%*%iU
WEAP')N SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
()
9-10 MAPNM'.4INING RECOILLESSNESS
A iecoilless rifle as issued may recoil slightly the flow of gases through the nozzles to the rear.
be ause the nozzles are made somewhat under Replacement cones of differ, . sizes arc issued
size to allow for erosion. As the nozzles 'rode, with each rifle and can be installed by using unit
lowever, and become larger, the piece will be- personnel as needed.
come actually recoilless. At a still later stage of A second device consists ef a throat ring and
wear, the nozzles will be oversize and the piece throat blocks (Figure 9-14). As is the case with
will jump forward slightly when fired. the cone, the throat ring and blocks rmstriet the
To maintain the balance in recoilless rifles as flow of gas through the nozzles without affecting
the nozzles wear, three devices are currently em- appreciably the efficiency of the nozzle contour.
ployed on various rifles. These are discussed Like the cone, also, throat rings and blocks in
briefly below. It may be expected that metal- several sizes are issued with the rifle and can be
lurgical advances, making nozzles less subject installed by the using umit as needed.
1o erosion, will render such devices unnecessary Still another device is a replaceable vent bush-
sometime in the future. ing (Figure 9-15). ,tiscontains the major part
One device for keeping a recoilless rifle in of the nozzles, the remaining part being con-
balance is cAlled a cone (Figure 9-13). As- tained in the breecbblock. The replacement of
sembled to the rifle forward 6f the position of the vent bushing to restore balance to a r.*tle,
the breechblock when closed-', the cone controls however, is a job for ordna•nce personnel.
XI
-4
Fig. 9-13 Replaceable cone.
W TWO
r~•AT BLOEX
Fig. 9.14 Throat ring and throat blocks. C

9-16
DHM
UWAV
TRIGe oY1tA: . s&.*Y
Fig. 9-15 Vent busf ng.
9-11 COMPARISON OF RECOILLESS RIFLES WITH STANDARD

ARTILLERY PEECES AND ROCKETS
It is always difficult to make a comparison that here to give some general data which will illus-
means anything without going in grcat detail into trate the three types of weapons and indicateI
meny phases of the subject. It is the purpose their uti~it'.'.
9-11 .1 SIMPLICITY AND WEIGHT gun the recoil mechanism adds a iarge percentage
Table 9-1 shows in a general way thAt the re- to dhe total weighs. of the pipce.. In recoilless
coilless rifle has a great advantag.! over the rides there is no recoil mernanism. In addiircn.
standard artillery piece in weight, which has the supporting earriage and spcAes can be very
been cut down in the rifle to a small fraction of light and simple. T1e overall result is that we.ight
that of the h~owitzer of corresponding caliber, of a recoilless picce i.. nateriiklly rut duwr. o~ur
This has been done with some sacrifice in velocity the convent~oral tyn.c This may be ilhistrated
and range, in most cases, and3 by the aiddition of by our 75-:-)n ,ýcoi&-.-is rifle w.hich uses~ a cal. .30
considerable propellant. The tube of the -ecoil- m~achin~e gun muunt, modified in a few respects
less rifle is one that must stand pressures of to taice the tube. Alsc, as an example, thit 57-mmn
roughly 5000 to 10,000 psi. The ratio of average rifle -5 used ri a shoulder v'N apon.
to maximum pressure is higher thzai for the 9-11.2 ACCILIMATION A1 :0 VhLOCIY
standari artillery piece, which i!5to say that the
pressure does not drop off as rapidly in the rifle Thý_ ave-.age -iccelle-ution given a pr.4ecdile
From necessity 4t must be heavier thar a corn- fired f7-om a recoill-ss rifle is of about the same
parable tubular rocket launcher, which primarily rnagniti,-'.c is that '-f a sta~adard astilery pIec'e.
must withstand the hejit and bl-st action of the The vetocities are a little less thin those of a
gases of the rocket, but yet c-onsiderably lighter howitzer of comnpara!)le caliber. However, a dl-
than the tube of an arti!lery piece. in a standard redt comparison of the tecoilless rifle with the
_ _7
_ _
In
__mom___
TABLE 9-1 COMPARISON Of RECOILLISS RIFLE WITH STANDARD ATiLLERY PIECES
!Type TyePee Pee W t, lb

Total Rd.
Type WProj.
t, lb iProp.
Wt, lb iP.. psi MVI
,ft./sc Range,
yd
Recoilless 75-mm 168 HE-AT 13.19 2.8 9000 1000 7T00
Rifle M20 HE 14.40 2.9 990 1 6960
Howitzer 75-mm 1440 HE-AT 13:37 1.04 29,000 1000 9620

HE 14.7 1.0t !250
Rocket 4.5 in. HE - 4.75 - 865 - 4000

- _ II -
Recoilless
Rifle 106-mm 274 HE 32.4 7 95 12,000 1650 300
29,000 15 12,2001
Howitzer 105-mm 4300 HE 33 2,0 15%
corresponding howitzer which fires the same Personnel and materiel must be adequately pro-
shell with the same velocity will indicate the rela- tected for many yards to the rear.
tive efficiency of the two weapons with respect to The danger zone for the 57-mm rifle is a cone .4
utilizing the available propellent energy. The extending 50 feet to the rear of the weapon and
howitzer requires 1.04 pounds of propellant to 40 feet wide at its widest point. Personnel within
give the 13.37 H.E.,A.T. projcctile a velocity of 100 feet of the rear of the breech must not face
1000 ft/sec; whereas the recodless rifle requires the weapcn because of the danger of ilying par-
2.8 pounds of propellant. In accordance with tcles thrown up by the blast action.
(9-2), the difference of propellant weight is ac- This biast has another effect in that it may be
counted for by the necessity of maintaining re- the means of enemy observation of battery loca-
coillessness. tions. It would be desirable to have it reduced
or eliminated. On the other hand, there have
9-11.3 ACCURACY AND RANGE been cases in Korea in which recoilless rifles have
The accuracy and range of recoilless rifles are not been identifie, as such by opposing force,,
in general about the same as for standard artil- d'!,ring many days of operation.
lery pieces of similar caliber and muzzle velocity,
i.e., howitzers. The accuracy Lie of recoilless 9-11.5 b.rTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
rifles is set by erosion of the nozzles, with a re-
suiting loss of recofllessness, although it is ap- Both recoilless rifles and rockets have advan-
parently adequate for most tactical applications tages in that at times they can be tactically em-
of the weapons. For example, the estimated use- ployed where the gun or howitzer cannot. This
ful life of the 75-nam, M20 rifle is 2000 rounds. would be true in terrain inaccessible to guns or
The estimated life of the vent bushing, however, where recoil forces must be considered, as on
is approximately 500 rounds. small boats or oil planes. The recoil force of a
gun is great and limits the size that could be
9-11.4 BLAST fired from frail crafts without damage.
The main drawback to the use of recoilless For delivery of a certain payloas' at the higher
rifles is the tremendous biast that results from velocities or for great ranges, conventional ar-
the escape o" powder gas to the rear of the gun. tillery is better than the rec:illess piece.
9-18
SMALL ARMS AND RECOILLESS RIFLrES
9-12 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

The now standard ecoilless rifles aire in part muzzle energy of the projectile the rifle will fire. '
the results of compromise and expediency dic- Blast from recoilless rifles is an inherent char.
tated by the urgency of wartime development. acteristic of their design. Methods for deflection
Development of larger caliber and higher muzzle ofthis ofathere Meth deflection
velocity weapons is being actively prosecuted. of this blast, where such deflection is requircd,
Weight leductions are likewise being inder- have been studied; but the magnitude of the
taken. Minimum- possible weight in a recoilless blast is determined by the projectile energy and
rifle i., determined by thc strength of materials is, in its very nature, incapable of considerable
available frr use ond by cr-, rgy levels dictated reduction. Reduction of smoke and flash from
by projectile weight and velocity. The recoilless recoilless rifles is being studied and progress in
* principle itself places no design limitation on the thlis direction is assured.
REFERENCES
1 W. J. Kroeger, and C. W. Musser, Frankf.-rd 5 Department of the Army Technical Manual,

Arsenal Report No. R-727, The Design of TMO-1990, Small Arms Ammunitior., Wash-
Recoilless Infant;•y Weapons, Philadelphia, ington, U.S. Government Printing Office.
Pa., June 1946.
2 R. R. Studler, and W. J. Kroeger, Frankfcrd 6 Department of t'e Arrmy Technical Manual,
Arsenal Report No. R-1273, Bottalion Anti- TM9-2205, Fundamentas of Small Arms,
Tank Rlecoilless Rifles System, BAT, 106mm, Washngton, U.S. Government Printing
U40 Rifle, Philadelphia, Pa., March 1950 to Office.
July 19,5,3. 7 Department of the Army Technical Manual,
3 Department of "he Army Technica! Manual, TM9-2210, Small Arms Accdents Malfurac-
TM9-314, 57rm Rlifles TISE13 and M18, tions and Their Causes, Washington, U.S.
Warhington, U.S. Government Printing Government Printing Office.
Office.
4 Deoartment of the Army Technical Manual, 8 Department of the Army Technical Manual,
9TM9-1901, Artillery Ammunition, Washing- TM9-3058, 106mm Rifle M40, Washington,
ton, U.S. GoVernment Printing Office. U.S. Government Printing Office.
II
9-19
S..
•'-e .,. .•.I...unt -. je .
~~ • ~ ijI
. . CHAPTER 1(•
S~DYNAMIC SYSTEMS ANAL'; S
S10.1 INTRODUCTION
S~~As weapons become more complex, their de- and e.xpernse if done carefully, prier to the manu-
sign becomes ,increasingly difficult. Design no facture nf tbo equipment itself. Fundamentally,
longer can be accomplished by trial and error the anah,,sis coinsists of determining the differ- •
ential equation of motion and solving this equa- .
techniques or by static analysis. It now is neces- lion. The solution will give the response
sarsj to analyze systems that move er have. 'o, characteristics of the system anti can tell the en-•
ing parts utilizing dynamic considerations "The gireer what parameters must be chan~ged in cr- i
process is not simple, but will save much time der to obtain best weapon performance.
10-2 ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC WEAPONS ,
It has not been many years since automatic ari' qualitative analysis o.f control systems. ) A sche-
semiautomatic weapons were principally de- matic representation of the MS 3 ubmachine gun
vwiopcd by single men such as Browning, Macuser, bolt is shown in Figure 10-1. Nw.c only a sirgle
S ..... 'Zewis, Colt, Garand, Thompson, Johnson, etc., spri~ng is shown. .
i; using a combination of mechanical skill aid a The bolt is reprtsented by the mass M. The
knowledge of past mistakes that we bave come stiffness of the spring is denoted by its effective
S~to call know-how. Little or none of the so-called spring constant, Ic,which is the numoger of pounds :
_ analytical approach was considered necessary, force necessary to compress the spring one foot.
I For the last decade, however, due to demands Between the mass and the rigid support is shown
from users for sever'ely increased muzzle veloci- a dashpot mechanism to represent fb~e *'-;scous
S~ties and cyclic rates, there has been an ever- friction or damping in the system. :•n external
.• ~increasing necessity to apply the h.,sic laws of force F•(t) it shown acting on the mass and rep-
Iare
mechanics to the working parts of new weitpons. resents the force on the bolt due to powder gas
Many of the newv aircraft cannon, for example, pressure in the chamnber and varies with time as
so complex and their functioning is affected the chamber pressure v•?ies. The problem, then,
by so many variables that it would be virtually is to calc~ulate the motioi• ,s time changes of the
I.to impossible (as well as prohibitively expensive)

develop them byo a cut-ard-dr', method.
In order to illustrate the analytic approach, let
mass M due to this external Force. Or, in other
words, if x is the distance between any instan-
taneous position of the mass during it." motion
us consid,•r the dynamic problem of the move- and the equilibrium position, find i as a function
" ~~ment of a b,•t in th, blowback operated sub-
machine gun, the sta'•,tard MS. The MS is used
in this example only as a means of illustrating
the technique of analyzing a dynamic system.•
This examlple is rz'presentative of a very 3 implk r-..-..t.__.•-•c•
system. but the same procedure w,,,A!, be fol- F~t)---1 _I-4 -/ \ .^ •,
lowed f'o" more complex dynan~ic systems such 4
r ~as• airfra~nes sprnng suspensions for automobiles,
I ~ guidance packages, and a multitude of similar
I
• systems. (Refer to Chaptex¢ 2, Part 3, for a Fig. l3-I Schematic eo.M3 5MG boi'.
~~~10-1 ___'
j - ~WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPO"TFNTS
of time. The equation of motion wvhic',. is about Sd~fhciently to allow at least a first approximnation
to be derived is nothing but a mathematical of the solution to be obtained quickly. Figure
tApression of Newton's second law, 10-2 shows that the time dur.rg which the ex-
Force massX
acelertionternal foree F(t) acts onl the mass is very small
compa~ed to the total cycle time (actually less
All forces acting on the mass ivill be considered than 1 100). This suggest., flit inste'ad c.' treait-
positive whený acting to the right (to produce a ing the prcblern as a forced vibration, we might
positive displacement) and negative when acting consider it as a free vibration with the external
to the left, force determin~ing the initial conditions. Our
'the spring force is -Ia pounds. The sign of differer tial equation A'motioni will now reduce to:
the spring force is negative because ft iL re! isting M 4ci + Z-x = 0 subject to the initial coi-
a positive displacement. 'iition v y-evat time t= 0
rh,ý dampin~g fc~ce of the dashpot is - c W-ý10-2)
dt
or -~
i pund.
isproortinalto he e~oitv a general solution to which maay Le shown to be:
oratve
-x- pons It~t,
is to theven +rprtoa
and directed r :posite to it, and is, mhei efore, also wee(o .) '03
Newtn'slaw hengives:
M = J1 . FMI - kx c~i
q = -.. 2 and xn and rrepresent, the
or4
M1 + c~i + kx FMt (10-1) infital position and velocity of thc bolt at #he in-
This equation is known as Ctie differendlial sato iig( )
equation of motivii of a single-deftree-of-freedorn Eaiaimo n~3sbahn u hw
aretheinetia that the value of c is a small fraction comppred
system. The four terms in (10-1 'aeteiria to the other parameters, so, for a first approxima-
force, the damping force, the !.pring force and toccnb lmntd hscrieal
the external force.
A rioros cfslutin
tis .quaianbecmes simplifies (10-3) and the solution now is:
e-treý nely difficult due to the manner ir. which = XOc j+ ~0 siawý,, (10-4)
the external force, F(t), -.ani s with time. This
vatiatiron is shown graphically in Figure 10-2, but aApe
can b- approximated analytically only by an w' ere w.= is the u.1.Japdnatural fre-
infinite number of cosine and sine terms (a (uency of the system.
Fourier series). In order to analyze the significance- of ( 10-4)
Rather than tackle here a second order differ- itwlbecnnet*fe aeolyoerg-
ential equation involving an infinite F: urier sýýfies, nometric function in the equation ra.:her than
the solution to which requires such mathematical r cnbL:cmihebyteueo
devices as Laplace transformatinns, let us exam- algebra and a trigonc~metiic ident~ty.
mete inan
sste dem~ tosimlif it Divide (!0-4' through by the square root of
tnt sum of the .,qiares of the coefficients c;f the
trigonometric term!:
)2 ~ Yo
+ (!L
+
Fig. 10.2 iorcint, function of 40 V.AG bobt.
10-21
I
DYNAMIC SYSTEmS ANALYSIS
i'• ~ The relationship

above equation canofbetheshown
constant
in terms
Figure in• the
10-3. or • ---'2
X= 0o+ sin týwjt + y) (10-5)
Equation (10-5) represents the positic n of the
"bolt
01 at any Vine, t. The equation is a ,ure sine
wave of maximum amplitude + 2(+X ,

Kik X, 'otan and frequency (wftt +- y). Recallin'- the initial
+0 n- condcitions at t = 0 were x,, and v., 'he graphical
solution is easily determined, as shc wn in Figure
10-4.
104Comparing (10-5) and Figure 10-4, it is seen
that the bolt reaches its first ma dmum positive
displacement, x,,,, at time T = _ _

2w., wn
SFig. 10-3 Graphical representatior of The slope of the curve at any point rep'esents
. trigonometric telationships. bolt velocity,
to closeso that, a x,..,,
with at the bolt
negative stops The
veloc:ity, and
•ns:begins
slope at x ,
is v..
X_ sin -y cos t + cosy, sin_.t If the bolt is now inserted in th:Ie machine gu.,
X0- (+'o\ and the travel 3f the belt is limited to positions
\wO./ between xo and x., only the j.rtion of Figure
The right side of this equation is the trigo- 10-4 which lies above x. will be of interest. The
nometric identity for ibe sine of the sum of two -fuly closed position of the bo~ t is at x., and
angles, therefore the fully olren position is at
between these positions is given by The
x., distance
(10-6). The
=sin (- t + -Y) time teouire] for the bolt to fully open is given
2 + ( by ( 10-7). the
is e~xact1ly time required for tihe bolt to close
Thesaime.
(i
\•.
--- - xmli
A r
1(1-
. .. .. .. . .. . ... ~~~~~~~~%
i Fill. 10-4 Plot of mzlt7+ i si a.u+)
2 4-± L) 2 rThe undamped natLral frequency of the sys-

X+ - T (10-6) tern is,
k ý2 X .7 X12 X 32.2
2 1 M1 2
7' = o- seconds per - cycle ,07,w 64rd/e
7' 2 n 16.4 rad...ce
"ohe time required for a complete cycle of The maximum length of bolt recoil is thce-
operation is 2T seconds, so the cyclic rate of (from 10-6):
fire is: xlý'- / X2+V02 -X
_n 2
CR = 6 rounds -,r minute (10-8)
Nom apply (10-6), (10-7) and (10-8) to the = +
submachine gun M3. The following data apply = .6 ft or 7.2 in.

to this gun:
projectile weight = 2.30 grains From (10-7) the time± required for this length
charge weight - 7 grains of recoil may be fornd,
bolL weiglt = 2 pounds
muzzle velocity = 830 ft/sec
springeonstant = .7lb/i.•. (foreachof2springs) T = 2
initial spring compressiLr = 6 in.
Note, I 11' = 7000 grainy. v 'Zo W
If the gun itself remnains stationary, and mo- 2 L tan- 1( v
wenvirm in the cosed system of gun, bolt, ,
peojectile and gases is conserved, then the mo-
menurm imparted to the bolt may be determined - - .47
as foli,)ws: _2 = .067 see
(projectio) (gases) 16.4
(bolt)
MAVi = M2 V, + Ma V1 and the cyclic rate of %hegun is, theifore,
230 (_32. 2 <. ' or 447 rounds per minute
70}00 X 32.2 In order to illustrate the validity of this method
70( 47) of solving the differential equation r,' motion of
7000 X 32.2
+ a dynamic system for determin:.'ion of response
1 lb see characteristics, results using energy techniques
Note:;he
is 4700fttse c dalue for the -. locity of the gss will be included. Obtaining results solely from
of ai,
the emp~ir'Lia
gas out ofvalu.
t for he t~he A-fective velocity
muzzeo energy conmiderations would be virtually impos-
The corresr.mding initial rearward velocity, sible for mere complex systems.
V., may be obtained ay dividing the inomentuni The maximum length of bot recoil can be
by the mass of the bolt Ahecked by the method of Chapter 10, Pigdon
and Stiles. The kinetic energy put into the bolt
-'!-be" 16.1 ft/see is:
2/32.2
This initial condition of rearward velocity, v., K E -,
may also ! • obtained directly by the equation 2
p V + 4700 c 230 x 830 + 4700 X 7 1 2
W 2 X 70M 2 32.2
- 18.1 ft/sew - 8.05 ft-lb
__...DYNAMIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
This must equal the en.-rry input into the snring x, = .6 ft or 7.2 in.
or the work done on the -
(neglecting fric-
tion). Referring to Figure 10-4, the work done Further examination of Figure 10-4 shows that
on the spring can be seen to be: the maximum force transmitted to the shoulder
%sork= (average spring force) of the firer is:
X×(moil distance)
85 l =k (_-2S -,) X (X,-- X0)
8.05 ft-lb F.. =-k x,, = 11.4 >: 12) X i.I = 18.5 pounds
The fact that this figure is very high for auto-
8.05 ft-l1 2 7X 2 (.5 + x,.\ matic small arms is one explanation for the
2 tendency of this weapon to move when fired au-
x - .5) toma'ically for sustained bursts.
10-3 ANALOG COMPUTER SOLUTION
The equation of motion of the M3 !,,)lt, neglect- rad

to produce a-e aua reunyo 8
ing friction, was derived in the prec, ding para- seet
graph, and was found to be: remembering to raul'tiply the measured cyclic
rate by the same factcr of 20 to return the sotu-
SM + k x = 0(10-9) tion to real time. Equation (10-11' now be-
w"'h initial conditions at t -- 0 of x, and v.. comes:
(Y'3-9) may be c,)nveniently written as:
S+ W,2 x= 0. (10-10) 400
In the illustrative example, w. was found to be The wiring schematic for the analog comp-iter
16.4 rdd so (10-i) becomes: is shown jit Figure 10-5. refer to Chapter 3,
sec ' Part 3, for the method of obtaining this diagram.
The compuf-er solution simumates the action of
the gun, enab'ing the designer to test the result
To slow the solut+ou down for visual observa- cf varying bolt weight, spring tension, or recoil
tion of an oscilloscope or a pen -ecorder, it is de- velocity without actually building a weapon. If
sirable that the solution frequen.cy be in the the designr r wishes to study the effects of vis-
neighborhood of only 1 rd To obtain cous frictiow, Figure 10-5 may be modified by
sec the addition of a single resistance f !d back across
slower computer speed, simply divide .. by 20 the first amplifier.
x 7S
Fig. 10-5 Computer diagram for M3 bolt problem.
10..5
REFERENCES
1 Higdon and Stiles, Engineering Mechanics, 3 Myklestad, Fundamental. of Vibration Analy-

Prentice-Hall, Inc., N.Y., 1949, Chap',r 12. sis, McGraw-1ill Book Co., Inc., N.Y., 1956,
Chapters 2, 3, and 4.
2 Jensen, Applied Engineering Mechanics, Nw- 4 Timoshenko and Young, Engineering Mechan-
Graw-Hill Book Co,, Inc., N.Y., 1947, Chap- ics Dynamics, McG, aw-Hill Book Co., Inc..
ter 14. N.Y., 1937, Chapter 3.
10-6
CHAPTER 1
11-1 SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION-INTRODUCTION
In general, small arms include those weapons rifles, and machine guns, from caliber .22 through
whose caliber (bore diameter across the lands) caliber .60, and shotguns, constitute the array of
is not greater than 0.6 5nch (caliber .60). This weapons usually thought of as small arms. Ex-
is an arbitrary figure, and in practice it is theie. amples of specific weapons are the caliber .22
. fore difficult to draw a line between artillery and target rifle, the caliber .30 rifle and machine gun,
small aria, A usual distinguishing feature of the caliber .45 pistol and submachine gun. Each
small arms ammunition is the fact that it has no of these weapons has a va;iety of ammunition
f,,v, while most artillery ammunition is fuzed to types designed for particular purposes, giving
achieve a p,,rticular terminal effect. Pistols, considerable versatility in performance.
iI
j 11-2 HISTORY f
A cartridge under our present military mean-
ing is a complete round of ammunition for a fire-
arm. The term cartridge comes to us from about
the tirr, of the sixteenth century. The root word
flintlock -weapon obtained a muzzle velocity of
less than one thousand feet per second from a
5(00 grain round ball using some 70 gralns of
black powder. When fired at the shoulder level
I
from wh cb it comes is the Latin ,aria mean;ng of a standing man, which was the method taught
paper. The term originated with i-he French in in European armies cf the day, the ball struck
the word cartouche, meaning a roll of paper. the ground at about 126 yards. This range and
"Vhe eadiest recorded use of a paper cartridge accuracy was acceptable a&that time, however,
was in 1625 when Gustavus Ad,'1phus issued for battles between infantry units wert corn-
them to his troops. The paper cartci:ge offeied inonly fought at 30 to 75 yards.
the advanttge of quickly loadirng the weapon of The paper cartridge, which was both corn-
the day with a uniforn load. These cartridges bustible and se. igniting, arrived on the scene
were made by enclo•qay,- one or more btllets and with breech ;oalinE and was the immediate
a charge of p)wde? into a ro!l of paper. The .<nds forcrurner of our mccrn small rms round.
of the paper roll were tied with a 5tring, )r iealed Two examples of these rounds wert. those used
with paste to keep the cartridge together. Givase ia the German Zundnadelgewehr or needle gtu
was usually added to the paper to lubryate the (ed..0 in. ), and the French cwasspt (cal.p.4
wbore and to retard water absorption by ethe pw- in.,. e needl was a pao(-wrapled
te Frengh
der (Figure 11-la). cartridge using a ball of smaller than bore diam-
Cartridges of this periow were ignited through eter .,!tein a paper sabot (Figure 11-b). 71e
touch holes An the breech: end of the barrel.
Loading was from the muzzle requiring exces- priming pellet was seated at the ban of the
si,,e a!i.owance between diameter of the rifle ball sabot. The powder charge was behind the per-
and the bore diamet"r. Ir the British 'Brown cusslon pellet. The firing pin had to penetrate
Bess' of 1800, the caliber wa- .753 n. while the the! entire charge to get to :he primer and initiate
"bullet diameter was appr.,xumately .09 in. This the round. The charsepot rounl bad the primer
•.J1 I1-1
i ii
Paper roll cartridge Chassepot (right) and

(a) the needle gun coatridge
(b)
44
, !
Pin-fire cartridge The .577 boxer cartridge

(c) (d)
Fig. 11-1 Types of ca.'4iges.
at the base of the cartridge (Figure 11-1b). Both Weapons of the chassepot type used the per-
rifles wore bolt-action breech loadez7 and were cussion cap instead of a flint to secure initiation
used by the Germans and French in the Franco- of the propellant. The principle by which the
Prussian War. In each instumce, hoN%ever, these percussion cap was used had been developed
weapons offered a poor soluticr, to the problem and patented by the Reverend Alexander For-
f providing adequate forward and rearward s-th. a Scottish clergyman, in 1807. By 1.4 to
obtaration for after a number or discharges of 145, this system of cartridge ignition was beingi
the pi*ce, the soldier tended to "emove his face used the world over. The percussion car was
,eriouthe comb of the stoc in order to pirevent the forerunver of our modem primer.
apassing tThe first generally used complete cartAdge as
,artridge and breech. Accuracy was conse.
quently greatly im paired ; how ever, the su- wew know
e t otoday
3e rdates
L back
a c etc xaso early
ai as 18M,
a e
periority of these weapons over the muzzle wben a Mor-eur Le Faucheux of Paris made &
loader was so pronounced that armies of tls pin-fire cartridge (Figure 11-1c). The case was
era, the nidd 1860's, were soon seeking similar of bfass and paper and was of a form similar to
type shoulder pieces. By 1870 few first line that found in the modern shotgun shell. All-
troops in Europe caried muzzle loaders, metal cases were also used. The pin, protruding
1 ~..
frormi the side, was struck, setting off the percus- a century or more ago.
sion cap and black powder propellant. it is of particular interest at this time to draw
BRimfire cartridges in substantially their present the attention )3f th-- reader to the marked reduc-
form, were developed in the early to middle -tion in caliber and bullet weiTrht of small arms
1850's. Centerfire cartridges in forms similar to ammunition which has transpired over the years.
those we are now familiar with, were introduced The "Brown Bess" of 1800, having a caliber of
ir the Civil War period with a few earlier at- .753 -in. and firing a 500-grain round ball, is a
tempts at manufacture in the 1850's. It was not graphic example or this when compared with our
until 1856, however, that we had a separate presently standard cal. .30 M2 cartridge and its
primer centerfire cartridge which could be re- 166-grain bullet. This trend has also included
loaded (Figure 11-1d). Colonel Boxer of the and in fact has been made possible by better
British Ordance Department is credited with this ignition and propellant design, improved obtura.
development. The modern cartridge, loaded tion, successful cartridge case design, achieve.
with modern controlled burning, nonhygroscopic ment of higher muzzle velocities, and marked
propellant, is bu! a refinement of these ideas of advances ia metailurgy.
1 -3 CARTRIDGE TERMINOLOGY
Much confu:ion ;n designating small arms am- nragnum cartridge. Ift this case the 38 bullet is
munition can be eliminated by using cOITect actually a caliber of .357 in. The fit of the case is
terminology. This problem of terminology has not good but the round may be fired in the 357
been complicated by many different agencies magnum. Mmay other such designations exist,
naming tieir rounds. Civilian manufacturers all and unless an individual is an expert in the field,
"ha,e their own trade names, the Navy has its he may be confused easily.
own serarae designations, and foreign armies The military terminology system is simple. and
and manufacturers lend their terminology to the direct. It merely describes the complete round
large list. As an example of the above, one often according to its function and model number.
hear- of 2 .;30-30 Savage or Winchester cartridge. For example, the nomenclature "Cartridge, Ar-
The question immediately arises as to what the mor Piercing, Cal. .30 M2" indicates that this
1' means. Actually it means that this round i, designed for armor penetration and is
cartridge was developed by Savage or Winches- the second model of Ats series.
ter, its calibei is .30 in. and that it contains 30 ic avoid confuLiorn in making components of
grains of propellent powder. The 30-U6 cartridge the complete small arms round, the word car-
for which the MI rifle is chambered me*ens a tridge is used to desiguate the complete roindO,
caliber of .30 in. with the round having been being made up of the bullet which !s the small
standardized in 190b. The 357 magnum is ac- arms projectile; the cartridge case; the propel-
tually a cartridge of .Žal:ber .357 in. having a lent powder; and the primer. Othe;" imnnortant
very large case and powder charge behind the terms which ar,ý applied to small armns -artridges
bullet. It is often said that a 38 special cartiidge are shown -in Figure 0.4,. These terms will be
rmay 1e fired in a revolver chambered for the 357 referred to thruughout this chapter.
11.• COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLETE ROUND

Most cartrd'es are made up ot a cartridge intricate and requires extensivz engineering and
case, a primer to initiate the explosive train, a production planaing. Whien one sbtpa to con-
propellent powder, and a bullet. The design sider that Company X can manufacture a primer
11-3
a m uce ect ad -- ip t
I WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
~~C$ATRIC-E
Fi,g 11-2 Terminologyv of complete small arms round (Cartridge, Armor Piercing
Incendiary, Caliber .50, 481 .
* Y for assembly into a pre-drilled hole in the car- this manutacturirng care and exactness which
tridge case hottom, and have all primers guar- gaate h ~frnfntoig~ ahcr
anteed to fit any cartridge case, it iss apparent tridge from roun~i to round. Each of the car-
tig opie~wl ecniee eo n
t&%t ilts and tolerances must be exacting. It is its most impe-tant features discvirsed.
I I -C.I ThEl CARTRIDGE CANE the cannelure of the bullet. For cal. .30 carbine
Cartidg
ae ethe
caes ofthe entrar or and1 cal. .45 cartridgc s the mouth of the case is
riraifire type. From the standpo~nt of jhajle they Atci~;teble shl npaeb t
an straight, straight taper, or bottleneck. Fig- tight fit in th,, case. In some revolver cartridges
ure 11-q illustrates the types of ca-i~ridge cases a carinelure p-events the bullet fromn being seated
normally encountered.todepy
The cartridge case )-.as three functions: It is rounds thus assembled have an exceptionally
the ean
hic by
theothr coponnts long storage life. Ammunition remaining from
(primet, propelling chs.-ge, aýý bullet) are. as- World War I was, in so far as it was available,
sembý,4 intc a unit. It alsu provides a water- genecally acceotable for use in World War IT.
prcw-'otaier
or he ropllig carg. Xhen Many sm-'ll a. ms rounds have beer fired after
the c'artridge is 6red, Atprevents the escape of fifty years of storage with excelle'-t ballistic per-
gases to the rear as ti~e then side walls of th~e fo. mance.
came arcs fn~-ed against the walls of the chamber
by the pi..ssure. This pr-c-es!s of sealing by ex- 11-4.2 THE PRIMEP
pansion is termed obturatir~n. . Per..uss~on prir ers uf the boxer type are in
In the &ssembly of the cartridgf. the primer is general use. This standard primer is crimped
pressed into the primer pocket and staked or into the prti.ner pocket in the head of centerfire
crimped (only primers in military cartridges are ardg -esi'coitsfa'otmalup
itaked, civilian prl-r~ers are not), the joint then
being sealed by a drop of shellac or lacquer to ~~rigo e~us n'.ioiin iko
keep out moisture. The iirtridge case is next teacdmni.pprndnavl(Fge
loaded w-t a harge of p:opellent powder, the 1't-4a;rA blow from the firing pi- on the primer
imi~de of the neck is coated w~ith lacquer or sp~ne cap compresses th:! Pmikaing compofition be-
other waterproofing compo-ind; the buii::t in- tween the ctip and the anvil. The pri,..ing mix-
serted; and the mnuth of the ca-se crimped into ture, being sen ;iti~e to stab action, burnt and
11-4
__ ______________

I
I *
K
AE
4
A,%
A
1-
II
ii
11
II
II> I
I
I
I.
I.
I.
Fig. 114 Types .1 cartridge case..
p
11.5
WEAPON SY'STEMS AND COMPONENTS
Fig. 1!-4 The Primer.
emnits a hot flame which _a-ses through the 'vents found in ?arger weapon3. For example. max-i-
in the anvil and c~artridge case, and ignites the mum powder pressure of the caliber 30 AP
propelling charge. round in the MI rifle is 50,000 pounds per square
inThe priming composition in the cup is held incitt, whi!'> that ior the high explosive shell M171
inplace and protected from inoisturc and elec- il .-he 90-mm gun is 38"00 psi.
Nrolyti- action by a paper disk. The brass anvil rewih ftecag sntcntn.I
ir inserted last, completing the assembly of this is adjusted for each propellaait lot to gi ;,e the
type f prier.equired bullet velocity with chambcr puo.ssure
Within the limits prescribed for the weapon iII
11-4.3 THE PROPELLING CHAkeGE which it is fired. The c!arge for eal. 30 car-
tridges is about 50 grains (437.5 grains pee
ISSmall arms propellent powder is single-base or ounce) while that for cal. .50 cartri(1 get is about
doabfe-base powder in the form of card, sphcxes 240 grains. The corresponding velucit>:!; atn 78
(TdS5, NATO cartridgel or single perforate'I feet are about 2700 and 2900 ft/sec,. respec-
grains c.oated with DNT and glazed with tively. The U'ensity of loading is usually about
graphite. In mass production loading it is loadet' 0.9. This is very high when compared to a
loosely in the cp'se by machine. The grains are (lensitw of loading from 0.3 to 0.7 for artillery
very small and therefoia subject to more rapid rounds.
deterioration it high temperatures than grains
(J irtilliery powder. It Is interesting to note that 11-4.4 T41E BULLET
the powder pressures developed by small !rmis The modern small arms bullet is an accurately
puw-Jers are generally much great~r than those in.ade projectile designed for a specific purpose
it
such as perpetration of armor, incendiary effect, cost is not warranted.
,r antipeetsonnel effect. It must function at the
target at all temperatures between -65 and
S170°F, ad
170'F, and it must withstand 3torage under all
mtainitascorestofaantndeonal (a) Ball. The metal jacke'ted ball bullets con-
conditions. It ha!- no fuze, rotating band, or tain a core of antmony-lead alloy, except the
bouret, but otherwise the same design prin- cal. .50 bullet wiierein tbn e core is of soft stcl
ciples apply to both artillery ,rnd small arms pro- in order to insure similar ballistic properties for
jectiles. There are two types of bullets in use in ball and armor-piercing cartridges. Caliber .30
military smal) arms cartridges: the lead bullet, carbine and cal. .45 bal] bullets are similar, d'f-
and the jacketed bullet. The currently known fering essentially in diameter. Unlike other °ai!
bali bullet derives its name from early ]cad ball- bullets, the cal. .50 bullet is boattailed and con-
shaped slugs; today, however, lead bullets are tains a point filler of hai'dened lead. This type
used only in cal. .22 ammutition and in some of bullet is now used for target practice only
revolver cartridges. (Figure 11-5),
Lead bullets are not satisfactory for use where

high velocities are desired because their softness (b) Armor piercing. Armor piercing bullets
causes defrmnation by setback, thuc harming ex- contain a core of hardened steel, either a
ter~or ballistic performance. in addition, lead tungsten-chromium steel or a rmanganese-molyb-
eu) ts may be damaged by loadhig mechanisins denum steel. The cl. .30 armor piercing bullet
ot automatic weapons, and may cause jamming has a point filler of lead and a gilding metal base
of such weapons. Accordingly, the great prepor- filler between the core and the jacket, whereas
tion of military bullets are metal jacketed. TVe the cal. .50 armor piercing bullet has only in
bullet consists of a core covered by a gilding antimony-lead alloy pcint filler. Both bullets
metal (90% copper, 10% zinc) jacket, a gi!ding have smooth cannelures cut into the jacket for
metal clad steel jacket, or a copper pla ed steel
jacket. A cannelure is cut or rolled in the Jacket
to provide a recess into which the znouth of the "netrate homogeneous arri to a c~pth of 1.5
case may be crimped during assembly. The to 2 times the caliber of the corc. This bullet
cannelure also serves to hold the jacket and cor- has replaced ball ammunition for combat be-
together more firmly. cause of its ability to penetrate armor without
deforming, better sectional density, and better
The dia.imeter of a jacketed bullet is usually wind bucking and ricochet characteristics (Fig-
.h ut .001 inches greater than tlht bore diam- ure 11-5).
eter betv'een the grooves. This is to provide
a tight gas seal and to allow the jacket to be (c) Armor piercing incendiary. Armor piere-
gripped proper!y as the bullet is rotated by rifling ing ince.,;diary bullets have hardened steel cores
in the barrel. and instead of a point filler of metal, have one
ronsstigdo anincthery ixarbineriu
The body of the bullet is cylindrical. The nose consisting of an incendiary mixture of barium
may be rolid as ;n the carbine, pistol, and re- nitrate and magnesium i-owder (Figure 11,K).
volver bullets, or ogival (curved taper) as in -ll
service rifle and machine gui. bullets. The length (d) Armor piercing incendiary tracer; These
of the ogive or taper for cal..30 and .5O bullets bullets are similar to the armor piercing incsn-
is approximately 2.5 calibers. Tihe base mavy bomnemlttonI
diy llets but Also have a tracer
-~
square or boattailed (Figure 11-.5). The boattail

is highly effective in lessening drag up to the in the base end of the bullet for fire control
speed of sound, and gives some advantage up (Figure- 11-5).
noa velocity of 2900 feet pe- sec,,nd. Beyond
2900 feet per second the boatta.l has no appre- (e) Incendiary. Incendiary bullets contain a
clable advantage, and accordingly the additional core of incendiary mixture An antimony-lead
11.7
Fig. I11-5 Types of cal. .30 ballets.I
-. . .- -~ - u114
AMMUNITON AND WARHE/
alloy slug is present at the base end of the bul-Al

dase
beore
lug heFigre 1-5)
lt. A hollow, steel, cylindrical body or a clad-
selcontain~er may be inserted within the jacket
(f) Tae.Tracer bullets (Figure 11-6) con-

tanan antimony-lead alloy slug in the forwar6
poshWon, an nthe rear a tracer composition ii-.
~~
eluding~~~
peoie ~tonimntaestoniu
magnesium, and other ingredients. They all have
gae.The igniter thun ignites the tracer cornm-_________________

position. The red-upped MI tracer bullets are JM a
vsbestarting at the muzzle; the orange tipped
trcrbullets have a dim trace for a short dis- -bJ 1 j
tnefrom the inuzzlie and a )right trace there-
comparatively long trace. A special headlightWALZ MI O O J

taebulthas a very bright trace when viewed A- wrmT aw"=To,
frmth istacrchre
rot sa atburning CTAF L
:g~iercopoitonp'acd n hebae.This so- rC WMfl Yft~wG
cale oud-nsdeeopdto
ealgh create
theimpessonon the enemy that he was being
fired on by weapons larger than those actually
being used. Fg116Cl.0traceriýullets.
11-s GRADES AND GRADING
Because of mass production methods, varia- pon and to relegate lower grades to moore rugged
tions in the quality of small arms ammunition weapons. The grades thatt have beeii e'-:-hli~hed
are bound to occur from lot to lot, althoLgh re- for small arms are given belcw, the most critical
coiemntro ands iircraft
mior gf.nsr
acetanc are ' efrac eurmnsbiglsel2ri
very rigid. For example, ammunition used ,i
unfrhrceitc rmrovn6 k,) rouni tco
insure uniform feeding. If a malfunction ur Aircrta chn u C C!.0
curred it could not be el'.rected in the air and Aicat machine gun
the weapon would be out of action. The best am- (rrfeA rR (a..0
munition available, therefore, must be used %d
RGcl..0
fo-, these aircraft machine guns. Some lots Ground mavh~n gur .MG (al. .50 and
PAl - 30)
manufactured which do n-ot pass the aircraft IJrisee, .'ieable :3 (cal. 50 ..nd
tests may still be suitable for use in greund cal - 30)
machine guns -'ma rifles where a possible inal-
function could he eorrccde-i casily . A syst',m of Lot numbers thiit have been c..ablished for
xrades und grading is necessary to provide the each lot of small arvis ammunition are instrni-
best ammunition fo- use ito the most critical we&- iwnprtsil in controiiir,- the use of ammunition.
WEAFON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
Basically a lot number indi zates that each car-

tridge within that lot has been manufactured
with identical components, i.e., from the same
lot, and that there should be very little differ
ence in functioning within the lot. Figure 11!-7
shows a small arms container with the lot num-
her (EC L-8000) painted on it in addition to
other imnportant information. These lot numbers
also serve as an administrative control. The
Chief of Ordnance periodically publishes to the
field units a list showing the grading of each
Jot number.
The pioblem of maintaining ammunition in
storage at acceptable standards for service is an RAPa 6WWA
expensive and laborio~s one Periodically, sam-
pies oz each lot are tested, and if they fail to
ineet iigid requirements the lot is downgraded. Fig. 11-7 Ammuaition box showing markings.
11-6 ARTILLERY AMMUNITION-HISTORY
The first recorded use cf cannon iii w. rfare %Jsc of 'sh:7rical projectiles continued until the
dates from about 1350. The projectiles gciierally period of our Civil War when the elongated
wveie stere balls and, altiough iron and lead shot form, cylindrical with pointed nose, ''as adopted
came into use at the begiining of the fifteenth for use in cannon -s it .had been pr:wviously for
century, the stone projeetiie did not pass corr- Vand arms. For a given ctlil--'r of zeapo.,, -:i.s
pletely out of the picture until the beginnirv 7change of form enaL~t ... '. . -iv:c
of the nineteenth century. Some of those ern- ptojectiles of incwrased cpacty, and -_-esiAt.'t-!
ployed in the bronze guns of the time were very in the attainment 4. b"•a~ed range and ac-
lar-v,, up to 25 inches in diameter. curacv of fire. It necessitated, however, provi-
I(le-)cf..
The early iron projectiies were solid spherical siuro of means ior imparting the necessary
shot. Cur shot knd chain shot, consisting of two rotation to secure stability in flight. In the muzzle
it,-, balls c•,nnected by a bar Gr chain, were de- leading cannon of the peri-)d, firing cast iron
ard used for ýutt-ng the masts and projectiles, special devices for producing i-wta-
rigg; ig of vessels. Chilled iron shot was em- tion were developed.
F-uy..d v,'hen the first wrought iron armor came The bo:e of the Whitworth gun, iwvented in
E:lko ase. 1857, was a tvisted prism of hexagonal cross sec-
The hollow spherical shot or shell, filled with tion (Figure 11-8). The projectile was fashioned
a bursting charge of gun powder or with incen- with plane surfaces to correspond. For use in
diary material, was developed from the s.lid rifled cannon, various means were adopted to
shot. Another kind of projectile which canme ito in rotation as illustrated in Figure 119.
1
use in the -ighteenth cent-irv was the case shot, n the studded type, protruding studs were
consisting of a number of smaller projectiles fitted into the helical grooves of the rifling as
in a case or envelope. The three phincip il ýpes the projectile was inserted in the muzzle. In the
r gapse, orenvelope. and shreericalncase or -yape eureka and butler projectiles the parts were of
were grape,
nel. The firstcarnister, and spherical
two contained case or c hrap-
no explosive arge soft
inte brass and, in Projectiles
the rifling. firing, wereofexpanded outward
these types per-
and were designed to break up in the gun o, it , itted considerable escape cf powder gas past
the muzzle; the last - bursting charge and them, with resulting decrease in vtlocity and 4
a fuze. accuracy.
1•-040
'00
Fig. 11-8 The projecti.c
and bore of Whitworth rig. 11-9 Various mears attemrpted Io
gun, 1857. ')btcin rotation.
The introductinri of rifling in cannon was fol- factors greatly influenced projectile develop-
]owed shortly by the development of effedive ment. The use :f steel gave added strength aad
r,nethods of breech closure, pe:rating employ- pernittcd the inclusion of harger bursting ch;rges
ment of breech loading. The s: of progressive of powerful new high ,plosives. Increases in
burning propellants and the adcp~aon of smoke- velocity brought about Improvements in shape
less powders of definite chemical composition and form designud to decrease retardation in
flight due to air resistance, tLereby iner-aii'ag
perruitted the attaimneut of higher velocities range and ,ccuracy. Ammuniton ,v'!opnien
with lower pressures. Developments in metal- was faci!itated by the evolution of new a1md im-
!urgy and in gun manufacture resulted in wea- proved means of *2stitag and determining ballis-
prns of greater strength and power. These tic effects,
11 -7 COMPLETE ARTILLERY ROUNDS
In general, artiller:y &.nmunition inIludes am- to fire the weapon oice. Complete rounds of
munition for weapons greater than caliber .60, artillery "immunition are kr,)wn as fixed, s%-mi-
except rocYkets. The weapons concerned are guns fixed, separate .ioading, and !separated, in ac-
(both standard and recoilless). howitzers, anc:
mor' 'rs. A complete r( nd of artillery ammuni- cordance with the marnnr in which they are
tion comprises all of ti,,- components necessary loaded into the weapon (Figure 11-10).
71 -7.1 FIXED AMMUNITION 11-.'2 SEMIFIXED AMMUNITION

Fixed amm.m.ition is comparable to the typical Serifi'ed amint:nition is charoact.,rized by the
small arms round, in that the projectile ii perma- Ioese fit of the cartridge case. over the projet•.te
nently fastened to the c:artridge .':,se and is so thia, the propelling charge is accessible for ad-
loaded into the wea'on as a :.igle piece The justament for zon,. firirg. Lile fixed ammunition,
propelling charge is no. rijustable, and if the it is loaded into the wealxn as a .nit. The pro-
projectile heccome- Ioosened ',om the cartridge polling charge is divided into w.ctions. euA ,,n-.
tsebeforf, firing the round .,.. nr0idered uti- tainitig propellent ,xwder as-inbled in a bag.
ser%,'.eable. Cartridge casc anr. proji.c:"le are To :a(Just the. charge, the pinjeetlic as I,[ted 1rorn
normally crimped rikidly together, %s;th the j.: thl e.)rtridlge case. the sectior.- ,r ir,.-rcincotj
* • pellia, l",rge loaded loosely into the cartridge ntaa re(,oired are reinoved. anid the projectile .
t - caje. ;I-, MlsleoI(t o the cartridge case.
I 11-11
XI
'74
Seprvate loading ammunition components place'd in the po~vder chamber irniediatcly t,)
(projectile, propelliag charge, and primer) are the rear of the prn:.*ctile; anid third, after th.:
--- AMMUNITION AND WARHEADS
11-7.4 SEPARATED AMMUNITION cork or plastic phlg. The projectile does not lit
into the cartridge case and is loaded into the
Separated ammunition is a special type of cannon separately. This type of ammunition fa-
separate loading ammu'r.ition. The propelling cilitates rapid loading by breaking long, heavy
charge is fixed and is contained in a cartridge rounds into two parts. Ammunition for the 120-
case, which is closed at the forward cud by a mm antiaircraft gun is of this type.
11-8 COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLETE ROUND
11-8.1 PRIMERS (b) Electric primer (see Figure 11-12). This

The •,'!lcry Thehe
anmunit~on primer
prrrent is designed
desgne to
isse toa type ofantllr
pimer
electriois fired by the heat g v'rated
e
ignite the picnelling charge. It consists essen- when an electric current passes tiongb a re-
tially of a small ar.-s prinier to •vhich a small sistance wire or other element embedded in
charge of black powder (igniter iharge) has primer mixture. It is used currently in certain
been attached. The primer ci•p and the black types of 20-mm ammunition for aircraft cannon.
powder charge are usually sf "-)led in a metal 1-8.2 CARTRIDGE CASES
tube. When used with axed, semifixed, and
separated ammunition, tiis tube is force fitted Fixed, semifixed, and separated ammunition
into the base of the cartridge case at the time of all employ a cartridge case as one component of
manufacture. Witb separate loading ammuni- the complete round. In fixed and semifixed am-
tion the primer is inserted by hand into the firing munition, the cartridge case performns the same
lock or firing mechanism of the cainnon as a final funct'ons as small arms cartridge cases, i.e., con-
step in loading. Historically, artillery primers tainer for the propellant; obturating device; and
have been classified according to the method by mean! of assembling the components of the com-
which they are fired as percussior., electric, complete round into a unit for ease of loading. In
bination, percussion-electric, and friction. By far separated ammunition, the cartridge case dces
the most common primer in actual use today is not perform the third of these functions.
the percussion type. Most cartridge cases are made of drawn brass
or steel. A new development is the spiral wrap
(a) Percussion primer. This type of primer, cartridge case. It is assembled from three steel
fired by a bL ,v of the firing pin, is generally pieces consisting of a forged base and a spirally
,used in all artillery ammunition (see Figure 11- wrapped body held together by a stamped collar.
11). The primers used in cartridge cases con- The body is made by rolhng a preformed trape-
tain sufficient black powder to ignite properly zoid-shaped steel sheet ia the same way a sheet
the propellant in the cartridge case. Those used of paper is rolled to forrm a hollow cylinder. The
with separate loading propelling charges con- design greatly', ,duces the amount of equipnaent
tain only enough black powder to ignite a black needed to ar ufacture cartridge cases aad will
powder ignv'er charge attached to the propelling result in a ti,..h ost only abaut % of the cost of
charge. the drawi, case.
"Fig.
.ll 11-11 P.mus.•on .
11-13
S!4
I...... . .. .. ... .. -...-.-

BC B
TWIT BC A I- E
!N$;JLA•ING ELECTRIC PRIMER, M0
ENAMEL
A--9igt•er charge C-Gun cotta E-ClUsing cup
iprimer charge) D-Con.-ad or F--Pressed black
8--insulator ignition wire powder pellets
Fig. 11-12 Electric primer.
1 1-"% PROPELLING CHARGE$ cylinder, is irietedl irn the neck of the cartridge
Artillery propelling charges consist of a pro- case between the powder charge and the base
pellent powder and an igniter charge of black of the projec'ile.
powder assembled in a suitable cartridge case, (2) Semifixed. Semifixtd ai;rmunitioij d,;ffe;s
clth baq, or both. In fixed and semifixed rounds, from fixed ammunition in th:at ýýi? iarridge case
the igi,.it.r charge of black powder is present in is not crimped tr. ;.+prlje( ;ile, b it is a loose fit
the artillery primer. In separated ammunition so that it can be rerno-veu and the propeiling.
an auxiliary igniter char' is placed around the charge adjusted to vary the ranve: therefore, the -
primer or on the dist.,ace wadding to insure charge is contaired in bags so that one or more ¶
proper ignition of the propellant. In separate of these bags con be remi;vcd and the rest re-
loading rounds the igniter charge is assembled placed. Each increment is numbered, the 1,,-e -
to an igniter bag sewed to the base end of the charge being numbered 1.
propelling charge and in some cases also form- (b) Separated ammunition. This pronl(ing
ing a coi.e running through the center of the charge is colntamned in a cartridge case, togethei
propelling charge bag. Cartridge igniter pads with the primer. Fle charge consists of ropel-
are made of closely woven silk to prevent the lent powder, ;ooseiy loaded in a brass c:srtridge
black powder from sifting through. Cloth of case which is ,-osed by a cork or plastic plug.
current manufacture used1 for the igniter charge As previously stated, this permits rapid kcading.
is dyed red to indicate the presence of the black In the ease ,f 120-mm amnmnition (FigurL 11
powder igniter. The propelling charge is as- 10), the assembled cartridge care is used to ram
se-abled with the artillery round in a manner the projectile into the weapon.
determined by the type of ammunition, that is, (c) Separate. loading. Cloth bags form a suit-
fixed, semifixed, separated, and separate loading able and convenient means of containing the
(Figure 11-10). Thc various charges used are sn.c`!kess powder 2harges in separate lo;..1ing
discussed below. ammunition Cartridge bag cloth was for-aerly
made of silk. Bags made of cotton 3r rayon are
(a) Fixed and semifixeri. The cartridge case, now used almost universally to replace silk. Only
made of drawn bras• or sb-el, serves as the con- certain ash-free grades of these fabrics a.e suil-
charg'e of fixed and semni- cetias-regdsofhseabc .,suz
tainer
a f the propeil~il'
for o ammdnitable;
cagfixed otherwise there might be smoldering frag-
ments left in the bore of tle camion after firing.
(1) Fixed. The prope'iing charge in a round Separate londlng propelling charges ,re usu-
of rixed ammunition is pack,.d looseiy in the ear- ally .ivided into several bags, or increments, so
hidge case. In some instances where the charge that different weights of charge can be chosen N'I
does not fill the case completely, a spacer (:;' dis- by the gun crew. This perm'ts increased flexi- ,
tance wadding, usually a cardtboard disk and Iiui', in oiper-tiin; tiat is, there will be several
!1-14
£ AMMUNITION AND WARHEADS
423)5 MAX
Fig 11-13 Sepa rate-loading charges
Fig. 11-14 Armor piercing capped shell, show'ing principal parts.
elevations which can be used to obtain a riven labeled. The principal characteristic differences
range. Thus, plunging fire, grazing fire (for rico- amnong the various projectiles are:
ehect action ), or inteiinedii ote angler o f fall can( a g v . T e c r d p o t n of th
be ob~tained at thc samne range siniply by alt.Žrir" aog .Tecredprino or -
the weight of propellant and changing wectlefoaponrr~ttotepon s ~e
weaonthe ogive. It iý normal~y defined[ as a s' gnient
eleatin acoringy.of an arp of a cir Ae whose center '.ottside of
11-8.4 PROJ ECTILES-GENERAL the nrojectile. TIrhe ra6ius of the ogive i, usuially
CHARACTERISTiCS expressed in cahibcrs. It influences the flight of
Figure 11.14 shows a sectionalized view of an the project~ile with a smnall radius used for low
artillery pi )jectile with its comnponent parts velocity pro~jectiles and a long radiuis used for
1!.15 * 4
WEAPON SYSTEMS AND CO,MONENTS
-4_
~A.
T1%(
f, ALK14- 2-7 loot"
Fig. 11-15 Base cover.
high velocity projectiles. Since armor piercing part of the trajectory is usually covered at a ve-
projectiles have a short radius of ogive for pur- locity much less than the 2900 feet per second.
poses of penetration, a windshield, often called (e) Base plug. To facilitate manufacture,
a ballistic cap or false ogive, is placed over the armor piercing projectiles are closed at the b.ise
armor piercing head to improve the ballistic with a heavy steel base plug. Ir the larger cali- 4
qualities, bers ths base plug adapter also provides a seat
(b) The
surface, bounelet
of slightly is the
larger accurately
diameter thon machined
the body, for the
bers, base
if an plug and
explosive fuze.is In
charge t',, smaller
loaded cali-
in the cavity
which bears on the lands of the bore of the wea- of the projectile, the base plug is replaced by a
pon. It centers the projectile in its travel through iase fuze. If no explosive is present in the
the boce. Generally it is at the forward end smaller caliber projectile the base plug contains
of the body, but it may extend from the ogive to the tracer element.
the boattailed base. Some pro~ectiles of large (f) Base cover (Figure 11-15). 20-mm pro-
caliber have a froxi and rear bourrelet. jectiles and project'les of 75-mm or larger cali-
(c) The body is the cy!indric..l pui:tion of the ber containing high explosive are provided witn
p-ojectiie between tne bourrelet and the rotating a base cover to prevent the hot gases of the nro-
band. It is machined to a smaller diameter than pelliojg charge frorn coming into contact with
the bourrelet to red,,ce the surfac; in contact the explosive filler of the projectile through
with the lands of the bore. Only the bourrelet joints or flaws in the metal of the base. The base
and rotating band bear on the lands. cove,, con': ts of a thin metal disk which may
(d) The base may be either tapered (boat- be calk ,o, crimped, or welded to the base of the
tailed) or cylindrical (square). Whether or not shell. Small caliber and medium caliber armor
a boattail is used depends upor. the velocity in- pircing projectilz's with high explosive filler and
tended for the major part of the useful trajec hbase inzes are not crdinarily provided with base
toiy. For example, boattail. will noi be found e',v.'rs.
on IIVAP ammunition, which is intended to (g) The rotating band is a cylindrical ring of
tra"' -I -.t more than M000 feet per second over its comparatively soft material, usually copper or
usefil trajectory. However, they will be found gilding mneial (sintered iron has also been su..-
on most high explosive rounds, where high strik- cessfully used) pressed into a knurled or rough..
ing velocity is not generally considered a re- ened groove near tile base ot the projectile. On i""
quirement of the round, and where the major some ItVAP projectiles, ho" ever, the band is
j 11-16
II•
Fig. 11-17 High explosive antitank shell.
steel and is an integral part of the base. The ro- (i) Armor piercing cap. A differentially hard-
tating band affords a snug seat for the projectile ened cap ,,sed only with armor-piercing pro-
in the forcing cone of the weapon and centers jectiles.
the base in the bore. As the projectile moves
forward the soft rotating band is engraved by tfl, I 11-.5 PROJECTILE T'fP1S
lands of the bore. Because of compression and (a) High explosive (H.E) shells (Figure l-
cuting of the band, excess metal flows toward 16) made of common forged steel, have com-
the rear. This flow of metal is taken up by paratively thin walls and h krge bursting chaeg-
grooves cut in the rotatin 'and. Since the rifling of high explosive. They Pre usAd against per-
of the weapon is helical, the engraving of the sor.nel and materiel targets, producing bLhst or
band imparta rotahiod to the moving p -ojectile. mining efect, or both, and fragmentatiua at the
The rotating band also prevents the ebeape of target. The) may be fitted wlith tither a time or
the propellent gases forward of the projectile by imnpict fuze or a concrete piercing fuze, accord-
completely filling the grooves of the rifling. Rc- ing to type of action desired.
tating bands are mad6 relatively narrow for low
velocities aid wider for high velocities. (b) The high explosive antitank (H.E.,A.T.)
(h) Tracer. For observation of Ere some pro- shell, often called the shaped charge or hollow
jectiles are equipped wit a tracer element in charge shell, is a special type coataining a high
the base of the projecti•k. In most smaller call- explosive charge for use against arn.,i plate (see
Figure 11-17). Chapter 10, Part 2 presents a i
ber antlaircr,,' .heils the tracer is used to ignite
comprehiensive explanation of the action of thee
the filler and destroy the shell should it miss the
target. Such a tracer is called shell destroying projectiles.
(SD). Tracer composition, are similar to small (c) Armor piercing projectiles defeat •amro
arms tracer compositions. by piercing it becau.me of their kinetic onergy. A
11-17
Mk i
Fig. 11-.18 Typical chemica projectiles.

x
detailed discussion of this type of projectile ap- shells have no burster or expelling charge. The
pears in Chapter 10, Part FI. 8 ic c-y is ignited
oke mixture the propelling charge
(d) Hypervelocity armor piercing shot through a hole in the base of the projectile.
(HVAP) (see Figure 10-17) is described in Shells of early manufacture have a low melting
Chapter 10, Part 2. point fusible metal plug in the base hole, while
(e) High explosive plastic projectiles shells of late manufacture have delay pellets of
(H.E.P.). (See Par. 10-21, Part 2.) black powder. The action of the delay pellet
if) Chemical shells may be classified accord- prevents disclosure of the gun position by the
ing to the method of expelling the char,,e (Fig.. smoke.
ure 11-18): burstei, base ejection (B.E.), andl (g) The illuminating shell (Figure 11-19)
base ignition (BI). contains a parachite and an illuminant assembly
(1) The burster type is similar to high ex. which are ejected by an expelling charge adja-
plosive shell except for the type of filler and the cent to the time fu.e in a manner rimilar to base
absence of a base cover. An explosive charge,, ejection smoke shell. The illuminant, suspended
terme, a burster, and located centrally in the by the parachute, burns and lights a target area.
shell, Vi-sed to break the shell body and aid ir (h) Canisters consist of a light metal case
dispersion of the chemical filler. .Tlled with steel balls or cylindrical peliets. Thcy
(2) Base ejection she!Is which are set to func. contain no explosive (Figure 11-20) and are
tion in flight do not have a burstcr but have firee point blank for effect against personnel.
an expelling charge of black powder adjacent to Centrifugal force and air pressure cause the pro-
the time fujze. This expelling charge, when ig- jectile to break apart upon leaving the muzzle of
nited by the fuze, ignites the smoke mixture ir the cannon, and the b-illq or pellets scatter in ,he
the canisters, strips the threads of tht base plug. manner of a shotgun .-harge. Canisters are no.: tt,
ard forces the canisters from the base of the: be confused with the famcus shrapnel rouri ot
shell. World War 1. Shrapnel is a time fuzed round
(3) Base ignition (base ernriiion) smoke which functions at a set time aiter firing, causing
11.18I
AMMUNITION AND WARHEAnS
I?
) .......
I.j
I3
Fig. 117-19 lllumi',atina sheilk
11-19
- WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
Mot~
AA
Fig. 11-20 CUnheste' top, 57-mm recoilless -d~o, b.-,ttom, ý-- mm
metal balls to be shot forward horn a projectile- xlcviindrical pellets. TIhe cylindrical forward
like body. New deve lopin nt in canisters ir 2kide section has four slits, V0 apart, which weakens
changes in the design and arrangement of the ,hie walls sufficiently tofacilitate opening the
missiles within the container, and in the location canister when it leaves 0ie mui..!c of the weapon.
at which the conk-a~ner releastes the inissviles. One This is an improvement c~ver 66i t-r.fe s1 ¶own in
type, for use in the 90--mr gun, consists of a rL~e lower view of Fis,,ure 11-20, which-i often
heavy base with rotazing band, and a thin steel brr~le up while in the -u.i tube aida'nag d trie
cylindrical forward section filled with stacked bore.
i1.-9 MORTAR AMMUNITION-COMPLETE ROUNDS

Mortars %reused wt'ere high aingles of fire are cahiber to bt. fired alm'ost immediately after
desirce; for Ahingffng fire behind hills or into establishment if a bepchhead.
trenchms, emplaceiý.euts, or foxholes. The iiiu7,zle
velocidwe and rangis of mrnotars are less than
those of guns ond howitzers, but because of ýheir
Most mortars are smooth bore and muzzle
loaded (see figures 11-21 and 11-22), although
thk- 4.2-:'n. mortar is a rifled, muzzle loaded
.
extreme simplicity, Ynobility, and dependability weapon. 'Muzzle loaded rounds must be cow.-
they are used exteisively by infantry units. pletp as a unit so +hat when they are dropped
Mortars allow ammunition of gun and howitzer tail down into the w ioimpact with the firing
Fig. 11-21 Typical round of mortar rimmurnit on U

11-20
pin is all that is needed to set off the propelling

charge. Smioth bore rounds must have fins to
stabilize them since rotation iF absent.
Mortar ammunition is being redesigned in the
U.S. Army with the~ objective of obtaining the
optimum ballistic shape. Figure 11-21 shows
the shape of a lypical mortar shell of the newW
design. It is probable that in the Afuture all inor-
tar ammunition will have a similar shape.
Mortar projectiles are usually !ighter in con-
itruction than artillery projectiles because the
chamber pressures and setback forces are much P
less. Smooth bore projectiles have no rotating
band, and they contact the bore at two or three
places, one being a series of machined bands
ca!d th gas check bands, and another being
* ~ the outside portion of the fins. The gas check
area is near the front of the projectile.
The principall types of mortai projectilec are
It high. explosive, chemnical smoke, and illumindting.
T'II cy are all point fuzed. The low muinle velo-c-
ity, high trajec~tory, and lack of extreme~ accurac,,y
p~reelude the use of mortar armor piercing proj:x.-
Cles.
In general, mortar ammunition has an evejust-
albe propelling charge to permit firing aft v .rious
rar. ges or zones of fire. The propellent iýncrc-
meuts are usually -)f double-base powdei. waled
in individual, plastic type package-, owt are at-
.ýachcd tý- the fin shaft or within ch- Fa P.-Ades.
An ignitioin cartridge, comparable ti, ir artillery
primer, is .iserted in the base end of t'Ae fin shaft.
The assembly of th2 ignition cartri' .ge and the
propellent increments make up the zquired pro-
pellinig charge. Because the comr fete round is
j.fication
loadod into the mortar as a unit a id pyovision is
macie for adjusting the propelli' ig charge, am-
munition of this type comes w thin the classi-
of sem-fied ammuntor. RLEFig. 11-22 60-mm mortar shell bRing fired.
Recoilless rifle ammunition ( Figure 11-25i) dif- the following features: rotating band, cartridge
fers from conventional artille y ammunition in case, and propeli-, g cha-ge.
11-10.1 ROTATING G)AND of the gun tube by eliminiation ei engraving

Recoiilless rifle projectiles l ave preengraved stresses in the tube; and to reduce mbe possibI~ty
rotating bands in order to rectuce performance of recoil in the weapon. Th.e use of preengraved
&
variktions fr-..m round to round; to reduce weight bands decreases the speed with which xecoilless
11-21
Fig. 11-23 Recoiles rifle round.
rifles can be loaded, as the rotating band must be case. This bag is consumed at the time the round
carefully engaged in the rifiig. is fired with little effect on h1listic performance.
11-10.1 CARTRIDGE CASE 11-10.3 PROPELLING CHAIGE
The cartridge case is of steel and is perforated The propellant is a single-base powder of the
with a large num,ber of holes. These holes permit sarn. general type as that used in conventioi.al
e~cape af the propellent gases. into the enlarged artillery ammunition but is employed in -nuch
chamber and thence through venturi oritces in greater quantity fnr a given projectile weight,
'he breech to produce the force opposing recoil. caliber, ane muzzle velocity. This is understand-
In conventional artillery ammunition the anper- able in view of the fact that in zddition to pro-
forated case protccis the propelling charge from pellirg the projectile, it must offset the tendency
moisture. Protection in the recoilless round is of the system to recoil. Higher effective fas
vehieved through use of a mcisture-proof plastic velocities would add to the relative efficiency of
bag conforming to the inside diameter of the the propellant. but would rl-o increase the blast,
11-11 BOMB.--INTRODbCTION
Bombs for aircraft, as known today, are largely to function at ,Erticular times and under pre-
a d-velopment of1the last two decades. Although determined coadi ons. In some instances, the
bombs were used in World War I, the size, ac- container is constructe-I so that it will produce :
curacy and termial ballistics at tat time were particular fragmentation effect at the target.
such that their militi,-y value was limited almost A typical 6omb consists ot four inw.in parts (see
entirely to psychological and nuisance effets. Figure 11.24):
Between wars, some deve'opmei.t work was done (a)gThe b o i s i n
on borubs, bu: onlyIn the lafin19ta s did progress a() The bomn body, with its explosive, chem-
on, bdal,rapid. Stimulated by World War
become the or other content.
aircraft bomb quickly became a major weapon o (b) A fin assembly to stabilize its flight.
destruction, and in the final tally for that war, (c) An arming wire assc.ably.
bombs accounted for more ldlling, wounding, (d) A fuze or fuzes to explode the bomb a/
and property destruction than sny o'hk:r type of the proper moment.
weapon. Usually these parts are assembled into a com-
Bombs are essentially aimado containers of plete
owpiosive or other material which s.e designed bomb round
bays orjust before being loaded into the
other carrying devices of aircraft.
11-22
AMAMUNI(ON AND WARHEADS
I 4-1
IAL
Fig. 11-24 250-lb general purpose bomb.
11-12 DESIGN AND MANUFACTL'RE
11-12.1 BOM21 BODIES InCrelsing speeds of planes and higner drop

Bomb bodies are manul.ctitted from seamlcss altitudes have made necv-sary the improvement
t. uing, forgiy-igs, or welded sections. Some frag of fin design (see Figure 11-25). These fins are
mestation bombs are unique in that they are longer and stronger, and are fitted rigidly to a
corn joseci of b.-.- steel wrapped over the explosive long. con-ecal sleeve wyhich fits over the taper of
*container. Fine quality steel is necessary to pre- the rear of the bomib body. This current design.
vent breakup of the bomb before proper func- grcatly improves bomb aezmtacy by lmpionring
tioning at the target. The bomb body is usually airflow over Zhe fin iissem'jly an~d by reduction oC
*made of a c.zrbon-manganese or chromea vbAto through greatt. - strength and lgidit'-,-.
mnolybdenum stee! of about 100,000 psi tensile 112. ARIG IE
strength. The wall thickness varies with the size
of t~ie bomb and its intended function. Arming wire assemblies are used tokM)e the
fuzes 'n the nase and tail oa the bomb saie untlil
11412.2 FINA the bcmb is rele~sed from the aitcraft. The arm.
Fins use'.A on World War 11 bombs were made ing wire shown in Figure U1-24 is threaded
from fla' t:etl welded iund braced wher,.Ž neces- through the nose and tail fuzes so that the pro-
() saiy. Figure 11-24 -rhows their gtencril appear-

ance. They nust be frue from dents -.r distortion
for proper s-,mmetry
poller-like vanes cannot turn until the arming
wire is withdrawn. The arming wire swivel Is
heid by a pawl in the boirb shackle. When the
11-23
WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS I
' I! : I
T I
* _ B- . .-..
LL~
yij, 1.23 Th'i mmbes o of thq new bomb family, .ruipped wit the improved fin
t?~VIVy. :The general pupc,.o "rmily of bombs" concept standoardixwe t.ie design and
!nimittthe iwenber of types 'o one desigin for each size. 'hreo of those sizes ,e' shown
above. Aircrnft, and the* bombs, are now designed sv that approx'mately the same
payload (in pounds of bombs) may be cnrriod by ant giv,.i aircrcft. The size af
bombq seated for uri wili depend upon the mission to be a'complished.,'
bomb is released from the shackle t.' arming than a certain iiruting altitude, depending an the
wi4 is retained, freeing the fuze vanes so they type ot bomb, or the shock of impact may d-to-
may turn in the arstream. If che bombardier nate the explosive filler.
desires to jettison bombs over friendly territory.
the armin6 wire may be released from the bomb -
shackle a~d fall with the bomb, thus preventing Fu-.es are so pos;tiened and c., ruch a design as
functioning of. the fuzes upon impact. To have to ass.ir.' proper and complete functioning of
bombs fall safe, the p~ane must be at no morm bursting type bombs.
1 -I1 CLASSIFICATION
In c•=r.tm wvh other tyes of amnmunition, according to filler as follows:

bombs, tre cassiWied accoritvg to use as annor
-Iercing tAP), general purpose (GP), light case Explosive GP, LC, AP, SAP, Depth, aad
( ), fragmentation, depth. semi-armor piercing Iragmenthtion
( SA•P), gm;, smoke, incen-6ary, photoflash, target Chemical Gas, Smoke, and Incendiary
ideitification (TT). practice, and drill. Except Pyrotechnic - Photoflash and TI1 41 A
foi pru-'tl w bombs, they re further ciassilled Inc-rL - Drill
11-24
- lift
AMMUNMTON AND WARHEADS
Practice bombs usually are loaded inertly 1 v.13.2 LIGHT CASE i1Cl
~ngchrgeof
cxcpt c' ~ lak pwde ~ This typo- of boialb (Figure I!-., is desi6,,ied
sam.mixtre.to carry a maximum cliargc Thc percczitaws of
The relative anonnts of explosive and metal in explosive is 70% or ncire. 1,tght cai- born s ..re
a bomb are dependent -upcn the use for which a used for their blast effeCL, ~al- t-!( tO be *-l
bomb is intendcd. The percentage of explosive is lag.Snesrgtofae abe. cd
oiren~~~~~.:-in
.. hs~ in o b ye b. ofmth to maximum charge, this type bomb cannot be
~x~m~ ~miartnr
xamp', percig bmb, used for penetration and must be fuzed to ex-
vWhch contain: V%of exp!2.-ive by w'iight, may pldbeoetecsbrakuoniat
be de'cribed as a 8N bomb. ld eoetecs rýk pnipc
The various t:ypes of bombs are diessea in
more detail in the following paragraphs. 11-13.3 ARMOR PI[WfINGD (AP)
This type of bomb (Figure 11-28) is designed
11-13.1 GENFRAL PURPOSE (OP) to pierce the heavy deck armor of modern 1; ttle-
This type of I-omb (Figure 11-26) is designed ships. The case is extremely heavy and as a
meetthereqiremntsof he reatmajrit of consequence the percentage of explosive is re-
bombing h eurmet ftegea aoiyo duced to about 15%. The effect of a near miss is
in weight from 100-lb to 44,000-lb. The percent- epoie hstp ol o eue gis
I
ageof
inthi tpe 'a~age 50. Gn-
xplsiv unarmored or ligbtly armored ships because,
eIalproebmsryb sdfrbat being fuzed with a'delay fuze to permit pekietra-
ragnientation, or mining effect. They are de- tion of armor, the bomb might pass entirely
bth :ai an nse uze. Nse
forusewit through a light target before exploding. Armor
fuzes produmce moie efficient blast effect and tail bmsaesralndi hp n
fuzes produce mo~re efficient ,eep mining effect. pecn
iBotl! fuzes are generally~ uscd when blast effect adapited for tail fuze only. Th-y have an armor
is de sired. The tail ee is used as insurance pirngcpwci is i.rentgshtr
igainst malfunction. f he metal case is strong upon impact. The strearnlir~e6 zhave, together
4
armor or h)gabAt-ength ii. nqrced concrete struc- them a !ý;hblitccefcetso that theij
tures. General purpose bcoaihý -av be fiiieewith striking velocity is coasider,,77 higher than that
-Im'mtol. TNT, or Comp,,sition B. tar a '1P or LC Wiom- of equal weight, dropped
Fig. 11-26 1000 lb GP bon4,ý
11 25
WEAPON SYSTEMS AND .CIMPONENTS
- ~~ - ~ -- ___ __- -_ _ _ _ _
Fig. i 1-23 0004o-b AP bomb.
frumn tht scime altitude. Armor piercing bombs flat n~ose to reduce or prev'ent ricochet wvhen
are usually !oaded with Explosive D. dropped from low altitudes. The depth bomb is
11-2
4000-l withb yrs athcfuer
r whihafntonsruatl
Vj-3.
3MIARORPIRCNG(SAP) afuzedtwrith a hydrost
' raticfuer thach functinsat
Thi tye 1-29 recrnlesgeneral
(igue Depth bombs are loaded with Comp. 1B,TNT, or
ecep tht te bmbbody is
puroseboms torpe'x. Aluminized explosives such as torpex are
tendeplosve harg isapproxi-
heaver peerdbcueo hi ral nrae
ay e ued gaistlightly ar-
matly 0%.It underwater effectiveness.
mored targets or, because of the heavy case 11-13.6 FRAGMENTATION
protidingoftperonnelmortateion. agisAP concen-
~
trations ~~r aeieE bmb arerone Fragmnentition bonhcý are designed ro produce
usullwthfllepiraol amtý)lorT NT. their effect ihrovgh proiection of fragments of
the bomb body. '['hey are intendIed for use
11-13111 EPTHagainst pcrsoane! and light materiel to include
The d..Žpt bomb is a light case type of bomb parked aircraft. Tocy may be stabilized by fins,
designed for use against slibinarines. it averaiIs for medium altitude bom~bing or by parachutes
70% explosive. The case is cylindrical and h:.s a for very low altitud(.e bombing to de~ay the impact ~
1 -26
Ii ,, AMMUNMiON AND WARHEADS
Lii
Fig. 11-29 I',OI-b SAP bomb.
Fig. 11-30 Fragmentation bomEb, 23-1b.
of the bomb until the airplane has cleared the and after the cluster opens the bombs are dis-
danger zone. The erplosive charge in this type persed over a considerable area. The individual
of bomb averages 14% and the body walls are of bombs have four wings which spring out wheni
uniform thickness. The wall of one type of frag- the cluster frees the bombs, and which serve the
mentation bomb (Figure 1-30) is a helix mrade dual purpose of arming the fuze and retarding
of bar steel with square cross section. Fuzes for the fall of the bomb.
fragmentation bombs are designed to function on
o; above the surface of the ground. Fragmenta- 11-13.7CHEMICAL BOMIIS-
tion bombs are usually loaded with TNT or GA" AND SMOKE
Comp. B. Gas and smoke bombs have a light metal case
Another important type of fragmentation bomb which acts only as a containier for the chemical
is the so-called butterfly (see Figure 11-31). This agent up to the time the bomb strikes the ground.
four-pound bomb is dropped in aimable clusters, These bombs are equipped with superquick fuzes
11-27
I- UI
I • , • .--. . . . . . •i •III4 - t-
V "
Fig. 11-32 4-1b incendiary bomb.
because any penetration of the bomb would carry burning of thermate with magnesium, or by the
the chemical agent underground, thus diminish- burning of jellied gasoline. The most common
ing the effect of the charge. The bomb case is fire bomb used by the United States Air For',e in
Sopened and the charge scattered by a burster World War II was a four pound bomb consisting
which is an explosive element resembling the of an igniting charge of thermate enclosed in a
booster and auxiliary booster of high explosive case of heavy magnesium alloy. The burning of
bombs. Some bursters are lor.g tubes of explosive the magnesium, after being ignited by the ther-
the bomb. mate, provides the main incendiary effect of this
h bbomb.
11-13.0 CHEMICAL BOMBS-, A steel head causes the bomb to fall nose first,
INCINDIARY and also gives strength to the nose. In some
(a) Incendiary bombs. Incendiary bombs bombs of this type (see Figure 11-32) the steel
usually obtain their effects either through the head contains an explosive charge with a delay
11-28
I"A
Fig. 11-33 6-lb oi! incendiary bomb
fuze. Such an arrangement is highly discourag- filled with white phosphorous and equipped with
ing to bomb disposal personnel, as they don't air arming, all-ways fuzes.
know which bombs have an explosive head, or "The process of thickening gasoline to produce
when they may go off. the bomb filler is simple. Napalm, the thickener
(b) Napalm bombs. The second major class which gives the bomb its name, is stirred into
of incendiary bombs is made up of those filled the gasolhie in an npen nixing tank wh'ch may
with jellied gasoline. Often called napalm bombs, consist of a regular M5-gallon gasoline drur with
they are essentially light meta! containers filled th2 head taken off. If the temperature is below
with gasoline that has been caused to jell by 600F, a peptizer is added to increase the abllitki
the addition of a chemical. thickener. of the gasoline to absorb the thickener and to
The bomb shown in Figure 11-33 contabis a reduce the gelling time. 'Yhe standard peptizer is
main charge of jellied gasoline and an ejection- cresylic acid.
igniter charge of black powder and magnesium. The improvement and development of the
The bomb is stabilized in, flight by streamers of napalm bomb is continuing, stimulated iy the
muslin which, until release of the bomb from the success of the weapon in Korea. Improvements
cluster, are packed loosely in the tail cup. The are sovght in the sighting methods, ballistic
bomb is fuzed to act upon impact with a 3- to performance in flight, gel composition, and fuz-
5-second delay. Upon functioning of the explo- ing. Lack of accuracy continues to be the great.
s ve train the gel is ignited and ejected out the est problem in the employment of the bomb, and
otil nf the bomb. The fragments of the charge possibilities of extensive development are defi-
bjrj- from 8 to 20 minutes depending on their nitely limited until progress is made in the
size. development of an acceptable ballistic container.
The best known napalm botiab c(-nsizts of a Progress in this field is promisng but is of a
165-gallon airplane gasoline tank of the je'tison- classified nature and will not be covered here.
able type, which has been filled with jellied
gasoline. This jellied mass is ignited upon i- 11-139 PHOTO
pact by 'wo chemical grenades, one fitted into Because of its explosive nature, the photoflash
the gasoline filling hole and the other into a illuminating projectile is called a bomb. It pro-
special tail bracket adapter. The grenades ar3 vides a brilliant light of short duration for night
11.29
photography. A photoflash bomb/ which is expelling charge and burn with a characteristic
dropped safe, or whose fuze fails io function, color and pattern. TI bombs aie used by "path-
may detonate on impact. The light from photo- finder" aircraft, which precede bor-ber attacks
flash bombs, even at distances prescribed as safe and designate or identify the target, thus facili-
'iom bomb fragments, is injurious to the eye be- tating sighting and reducing the probable error.
cause of its brilliance. Some photoflash bonmbs
produce a flash which reaches an intensity of 11-13.11 PRACTICE
500 to 700 million candlepower for approxi- This type of bomb is provided for target prac-
mately 0.02 seconds and function from 5 to W0 tice. There is a wide variety of types a.d weights
seconds after release, depending on setting of its in order to represent all types of service bombs.
mechanical time fuze. Some practice bombs have a fuze and a spotting
charge while others are completely inert.
11-13.10 TARGET IDENTIFICATION (TI) 11-13.12 DRILM
This type of bomb is also pyrotechnic in nature. Completely inert bombs and components are
It consists of a modified GP bomb case with a supplied for the training a.nd pi.ctice of ground.
n,.se fuze, an expelling charge, and a number of crews. Each type and weight of scrvice bomb is
pyrotechnic candles which are ignited by the represented by a corresponding drill bomb.
11-14 CLUSTER ADAPTLRS
A cluster adapter is a rack or container de- the four binding straps which hold the individual
signed to hold a large number of small bombs so bombs in the cluster. The bombs then fall free
that they may be carried in the standard bomb of the oluste: adapter. t
stations for large bombs (Figure 11-34). The The tqpe shown in Figure 11-35 is an aimable C "
cluster adapter simplifies loading of bombs into cluster. Iv the first part of its fall from the plane
a plane and theji release from the bemb bay. it is fin stailized and follows a predictable tra-
jectory. In 'he nose of the adapter there is a
There are two main types of cluster adapters, flare fuze whch may be set to operate from 6
quick opening (frame) adapters (see Figure 11- to 90 seconds vfter release from the bomb bay.
34) and aimable adapters (Figure 11-35). At the present time thc .uzc fires a black powder
In the type shown in Figure 11-34, when the charge which opeis the cluster adapter as shown.
cluster is released irom the bomb shackle the The four-pound fr.gmentation bombs fall free
four-branch arming wire is withdrawn from and arm as iescribed previously.
11-15 WARHEADS
Through World War IIthe word warhead was for each specific usage to whch the warhead is to
accepted when referring to the explosive, damage be put:
creating element of a naval torpedo. Today, a High explogive
little over a decade later, there is a much broader Fragmentation - controlled
definition of the word. Warhead'ý are now con- HE., AT.
sidered to be the destructive component of a H.E,
missile.
The warhead may be of the atomic or thermal Kinetic energy
nuclear variety or of one of the non-atomic Chemical
types. Each has its place in military require- Biological
ments. The following types must be considered Atomic (fission)
and the particular effect to be achieved optimized Thermal nuclear (fusion)
11-30
- ~AMMUNITION AND W#7',RHEADS
(aI ~.11-j4 Incendiary botrý Cilsers in bomb bay.
ItI
Fig. 11-35 Fragmentation bomb cluster, MV.
The ultimate selection of the type warhead to (a) What effect or effects are to be optimized?
he employed on a missile system requires that (b) Over what radius must the terminal ef-
the utesign engineer determine the answer to a fects act?
multitude of quest'ions. A few of the questions (c) What are the limits of dimensions and
which must be answered are listed for considera- weight to which the warhead must conform?
tion and stimulation of further thought. (d) To what accelerativn and decelc.ration
I
SUM-
____11-31
-
.4
,VEAFON SYSTFMS AND COMPONf:iNTS
Swill the warhead be subjected? will indicate the direction which must be pur-
(c) What effect will change in altriude have sued in developing a missile warhead which will
on blast, therrmal, and nuclear effects? allow the terminal effects desired to be maxi-
(f) What storage conditions cnd length of mized while at the same time keeping the war-
storage maybe expected? head withihA proper dimensinns and weight
rge mayw c and rethe slimitations. The problem is similar to that found
(g) Who will service anire tsystm in developing projectiles for a projectile gun
(h) What special equipment * needed to system. The d-sign and construction of missile
handle the walhead? warheads is much morc difficult in most cases,
(i) Are interchangeable warheads to be con- however, due to the rigid specifications required
sidered to allow selection of type and magnitude demanding selection of equipment and engineer-
of terminal effects? ing materials which are often of new design and
The answer to these and many other questions of uncertain response at extreme conditions.
.. 11-16 GRENADES-INTRODUCTION
Grenades are small explosive or chemical mis- also be fittei, with a special launching device.
siles intended for uise against an enemy at rela- Both hand and rifle grenades can be classified
tively short ranges. There are two basic types of into three general types: explosive, chemical,
grenades: those thrown by hand and those pro- and practice or training. Explosive grenades,
jected from rifles or carbines e~luipped with producini, fragmentation or blast, are used pri-
suitable grenade lauachers. By attaching a suit- marnly for antipersonnel or antitank effect, though
able adapter some of the hand grenades may they may also be used Ps demolition agents. .
also be fired from rifles and carbines. Hand Chemical grenades are employed for casualty,
grenades provide fi.e soldier with an auxiziary harassing, incendiary, screening, and signaling
weapon, similar to a shell or bomb, to supplement purposes. Some of them may also be used for
his basic weapons. Rife grenades are valuable training purposes and demiltariation.
not only for specialized use, sach as against Grenades thrown by hand are normally fitted
tanks, but also for covering the ranges between with a delay action fuze. For explosive hand
the maximum for had grenades and the mini- grenades and bursting type white phosphorous
mum for mortar shells. Special blank cartridges hand grenad,., this delay is set for approxi-
packed with rifle grenades, must )ýe used in the mately 4.5 seconds. Burning type chemical hand
weapon for projecting these grenades, and the grenades use a fuze with a delay of approxi-
rtie or carbine ii-om which they ..re fired must mately 2 seconds.
11-17 HAND GRENADES
11-17.1 FRAGMIATATION Attached to the fuze body is a safety lever which,

Figure 11-,6 shows a typical H.E. hand gre- by means of a safety pin, is held in place against
nade. This grenade is a controlled fragmentation the action of the striker spring. just prior to
device as discussed in Par. 7-9, Part 2. It is loaded throwing, the safety pin is removed. When the
with a high explosive which causes the fragments grenade is thrown, (he sadfety lever is pushed
to be projected outward in a pattern designed to off by the striker, allowing the striker to hit the
optimize lethal effect.
The tuz&- tor
combustOle ,ime this grenade
delay has n
train, and primer, a
a. detonator.
primer. The primer -gnites the time delay train
"through 4 tocauses
and, afterand 5 seconds, the delay to
the detonator train bumns
explode. )
11-32
This, in turn, causes tha explosive filler in used in the fragmentation grenade, except that
the grenade to detonate, thereby fragmenting the it has aui igniter instead of a detonator, and has a
grenade. Fragrm~ents may fly over 200 feet. short delay time of 2 seconds. Grenades of this
The fragmentation hand grenade may be type have waterproof. adhesive tape covered,
launched from a rifle or carbine by using a smoke emissioa 'ioles in the top, sidos, or bottom.
special projection adapter. T!e adapter consists These grenades ire dcscribed briefly as follows:
,f a tail fin ard stabilizer assembly with four (1) The irritant hand grenade has a harassing
metal claws at the -forward end to hold the effect. Its principal use is in the control of civil
grenade body (see Figure 11-37). One claw has disturbances. The burning time is 20 to 60 sec-
an arming clip to hold the safety lever of the onds. The filler is a composition of tear gas,
grenade in place until removed by the setback
force of firing. Once the safety lever has flown
fiae, the grenade functions after the usual delay.
Xy using the adapter it is possible to obtain air
bdrsts with the fragmentation grenade, a result
impossible when it is launched by hand.
11-17.2 OFFENSIVE
The offensive grenade is intended to have an
antipersonnel effect over a small radius. It c an-
tains seven ounces of pressed TNT, which is
about four times the content of the fragmentation
grenade. The blast effect is therefore very great,
though no significant fragmentaiion is obtained
",rom the destruction of the laminated paper-
sheet metal body.
11-17.3 CHEMICAL GRENADES
(a) Burning type. The standard 2ontainer for
this type of grenade is a cylindrical steel can. Fig. 11-36 Fragmentation
The fuze for these grenades is sirailar to the fuze hand grenade.
07
Fig. 11-37 Fragmentatio.n hand grenade show.vn in adapter for !aunchirg from rifle or carb.;no.
11-33
-M
WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS -
vomit gas, and smol-e!ess powder. A tapered hole xtends through the center of the
(2) The tear gam hand grenade is identical grenade from the bottom emission hole to the
with the irritant grenade except that it has a fuze. The ignition mixture lines the tapered cav-
tear gas Iilirr. Priiicipal uses are in control of ity. The gremade produces a heavy smoke for
civil disturbances and training in use of the gas approximately one minute.
mask. (b) B ,.rstinv type. There is only one staadard
(3) The smoke grenade is an Army-Navy chemical grende of this type and it is known as
standard w!lite smoke grenade used for signaiing the WP smroie grenade. This grenade has a
and screeningi purposes. The container is stand- ("':-wn steel cylindrical body similar in size to the
ard except tiat there are no emission holes in *rning type chemical hand grenad,.s, and is
tl..• side. The burning time is about two m',utes. 'led with white phosphorous. The detonating
(4) The incendiary grenade is an Arny-N*,vy -17e used in this grenade causes it to sp!it open
standard item for setting file to enemy materieL, and project burning particles oF phosphorous
The coatainer is standard except that there are over a radius of about 15 yards. This produces
no emission holes in the side. Clamps of steel a dense white smoke ýLreen and %ilX cause casual-
strapping, which fit around the body of the ties by burning.
grenane, may be used to nail the grenade against
an object to be burned. The filling is thermate, 11.17.4 PRACTICE A"CD TRAINING
which burns at approximately 4330'F for W0 to HAND GRENADES
35 seconds. Such grenades are used in training. They may
(5) The colored smoke grenade is available in be incri itraining), or loaded with a charge of
red, green,, yellow, and violet. It is used for black powder contained in a cloth tube (prac-
signaling purposes. The container has emission tice). !n this case the charge is inserted intr the
holes in the top, and a single hole at the bottom. filling hole, which is closed with a cork.
11-18 11IFLE GRENADES

11-18.1 EXPLOSIVE rf-fte grenade consists of a deep drawn, thin
A typical antitank rifle grenade (Figure 11-38) walled steel body with hemispherical og~ve and
consists of a sheet steel body, cone, aid ogive body union assembly, to which is attached a
assembly to which is attached a point-initiatIng simple base fuze aad a stabilizer and fin assnm-
L.se-detonating fuze, and a stabilizer and fin bly. This type of grenade is available with
assembly. Defeat of armored targets, its pri- approximately elewa ounces of white smoke or
mary mission, is accomplished by use of the appr ounces of whitesmoke or
shaped charge principle. se'e, ounces of standard colored smoke filling.
both of these t•ypes of chemical rifle grenades
11-18.2 CHEMICAL RIFLE GRENADES commence burning upon impact due to the
(a) Burning. The burning type of chemical action of the base initiatin, type cf fuze. The
Fig. 11-38 Grerade, rifle, H. E., A. T.
11-34
AMiMUNITION AM`) WARHEADS
1
IIMF AF
Idl
Fig. 11-39 Smoke rifle grenades.
white smoke grenade is intended primarily foi hizer and fin assembiy identical to that used in the
screening purposes and the colored smoke gre- antitank grenade. It contains app-oximately nine
nades for signialing. ounces of white phosphorous' and is equipped
I )(b) Bui-Eting. The bursting ty-pe is thae coun- with a burster actuated by a Lase detonating
Ismoke -terpart of the 'AT smoke hand grenade. The WP
rif,ý grenade (Figure 11-39) hai a stabi-

fuze. The sponstaneously combustible white.
phosphorous filler is scattered upon impact.
f 1
1-19I MINES-INTRODUCTMON"
Mines consist of a high explosive charge which plastic instead oi metal, so more powerful mines
is detonated by mechanical or chemical fuzes can be! constructed within a given weight limita-
when actuated by a vehicle or personnel. An tion.
explosive-containing adapter is used for some An important aspe.-ct of the employment of
mines so that standard firing devices (such as mines is the use of special firing devices to in-
I aintilifting devices) may be, installed for second- crease the difficulty of removing them oace they
Iary initiation. Land mines are classified accord- have been positioned. Firing devices may be
j-ing to use as antitank or antipersonnel and also readily installed in special fuze wedls which are
*as qRervice, practice, oi- dummy. built into alb antitank mines and wil! caust. ýhe
IThe ease with which metallic mines can be mine to fuvction when it is disturbed or lifted t-y
I detected by electromagnetic detectors and other mine disposal personnel. These de~vices also fird
Idevices has led to the developmrent of a family many other important uses including the con-
Iof ronmetallic inines. Present development types struction of booby-traps.
Sare of about the same size and general appear- Min.-s have played an important role in in-
ance as their metallic courat,ýrpar'. but they have fluencing action on the battlefield. Employed in
plastic bodies and nonmuetallic fuzes. 1lic -ro- their major role they have denied likely routes of
¶)portion
-
of high explosive to total weinght of the al'ttRck to the aggressor by making his potential
mine is considerably increased by the use of losses in tnic- and materiel more than he can
I - - -11-35
absorb. In this role the use of millions of anti- utilize basic engineering principles to analyze the
personnel and antitank mines has greatly influ- effectiveness of currently used mines and to de-
enced the outcome of an engagement. •' study sign newer and more lethal models using con-
3f mines from an engineering v'iewpoint becomes roil!ed fragmentation principles, ar~vancements
doubly im ojrtant, for here again it is possible to made in the shaped charge, and the like.
11-20 ANTITANK MINES
11-20.1 HEAVY ANTITANK MINE 11-20.2 UGHT AdrlTANK MIN!

The heavy antitank mine M6 is a typical ex- The light antitank mine N!'i is a flat. quart-
ample of a high explolve type designed for uf•e sized mine (Figure 11-41 ) filled with abot 3 lb
against tan'-s (Figare 11-40). It is loaded with of hign explosive, us,;ally tetrytol. It is intended
approximately 12 lb of TNT ~The comple'e as- for 'Jut mayaeasily
antitank nse s.I
•,tpron' be converted for
edtntdb
srntinersonne' use. It can be detonated by a
sembly weighs app.,oximately 20!b. Perrnaiact!ly force of approximately 190 lb on the pressure
assembled to the mine body is a round pressure plate- A U-shaped pressure plate fits over mine
plate containing a reversible plug which covers ef the mine and covers the fuze. The the topis
the fuze well. The pressure plate is suF,.orted rec:tangular in shape and weighs about 4 lb. A
interally by circular belleviie springs, an a number. ,f firing device• may be used to guard
against tamptring with, or removal of, this mine.
pressure of function,
30W pWunds on t-P plate v',i! cause The
the fuze to tank samue
rnime types af fuzes
are used in thisused in the heavy ani-
mine.
11-21 ANTIPFRSONNEL MINES
"7hebounding antipersonnel mine, (Figure 11- fields to protect 'antitank mines against enemy
42) throws a projectile upward to a height ov 2 breaching parties. With a combination fuze the
to 4 feet, after which the projectile explodes. The mine can be detonated either by pressure or pull.
projectile is thrown into the aii by the barning of Tize ir-ereased effectiveness ol this mine is gained
a small propelling charge of black powder in the in parr by use of controlled fragmentation tech.
base of ihe mine. niques.
The mine is primarily employed in mixed miric Statifnary antipersonnel mines come in many
4 i
Fig. 11-40 H.epvy awf4ank mine6,46 cross sction.
K
11-3
- -- •
igt atiftSmine, M7, with chomical fuz*..

Fig 1141 -
1
Fig. 11-42 Antiporsonno! mine, M~416, ceoss-stctionol view.
11-37
A WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
sizes s- d !:hapes. Two are shown in Figures 11- These mines are used for a multitude of pin.
43 and Hl-4-4. These antipe.-sonnel devices are poses, ranging from the protection o~f mine fields
so designed that various influe-nces can be used to the booby-trapping of a dead body. Some muay
V~ j~se detonation of a single type mine, e.g., depend primarily upon fragmentation for their
trip wires, Aiirect pres:;ure or removal of pressure. lethal effects, others on blast.
LOCK K6
5V AO footO GASKET
M y
Fig. 11-43 No~nmetallic antipersonnel mine, M1IA4.
II
F~ig, 11-44 Antipersonne! mine, M3.
1 11-38
11-22 DEMOLITIONS-INTRODUCTION
Demolition materials include explosive equip- a cratering charge should give more a hea, ng
ment intended for destruction of obstacleýs, fo;ti- action and should have a lower rate of r,'cona-
fications, and general materiel. Most demolition zion. In general, all explosives used foi demo-
charges may be fired electrically by electric blast- lition charges in military operations should have
ing caps or non-electrically with safety fuze and the following properties:
non-electric blasting caps or delay detonators. (a) Insensitive to shock or friction.
The propý,rties required of explosives used in (b) Reliably initiated by easily made deto-
demolition charges will depend on the uses to nators.
which the charges are to be put. For example, (c) Suitable for anderwater use.
the explosive used for cutting steel should have a (d) Sufficiently stable to retain their useful-
high rate of detonation, whereas an explosive for ness in any climate.
11-23 CHARACTERISTIC TYPES OF DEMOLITIONS
11-23.1 PRIMACORD moisture res.sting molded fiber container. The

A detonating fuze which is often used to set off liner in this charge is a glass cone with a 600
demolition charges is primacord, which consists apex angle. The top of tiao charge has a threaded
of a waterproof textile tube filled with PETN. cap well for receiving a blasting cap. The con-
This cord has a velocity of detonation of 20,350 tainer extends beyond the base ot ,Se charge to
feet (6200 meters) per second, and permits the hold the charge at the correct stand-off distance
virtbally simultaneous detonation of mine fields, from the target to obtain maximum penetration.
strings of bangalore torpedoes, and similar ar- The charge will penerate 36 inches of reinforced
rangements of high explosive charges. concrete. If the concrete is of greater thickness,
1-23.2 BANGALORE TORPEDOES it will produce a hole approximately 30 inches
Thewith
bangalore torpedo is Each
a steelpiece
tubeisor5 pip p carge
eep (Figures
deep 145 coamtainsThe
aht0 hirypoudI
filled high explosive. feet chargeand(Figure
3 inches11-45)
in diameter.
contains a 40-b shaped
thirty-pound
in length and 2.13 inches in diameter, and is explosive charge in a metal container. Metal legs
grooved and capped at each end. The, tube is provide the correct stand-off distance. The
filled with eight pounds of 80/20 amnetol, and has charge may be Composition B topped with 50/50
a one-half pound TNT booster charge at each pentolite or all 50/50 pentolite and may be dcto-
end. The torpedo if used primarily to clear mine nated by a blasting cap. The liner for this charge
fields and barbed wire obstacles, but ma" also is a 60' cone made of steel. This charge will
be used in other demolition work. Bangalore penetrate a W0-inch co'crete wall, The resulting
torpedoes can be easily joined by means of con- hole will be large enough to insert a standard
necting sleeves to make long explosive charges. bangalore torpedo.
1-23.3 SHAPID 0MOUTION CHARGE
11•-113.4 DEMOLITION BLOCK$
The standard shaped charges are cylindrical
and have a cone shaped top with a conical recess These consist of rectangular blocks of high
in the bottom. They are all supported above the explosive (TNT or tetrytol) used for general
"targetby suitable stands in order to obtain opti- demolition work. Some are made of plastic ex-
) murn standoff. The 15-lb shaped charge con- plosive (Composition C-2 or C-3) which can be
tains approximately 12 lb of 50/50 pentollte in a molded to any desired size or shape.
11-39 i
F'
Fig.11-5
chrge 401b
M3 hapd
112 YO9HIS4TOUTO
Sinc
omakiw,
veyerlyin
fre-heistoy
covredsmuge ire byIndikni oftheAmeica
smok,
ued frad
nisehav
prpoes ben
estallhav ther cuntrpats nmder
11-41
fIvi
Av
Fig. 11-46 Parachute trip Rlare, M48.
11-25 INRIMS
I.
Iused
11-25.1 GROUND flAilS
~There are two main "---e cf ground Hlame:
airport k-ua and trip flares. Airport flares are
on1 the Wround to provide ffumination fe,
an illumrnf- 0i vertcally to an altitude- of
Amu
250 to 400 feet where a parachute sup'borted
Candle iiglnited wav ezipeied hwm
case-1n-w' iumau for 20 sweods and pro
&a
de 110,000 cardlopowr, enough to illuminate
airplane landlings at emnergency fields or in cm effectivel a circle of 300 yarz& tadius. Observers
of power failure at airpors shool wool )01d1 dW^4 . . ic that
ITo I1-21L2 TWRIPPAM

warn oflinuntadg euiy troops and for
Wlnuaih~ns such troops, there ame two typen -4
trip flares. 0n0 is, in Offet, a 0004Wo mrtar
motneary axles. may "$bit
The Other o trip,
py
a hand petiIina , skmp,
M1kmembles
~res
&Maad kt140&ad of
fuzja% with tite addfton of a bracke for attach.
mwant to a tree or post, and a tbgigg mechaawn
ii r (Figure 11-46). Firowd by a trip wirs, it profeew for relleasi the safw lee ad m h
WEPNSSESADCMOET
InI
WEAPO
SYSTMS AN COM ONENT
I',; SL()
,CU
PA F0
7ig. 11 -47 Trip flaro, M49.
striker) to ignite the flae (Figure 11-47). The no delay clement in the fuze and thikt the Rlare
trip wire is attached to the trigger. T1here is no has a considerable incendiary effect.
delay in this flare: It burns for one minute with
an output of 40,000 candlepower, illuminatiug; an The urgent problem of providing an illuminat-
area of approximately 300 yards radius. It is ing rifle grenade was met and solved in the
possible to use this flre as an illuminating gre- Korean Conflict by the Japan Logistical Con-.
nade, takng care however, that the lever is mand. Such a round, designated the JLC-T2,
balld securely by the throwing hanZ uutI the wAs actually improvised from the M49 trip flam
Lire leaves the huan. Remember that thee is and the stabliIaer (shift, fuze, and fins) slightly
11-42I
moai~3ed, from an M9A1 H.E., A.T. rifle grenade. recently, Picatinny Arsenal has developed an
With this homemade grenade, the M49 flare can illuminatin6 rifle grenade, the T45, using the
be proiected a distance of several hundred yards, same stabilizer, but with a new illuminant giving
and tho flare will be ignited on impact. More twice tbh candlepower.
REFERENCES
1 Hay".s, Elements of Ordnance, New York: John 5 Department of the Army Technical Manual,
Wilt and Sons, 1938, pp. 551-623, 656-666. TM9-1901, Artillery Ammunition, Washing-
ton, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950.
2 Ohart, Elements of Ammunition, New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1946. 6 Department of the Army Technical Manual,
TM9-1980, Bombs, Washington, U.S. Gov-
3 Department of the Army Technical Manual, ernment Printing Office, 1950.
TM9-1900, Ammunition, General, Washing- 7 Department of the Army Technical Manual,
ton, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1956. TM9-1940, Land Mines, Washington, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1956.
4 Department of the Army Technical Manual,
TM9.1990, Small Arms Ammunition, Wash- 8 Department of the Army Technical Manual,
ington, U.S. Goveimmevt Printing Office, TM9-1981, Military Pyrotechnics, Washing-
) 1947. ton, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1951.
11-43
1"1..3
S~..-
- - - -- - - - -
F. - !
7' CHAPTER 12
FUZES
12-1 INTRODUCTION
A fuze is a device for igniting, detonating, or becomes more or less critical depending upon the
releasing the charge or warhead of a missile and type of missile being launched. Thus, compact-
causing it to do the type of work for which it is ness is essential for the fuze oi an iutillery pro.
designed. Fuzes may perform their function jectile, yet becomes less important for large
upon impact, at a certain predetermined time, at missiles where space is not so restricted. Furiber-
a specific distance from the target, or under more, simplicity is often sacrificed for reliability
various other conditiors. A fuze is but a small when the missile is to carry a very large and
part of a complete weapon system, but unless the expensive warhead.
functioning of the fuze is exactly as intended, the Compact fuzes such as those for artillery shells,
entire effect of the missile may be lost. small rockets, and mortars, must perform the
"The fuze designer must bear in mind the fol- same functions as larger fuzes, such as are found
lowing characteristicb as he plans a fuze: in large guided missiles. Essentially, they must
(a) Certainty of action. initiate detonation at he optimum time, while
(b) Safety in handing and use. assuri'rjg that detonation does not ooc,.: piena- 3
(c) Freedom from deterioration in storage. turely. Since the fuze, must be safe when
(d) Simplicity in design and cornstruction. launched, the fuze designer must take advantage
"(e) Strength to withstand the forces of firing of forces or effects available during and after
or launching. launch to prepare the fuze for firing and to ac-
(f) Compactness. tivate it.
(g) Streamlining for good ballistics. In general, modern fuzes onsist of a con-
(h) Ease of manufacture and loading. nected series (train) of small explosive charges,
(i) Reasonable economy in manufacture. together with a device for initiating the action of
Some of these characteristics are conflicting; for the first charge in the train. In the functioning of
instance, the addition of safety features may a fuze, each charge by its action initiates that
greatly complicate the problem of design and of the next charge in the train, the final charge
increa.: the cost of manufacture. in the fuze causing the detonoton of the burst-
Additioi ally, each of the characteristics listed ing charge in the mi-sile.
12-2 CLASSIFICATION OF FUZES

When considering types of action, or manner Proximity
of iunctioning, fuzes may be classified as: Hydrostatic
Time Chemical delay
Impact Ambient
12-2.1 TIME FUZES powder c. by a mechanical devie similar to a

In time fuzes the time delay is initiated upon watch mechanism. Trs spin rtabilbod rounds, the
launch of the mlss!le. The diri element is mechanical type has largely replaced th. powder
obtained by use of either a powder train of black train type because co Its grftter accuracy. The
I2- 1U.1 r"T

WEAPON SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS -
rate of burning of a powder train is affected by together with a delay powder pellet betweoin the
moisture, density o' the air, and the degree of primer and detonator. These fuzes are used on
compnssion of the powder iu the train due to all A.P., H.E. missiles and on H.E, missiles when
)etback;
factors to which the mechanical fuze is some penetration of the target is desired, sax,
relatively insensitive. Time fuzes are designed as against earth, lightly constructed emplace,
* for use against aircraft and for air bursts against ments, etc. They are also used to obtain ricochet
certain types Of ground targets. action of she."when firing against personnel. On
12-2.2 IMPAC IZI AP m' siles the fuze i, always in the base, but
for other missiles R. may he either a base or a
Impact fuzes are designed to function upon point fuze or both.
impact with the target or at some short time (e) Selective superquick or delay. This type
thereafter. In this type the tine delay, if any, is is dcsigned so that the fuze may be set for either
measured fom the instant of impact. The fol- superquick or delay action, thus giving versatil-
lowing list describes the types of impact fuzes: ity of performance. It is always a point fuze.
(a) Superqu•c. This type, is designed to (f) Piezoelectric fuzes. For applications
burst the missile immediately upon impact and where extremely rapid action is required (e.g.,
before it has penetrated, resultii-g in very little high velocity H. E., A.T. rounds), a fuze depend-
cratering and a maximum effect above ground. ing for its initiation upon a piezoelectric crystal
The period of time from impact until detonation is used. Contact with the target deforms thie
of the bursting charge for superquick fuzes is on crystal, delivering current to an electric deto.
the order of 100 micfoseconds. The firing pin is nator and starting the fuze action.
driven directly into the primer by the force of
Inpact: They are used on chemical shells and on 122.. PROXIMITY PUZES
ME. sl&AUs where the target is above the ground The proximity fuze was one of the spectacular
(wi-e, personnel, or light materiel), developments of World Wa.- II. This fuze is
(b) Supersensitive. This type is the same as actually a combination of radio broadcasting
the supIrulck, except that it i designed to and receiving station. The waves, which are con-
function •pon impact with a ver, light target, stantly being broadcast by the fuze at a set fte-
such as an aircraft wing. These fuzes are always quency, are reflected back from the target and
point fuzes. The Bring pin is driven directly into picked up by the receiving set in the fuze. This
the primer by impact Just as it is with superqulck fuze functions when it comes within proper prox-
fuzes. imity to any ta-get capable of reflecting its waves.
(e) Non-delay. This type Le designed to burst Various other proximity devices such as photo-
the missile before compkete penctration of the electric serners, have been attempted, but with.
taret occurs. A small crater is obfAined, most of out notable success to date in this country.
the effect being above ground. Non-delay fuzes
do not act As quickly as superquick fuzes. This is 12-2.A HYDROSTATIC FUZES
because the firing pin is of the inertia type and Hydrostatic fuzes are employed in depth
is carried forward against the primer by the bombs for underwater demolition work. The
force of inertia (setforward forc) on impact. fuzes work on the prnciple of a bellows or
The functioning delay is on the order f 500 diaphragm which expands owing to increpe in
microseconds. They aie used on H.E. missiles water pressu-n as the bomb sinks, aadi thvs
against materiel targets and lightly fortifed po- counteracts the force exerted by a spring. When
altiona. In World War II, H.E., A.T. (shaped rue spring force is overcome, the-- Bring pin is
chare) projectiles, such as the round for the released and driven against the primer by spring
105-mm howitzer were used. IIK, A.T. rounds action, the action rally being that of a cocked
we now point initiated, base detonating (P.!., Bring pin.
(d) Deay. Thi type is designed to burst the 13-2. CUMAICMt H4IM-
missile in .05-.5 seonds after impact It in. Chemical long delay fuses &re employed in
cudes a primer asembly of the non-delay type aircraft bombs to produce detonation from I
12.2
FUZES
hour to 144 hours (6 days) after release. Delay the delay 1!n.erval.K
is obtain-.d through employment of a ch,ýmieal 12.6 ABETPZ
combination of al--oh6l and acetone to ý.fv a 1-. MIN UI
celluloid collar thus releasing -- cocked firing These fuzes make use of ambient condition
pin. This typew zZ hze is particularly responsive existing above the surface to sense altitude above
I. ~at and cold. High temp-cratures shorten the target. The most probable condition to be used
time delay and low temp.ratures retard it. The is air pressure, which is accurately known as a
u design of these fuzes usually incorporates anti-~ function of altitude. Other possible conditiovs
*withdrawal devices "-o prevent enemy bomb dis. which might be measured are the earth's electro..
posal persortre'l rom disarming the bomb during static or magnetic fields.
12-3 PRINCIPLE3 OF FUZE DESIGN

A fuze must be-so designed that it will not only (a) Setback. The force of inertia, or resistance
assure certainty of functioning at the proper time to the extreme axceleration of the projecýtile in
or place, but will also assure certainty cf not the bore of a gun or after launch until burnoutI
functioning prematurely, with resulta~it damage in the case, of a rocket It is the same force which
to the launching device and crew. To obtain flings an automobile driver back against the seat
these ends, the fuze designer has available certain when he suddenly accelerates the vehicle. Set-
forcas wiith which to work, depending upon the back is Avallable from the Instant the pruojetl
type of ammunition fox- which he is designing a starts to move until it stops accelerating. It IsJ
fitze. The forces avaikble include the following: maximum for tube-launched projectiles wL-ce
k;Iigure 12-1) pressure is maximum (F =Ma'.
C) Fig. 12.1 Prkmcip@ fwica s

ad inurlkwy for* design.
12-3
(b) Setforward. The force of inertia or resist- Whereas the above forces are the principal
aice to the extreme deceleration of the projectile forces employed to actuate the various fuze
upon impact with the target. This force is corn- mechanisms, other forces which are utilized in-
parable to that which throws an automobile clude spring f•orce, air or watei pressure on the
pasienger forward when the brakes are applied fuze, the force of friction, the pressure of the
suddenly. propellent gases in certain bas,- fuzes for rockets,
(c) Creep. The force of inertia or resistance and the force of the air stam used to turn an
to the ,low deceleration of a projectile during its arming vane for cirtain types of rocket and bomb
*lightfrom the instant the projectile stops ac- fuzes Electromotive force is becoming increas-
celerating until it reaches the target. This force ingly important in the design of fu7es for pro-
produces a tendenc7 for movable parts of the jectiles and missile warheads.
fuz,i to creep forward. It is actually a form of
slow or week setforward. Creep is also present in 124.1 SAFETY FEATURES
frae falling bombs because components inside Fuzes are designed to embody various safety
the bomb are capable of greater accelerations features which will a!!o'v accurate control of
-hanthe bomb body which is influenced by air their functioning. ?rior to considering specific
resistance. examp~es of mechanisms used to provide fuze
(d) Centrifugal. This force is caused by the safety, a discussion of the definitions associptid
rotation of spun projectiles. Whereas the force of with 'he field of fuze design will be un.iertaken.
setback exists only during the time the pro- (a) Definitions.
jetile is traveling down the bore, centrifugal (1) Bore safety. A fuze Is said to be bore safe
irce exists from the time the projectile starts to when tl~e explosi.. train is interrupted by a
move until impact or detonation occurs. Cen- mechanical part between the detonator and the
trifugal force is greatest where linear velocity is booster until the misrile leaves the launcher. Ii
greatest (F-=Ma; linear acceleration =r o the primer or detonator should accAentally go
F =M'). off while the missile is still in the launcher, the
'A!
Fig. 12-2 txamps of arini•g and lolfey dowkes. (

!2.4
*mo
detonating wave could not reach the booster. (3) Centrifugal interrupter. The z,-trifugal
The reason for not interrupting the explosive interrupter is similar in operatior to a centrifugal
train between the booster and bursting charge is pin, bht larger. It is used to block off the flash
that the explosive force of the booster is so great holf between the detonator and b3oster thus
that if it shotild go ofi prematurely in the inter.upting the explosive train. It i&moved free
launcher, it would blow through any safety de- of the flash hole by centrifugal force.
vice and set off the bursting charge. (4) Semple centrifugal plunger. The Senmple
(2) Armed. A fuze is said to be armed when centrifugal plunger is a typical example of an
a ring device is placed in oondition to detonate arming mechanism used in many of our base
on i,,.pact, influb•ice, or at a pre:;t time. detonating fuzes (Figure 12-3). Although tnis
(3) Unarmed. An unarmed condition ". ob- plunger is operated primarily by centrifugal
tained by a supporting device to h ld the firing force, -t also makes use oi the force of setback to
pin a s'hort diitance away from the primer, by A prevent arming until the m'-!:sile has !eft the
device which holds the firing pin out of direct launcher, and of setforwa,-d force t& actually
line w.h the primer; or by a device which ýolds drive the firing pin into the primer.
the pri-ner or primer-detonator out of line with The Cring pin g is mounted on its pivot j in a
the firing pin and the resi of the explosive train, slot ,n the r lunger body f. In the u,.ra-ed posi-
Fuze design must include a provision for arming tion of the Cring pin, each safety pin h is pressed
the fuze before it reaches the target. by its spring i into a hole in the iting - in aad
(b) Mechanisms. The required safety fen- keeps the firing pin from rotating about its pi,.,
tures of a fuze may be obtained by applying the f A side blow which might compress one spring
available forces through various rmechanical de- ind pei mit the pin to leave the hot*- woul] force
vices. Many of these devices are intricate, the opposite pin all the more firmly into ItW hole.
(1) Centrifugal pins. Spring loaded ccntrif- For this reason it is practically impossiflo ior the
ugal pins are mounted perpendicular, or nearly fuze to arm iftelf in transportation.
so, to the axis of the missile. The pin protrudes When the missile has attained a certu•i• veloc-
into, and prevents movement of other devices ity of rotation the centrifugal force coases the
until centrifugal force moves the rn out of such safety pins to compress their rp ugs and leave
device:, cx:zig t..,_ spring which has been the hole h in the firing pin. The fn ing pin is then
holding it in place. free to turn about its pivot f. The weight of the
(2) Setback pins. Spring loaded setback pins, firir.g pin is so disposed vith reference to its
similar to centrifugal pins, are mounted parallel pivot that nitrifugal force will tex-d to turn it
to the axis of the missile so that setbask force about the fu!c-ru• and arn it. However, the
compresse Jie spring and pulls the pin out of f.,.-,e of setback whidh acts muthe fuze while
the devihc into wh'ch it was protruding and "sile is still in the iatmicher overcomes the
restraining from movement. .dgal force and holds the firing pin in the
44
0 2-3 S~empJ coefr fuAl

F. oz
12.5
ur~aried position until the missile has cleared launching device, and thus greatly simplify fuze
the launcher. After cessation of the setback design by elrrminating the necessity for 4 separate
foce, centrifugal force rotates the firing prn interrunt,-r in the path of the impulse from the
about its pivot and places it in thc a-nme posi- primer, or the additional flat rotor often em-
tic.. The forces acting tend to keep the firing pin ploye, in the booster. The delay is realized and
in the armd pisition once R has been armed may be varied in accordance with spl.erical rotor
Afte tho miw& leaves the iaunching device, it design, it being a funchi;n- of weight listribution,
is subiec to retaidation due to the resistance of i.e., the force exerted by the couple formed.
the air. The plenger, t, not being subject to this (6) Slider assembly. The slider assembly is a
reistance, tends to creep forward and bring the device somewhat similar to an int,.-rrupter; how-
Bring pim in coutac with the primer. To prevent ever, it is somewhat larger and also o.wntains the
this, a restraining rpring (creep spring), not pri.,-r or primer--eto nator, Which is held out of
shown ic the Figure 12-3, is praced between the lir,' with the Fring pin and th,ivrest of the ex-
forward lnd of the plunger arnd the fuze housing. plosive train unti! centbifugal force moves the
(3) Rotoz. The rotot (Figure 12-4) is an slider over, bringing thii first explosive compo-
eccetrk.iLy weighted rotating body mou'itcd so uent under the firing pin ard in line with the
that its rotating axis is parallel to the 3xis of the other elemnents of the explo-".e train. In the case
nilu1e. The rotor usually contains the detonator. of a smooh bore mortar sh,•i the slider is moved
Until !he rissile leaves the lAunching devic-, the ir.tG the armed position by spring force.
rotor is held in such a position by -entrifugal

pari _.at the detonator is out to. line of the flash
(7) Devices which integrate acceleration
(Figures 12-5 and 12-6). 'his type of device
j
ble ar the explosive train, the flash hole timg c-.s;sts of ,eieral setback weights held forward
covemec by a solid ptrt of the rotor (Figure 12- y r.ngs and so arranged that they must move
4a). Ar the missile leaves the launching de- back in seqence. The device is further ax .anged
vice, the centrifugal pins move ort of +he rotor, that if only some of the weights have moved back
which then rot-es about the rotor pivot pin unti under the action of acceleration and the accelera-
it comes to rest a.a;ast the rotor stop pin (Fig- tion ceases, they all :eturn forward so that thb
me l2-4b). In rucix a position the detonator is fuze cannot remain partially armed. The restor-
Hwed up with the flash hole IIzading to the ing springs also serve to increase rafety because
booster. Operetion of the rotor normally provides they set the threshold acceleration that is re-
bare ,-afet, q,.iire before the elements respond at all.
Sou-C kf A late design inorporate a spher, In addition to Iike prinwipal safety de-ices
ical rotor instead of the conventional flat rotor the followitig miscellaaeouw meats are also used.
described in the preced'•!ý )aragraph. Such Springs to overcome creep; crush collars to sup-
-otnrs p-ovide positive bore bdety, prevent arc.- porn the firL-ig pin and hold it away from the
1ig of ihe fuze for a short I.istapmce from the primer until impact; she-ar fires
and shear pins
centr ~ugat
pin rotor stop pW
(flash hole /detonator
rotor p
(a) (~
P'ig. 12-4 *ofor.
1246
FUZES
Iiit3M
I Fi. 1-S iagam f mchancalintgraingacclermfr
MOASTPP
I6
-Fig. 12-5 Photgraph of mechanical integrating acc~elfomtff
N--,-(a~~out
four tmos actual sizn).
12.?
which restrain firing pins and plungers and which tates the shutter to align detonator with firing
are sheared off on impact; resist ince rings which pin and lead to booster.
hold a plunger in place by friction and wbich are In addition to these mechanical safety devices,
overcome by setforward; half-rings and spiral many electrical devices are used in guided mis-
wrappings which support the firing pin and sile fuzes. Most missiles have electrical energy
which are moved out of place by centrifugal available for use in the guidance system; this
force after the projectile leaves the bore; cotter energy can also be applied to the fuzing system.
pins which restrain the movement of some mech- Safety devices in electrical fuzes will very often
anism and which must be withdrawn by hand be of the type that interrupt an electrical circuit
before loading the projectile into the weapon (as until activated. Among these are barometric
is the case with the 60-mm and 81-mm mortar switches, a bellows device which closes an
fuzes); shutters which contain the detonator electrical switch when ambient pressure reaches
holding it out of line with the firing pin until a predetermined value. Mechanical timing de-
desired time of arming when spring action ro- vices can also be used to close electriual circuits.
12-4 ILLUSTRATION OF DESIGN PRINCIPLES

In order to ilhutrate the application of superquick and delay elements function on im-
some of these devices to fuze design, the func- pact but, with a superquick setting, the faster
tioning of an artillery fuze will be discussed action operates before the delay action, while
in detail. Knowledge of the functioning sequence with a delay setting, the supeiquick action is
of this fuze is less important than an understand- stopped at the interrupter. Where superquick
ing of the operating principles, action is desired, the setting sleeve is turned so
This artillery fuze is a selective superquick or that the screwdriver slot is in line with "S.Q."
delay fuze. Either action can be obtained, prior stamped on the ogive (slot parallel to longitudi-
to firing, by turning a setting screw in the side of nal axis of fuze). When the slot,., in, this position,
the fuze. the setting sleeve is turned so that only the spring
The fuze (Figure 12-7) consists of a head A cup is in contact with the interrupter, thus per-
which carries the superquick element B; a body mitting centrifugal force to move the interrupter
which carries the delay element L; setting device and spring cup outward against the action of the
and threads assembling the fuze to the booster; a interrupter spring. For delay action, '*Le screw-
flash tube G which forms a channel for the super- driver slot in the setting sleeve is turned so as to
quick detonation and holds the head in its proper be in line with the word "DELAY" stamped on
position; and an aluminum ogive F which con- the ogive (slot parallel to transverse axis of
tinues the contour of the projectile ogive. fuze). In this position, one of the legs at either
As issued by the Ordnance Corps, the fuze is side of the slotted poition of the setting sleeve
set for superquick action. It is readily set, and overlaps the eccentrically located intentipter.
reset for either superquick or delay action by a The interrupter is thus retained in its unarmed or
setting sleeve I which for superquick action per- safe position during firing or flight.
mits the interrupter I to move to its armed Three major parts within the -head comprise
position, or which for delay action retains the the superquick impact methanism of the fuze.
interrupter in its unarmed position during the A cavity in the forward end contains a firing pin
flight. D, shaped like a large headed tack, and a gilding
The setting sleeve is a cylindrical piece of metal cup C which acts as a support for the fir-
brass with a slotted head and a central hole ing pin. In a cavity below the point of the firing
slightly larger than the diameter of the spring, pin is the detonator assembly E. A washer holds
The cylindrical piece contains a wide flut into the firing pin in place and a tinfoil closing disk
which is fitted tie sprine and cup. Both the seals the open end of the cavity to exclude foreign
12.8
I FUZES
a- Superquick action
C-Gilding-metal cup
0-Firing pin for SQ action
E- Detonator
F- Ogive
G-Flash tube
I- Setting sleeve
J- Interrupter
K- Interrupter spring
L - Delay plunger assembly'
~ ~-<~-.M-Firing pin for delay action
i N-Primer
0-Black powder delay pellet
P- Delazy-plunger pin lock
Q-Plunger pins
R- Detonating relay ..harge
* S- Plunger suppoit
Ite 7-Plunger body
Fig. 12.7 M48A2 PD fuze..
matter. The delasy explosive train consists of a percus-

The delay element L is contained in the rear sion primier N which is actuated by the delay
of the fuze body. During transportation and firing pin M, a delay pellet of compressed black
firing, a plunger support S and centrifugal pins powder 0, and a relay pellet of lead azide R
prevent the plunger body T, which carries the which transforms the combustion of the delay.
delay element, from contacting the plunger head pellet into a detonation.
which carries the delay firing pin M. The centrif- There are various safety features: The firing
ugal pins Q and their springs are placed in the pin support C is so designed that it will not col-
body, below the plunger support, in order to lapse under the force of setback (but will col-
limit the possible movement oi the plunger body, lapse uader the force of impact) and supports
until after the projectile has cleared the muzzle the firing pin D at a safe distance frem, the
* of the weapon. A plunger rest-sinirag spring detor.atcr assembly E.
3coiled about the plunger support between the The interrupter J, while in its unarmed posi-
3plunger head and the plunger body prevents tion closes the passage leading to the booster,
f~)
these elements from contacting each other due
to creep force during fiight.
preventing superquick action in the event the
superquick detonator fEunctions prematurely.
12.9 .
The centrifugal pins Q, in conjunction with the the plunger suppor'. On impact or retardation
plunger support S, prevent the delay firing pin M (ricochct), the plunger body is forced by set-
from contacting the delay, primer N until after forward to move forwaid in the cavity of the fuze
the projectile has cleared the muzzle of the bod,, thus carrying the delay primer into con-
weapon. tart with the delay firing pin. Flame from the
The plunger restraining spring prevents the primer ignites the delay pellet of compressed
delay primer fr,)m contacting the delay firing black powder which bums for 0.05 second and
pin as a result of creep force during flight, ignites a relay pellet of lead azide which trans-
VW'hen set for superquick action (Figure 12- forms the combustion into a detonation which
8a), the interrupter is permitted to move out- passes through an auxiliary flash channel into the
ward as soon as it may overcome the friction due ma:n flash ciannel, and thence to the detonator
to acceleration (the component of the setback r.. the booster.
force perpendicular to the inclined axis) and the
force of the restraining spring. This occurs after 12-4.1 BOOSTER, M IA4
the projectile has emerged from the muzzle. Im-
pact with earth or water ruptures the ck sing disk (See Figure 12-9.) The combination of the
and forces the firing pin to" the bottom of the M48 series fuze with the M21A4 booster provides
cavity in the head. This action-crushes the sup. a bore safe assembly since the rotor of the
porting cup and permits the point of the firing booster restrains its detonator out oi line with
pin to penetrate the superquick detonator of lead the flash hole connecting the detonator of the
azide priming mixture over lead azide. Impact fuzes with the closing cup charge of the booster,
with a resistant target such as concrete or stone and positively interrupts the channel until the
wil• crush the head of the fuze with the same projectile has cleared the muzzle of the weapon.
action initiates a detonating The functioning Gf the M21A4 is quite interest-
which isThis
wave effect.
final free tD pass directlly through the ing. On setback, the centrifugal pin lock. pin •
open flash channel of the fuze to the detouator moves rearward against the pressure ot its spring,
of the booster, the latter being in the armed posi- and it is thcn locked in its rearward position by
tion. t should be remembered that the delay centsifugal force which causes the end of the pin
firing pin also functions the delay element but, to engage the projection on the centrifugal pin
since the fuze is set for superquick action, the screw, When centrifugal force is great enough
detonator of the booster functions prior to the to overcome the trictional forces resulting from
completion of burning of the r'elay pellet. acceleration, the centrifugal pin is thrown out-
When set for delay action (Figure 12-8b), the ward releasing the rotor which contains a deto-
interrupter is restrained from outward movement nator of lead azide over tetryl. The rotor, upon
in flight and, consequently, prevents the explo- being released, moves by centrifugal force ab3ux
sive wave of the superquick detonator from its pivot until it strikes the rotor stop pin, this
passing down the flaslh channel. On setback, the being the armed position. This action is com-
plunger support contacts the shoulders of the pleted when the projectile has cleared the muzzle
centrifugal pnis, thus preventing the plunger by from 3 to 5 feet. %nthe armed position, the
head and delay firing pin from contacting the booster detonator (in the rotor) is in the nerter
line with the haash
plunger body and delay primer. phannelCentrifugal of the booster
p To ininsure
fuze.thus
of the and that the rotor
force moves the two centrifugal pins to their will remain armed, it is locked in the armed po-
outermost position, compressing the springs be- ition during the remainder of its flight by the
hind them aG soon as linear acceleratijl, has beer, rotor lock pin which is thr-wn outward b-,
overcome. Ahe delay element is fully armed centrifugal force into the hole closed by the body
about 3' to 5 Yt beyond the muzzle of the plug. During flight the rotor lock pin iock moves
wetipon. During flight, the plunger body and by creep f,-,:ce behind the rotor lock pin and
delay primer are prevented from contacting the thereby restrains the latter from possibly moving
plunger head and delay firing pin by weans of ir.ward. both these locking devices are con-
the plunger retraining spring which surrounds tained within the rotor, the lock pin in a recess
12-10
- FUZES
/Fig. 12-8a M48A2 PD fuze set for superý,uick.
__)Fig. 12-8b M48A2 PD fuze set for delay.
12.11
~ -.--- Imm"
A-Brass body
D-Brass cover
~r E- Onion-skin paper disk
F- Rotor stop pin
G -Detonator ('e4d azide-
I.- Rotor lock pin
S J- Poror lock pin lock
K- Cenyrifugal pin
L- Ro~or oivot pin

M-Booster lead (tetryl)
N-Booster cup
0-Booster charge (telryl)

F- Centrifugal pin lock pin
Fig. 12-9 M21A4 booster.
drilled into the side of the rotor, and the lock pin small rocket fuzes. These types differ in that the
lock in a iecess v.hich communicates with the variouis forces and effects are differently utilized
recess for the lock pin drillied into the bottom of depending upon the particular mission per-
the ro~or. Action of the ftize will now succes- forn,ed ind the type of weapon fram which the
sively explode the rotor detonator of lead azide fuze is fired. For exampie, centrifugal force can-
and tetrY!, the closing- cup charge of tetryl, and not be utilized in rounds which are r."t spin
the booster 1rellet of tetryl.
The functiji ing of this fuze is typical of the
fuzes usea with artillery, mortar, bomb, and
stabilized. For functioning of other specific
fuzes, it is recommended that the reader consult
TM9-1901, Artillery Amrntunitio.t.
( '
12-12
FUZES %
12-5 THE RADIO PROXIMITY FUZE

For certain targets, such as exposed personnel proximity, ard pl -- )-1ectrlccells.
and aircraft ir, flight, it is desirable to have a Reseavch is still Leing conducted to perfect
projectile burst near, but before actual contact fuzes using all of these proximity agents, but
with the target. Such a burst will permit better the only successful proximity fuze produced to
dispersal of fragmeints, thus giving a great in- date is the radio proximity ';ze. This fuze first
crease in the effective area of the ourst. The became available to U.S. and Allied Forces dur-
desirability of air bursts led to the early developing World War II.
ment of time fuzes, which were designed to func-
tion after a preset time and, it was hoped, explode The radio proximity fuzes so far developed
the missile inget.Timimmediate
the wheher vicinity of
fues echnicl o the tar-
poder ar, ,onding
re, all generally
elements. in that
similarThe they have
differences cor-
involve
get. Time fuz~es (whether mechanical or powder su ', factors as size, shape, detailed circuitry,
train) could not be made which would perfc-m
regularly with the split s~cond accuracy required ai. the types of safety devices and electric
to knock a plane from the sky, or to cause bursts power supply employed. The basic components
at the exact height above an enemy infantry are (Figure 12-10):
position whic' woul I inflict the maximum num- (a) A radio transmitter and receiver com-
ber of casualties. For mpny years, the artillery- posed of subminiature vacuum tubes, which in
man's dream was to have a fuze available that the case of artillery fuzes must be rugged enough
would, at an optimu:n distance from the target, to withstand accelerations o7 20,000 g's when
give the most effective burst possible for the par- fired. It is believed that tranv'stors and printed
tical,, round. Fuzes of this type, which func- circuits will be very useful in newer fuzes for
"ton as they approach the target, are called this category of component.
proxin~ity fuzes, and mil,.ary sientists have long (b) A selective amplifier.
been working on their development. (c) An electronic switch.
The great problem of how to get the fuze to (d) A miniature battery or generator to pro-
S.'ns_ the target has been attacked in many ways. vide electrical power.
Aning the principles upon which experiments (e) Safety de-,ices to prevent operation of the
have bcen based are radar, radio, acoustic prox- fuze during storage and handling, and until it
imitv, electromagnetc proximity, electrostatic has trave"c]d a safe distance after firing.
AN
ATNA"
II IIII
POWER S41ALYFTY Lii]
O1" FINE 'POW4WAR TRAIM,
OF
AfECoVANICAL JAFrEY
:) Fig. 12-10 Block diagram of typical VT fuze system.
12-13
=ow
( )
124L.I PUN$MH
14 O.1 00 AOF A 1TMPCAL
FUU Z
The radio proximity f is a fine example of where I is the antenna current and e is the volt-
Sth apllctie ofbasc rinipls (n tis n- age due to the reflected radiation. As the disi.
i stance electronics and radio) to the solution Of
a tance to the target decreases, two things happen:
a problem generatea in the field of terminal hal-. (1) The size of e increases as the reflection gets
RAW. To illustrate this, the. operation of a typi- stronger; and (2) The phase between e and I
be discussed chles by 1800 each tirme the distance is re-
The poectie Itelf serves as tCie transmitting duced by a quarie wave length.
and reeving antenna. The fuze circuit is indi- A simple vector pictare shows what goes on
cated scNernatically by the blork diqgram which as the fuze .pv-oaches the target.
ihows functionally the various assemblies 'hat In Figure 12-12, Z. represents the aittenna in-
comprise a fuze (see Figure 12-10). put impedance (usually resistive as the antenna
When the projectile is fired the power supply is tuned to resoijance) when there are no reflec-
Is activated. tors near by. Z represents the impelance due to
In general, two types of powe, supplies are the reflector. As the fuze approaches the target
employed. the end of Z traces out a spiral shown by the
(a) Artillery projectiles use a wet cell elec- dotted curve. The total antenna impedance Zr
titlytic battery for power. The electrolyte is thus varies periodicaliy froma minimum (point
contained In a glass ampoule which is shattered A) to maximum (point B) going thi-ough one
eh setback. Cenatlfugal ferce causes the electro- cycle each time the path shortens by A/2. If the
lyreto e ditriute
lyte to be distributed amog te
among the
plates of he
the patesof velocity of the
fine joining then the target along the
is v.toward
themfuze
badtery so that the battery becomes activated.
(h) In bombs and some nonrotating projec- f . v 2v
tiles, wind driven generators are used to supply X/2 X
power (Figure 12-II). where f is the rotational frequen'. of Z, and A
Within a fraction of • second after launch is the wave length of the 'transmitted signal.
the fuze circuit warms ul. and al! transients die This has been called the Doppler frequency
out so that the fuze is ready for operation by since the same answer is obtained if difference
the time the mafdaistance has been traversed and between transmitted frequencywad received fe-
quency is calculated taking account of motion
arming is completed, of fuze and target.
The remainder of the operation can best be Figure .2-13 repitserts the situation when a
understood by first considering in more detail projectile passes a target. The dotted curve
what goes onr outside the fuze, and then the re. plotted Ploug tbh trajectory represents the re-
sulting sequence of internal operations. sistance comnponent of Zr at each point as the
projectile tmomes along. This is an idealized
12.1 EX2I4RN
AL PWINOMINA curve simplified for clarity. The actual wave is
To consider what goes on outside, suppose that much more complicated.
thm fuze has come close enough to its target to It can be shown that
receive appreciable roection. The current in V- V'.
the antenna sends out a continuous wave; pert 2V, sinG
is reflected bac and sets up a small voltage in f" X
the antenna which is proportional to the an- vhere v is thw velocity of dosoag between pro-
terea current but not necessarily In phase with jectile and target and V, is the speed of the
it. Thus the presence of the reflectbi targe. has projectile in ooordinat system attachbod to i!he
the e,'ect of changing the ar-tenda impedance target. Thus ¶ the fuze approaches the targ& (
by an amount Z such that the size of Z jrows rapidly because the distance
12-14
FUZES
TRAIN
* INN
;G~)fig. 12-11 Ring-ty** VT fuzo, for bombs or radkts.
12-15
(,)
shortens and the directivity improves. Also the Transmnt CW
rotation of Z slows down from the value: Receive the reflected signal
Separa,'- the low frequency component
All that tli:, transmitting tube sees is a variable
load which changes periodically from increased
at large distaices to tle value resistance, to increased reactance, to decr-ased
ff-0 reactance, to decreased resistance. Assume that
at the instant when e =the oscillator is tightly coupled to the anteina
To surn up, the characteristics of Z are: rapidly via its plate circuit: The small reactance changes
growing amplitude and rapidly falling frequency will alter the fiequency of oscillation sliihtly
as the fuze approaches, and the re~verse ats it wt ~tltl feto siltrpf,,ne
passes beyond the targ-t.

12-5.3 INTERNAL ACTION -- -- --
With the above informa..ion the internal ac-
detail: . " -- i't•
tion of the fuze can now be examained in some Z.- -. ,
detail: - ... o
12-5.4 RADIO FREQUENCY SECTION \ \ ,

When the efFe,t of the reflecting target is ex- ,. "' -.- ,
pressed as a change of antenna impedance in the -. -- "
manner outlined above, it is easy to see how a
"•inrgle tube can perform the thro•e following func- Fig. 12-12 Change at antew:na impedance as
tions, fuze approaches the target.
/ I
/
/I
/I
r///p
/I
PROJEClILE / RESISTANCE
COMPONENTo, -""1
OFZ
" -- I"TRAJECTORY
Fig. 12-13 Variations of Z in neighborhood of a targi.
12.16
FUMh
and the detected output voltage will have in it not conduct. If a positive potential of sucient
f - vacuum triode, however, plate current is not pro-

X portional to further increases in grid voltage.
This can be separated and used as a wor'cing Instead, when conduction begtns, a heavy plate
signal. current will flow and the thyratron tube becomes
The HF circuit problem boils down to a prob- a virtual short circuit. Thethyratron in the VTms
lem of designing an oscillator which can work fuze is biased to the proper level so that the
effectively irto a very wide range of radiation burst will be properly located. This bias is de-
resistances and resrond to very small changes in termined by experimentation.
them. Such an oscillator was found to be plausi.. 1 he actual detonation is started by e;ischarg-
ble and is emrployed in VT fuzes. ing a small condenser through the thy-atron to
an e!ectric detonator similar to a blasting cap.
12-5.5 AMPLUI$IR CIRCUIT The cap sets off the pcwder train which in !am
Snce, the signal from the radio frequency sec- sets off the booster which detonates the mair
tions is too small to actuat. a firing device di- charge. The time from firing pulse on the thyrA-
rectly, it is nee';,..ary to amplify At. 'jhe primary tron until the fragments start leaving the iro-
tuau,.uoa of tlb. •!'S-r L, x.gnily this sig- jectile is about one millisecond, during vAwich
nal until it c -"•'i y operate a thyraton firing
*f. time the projectile moves very little.
tube. The ,irpl2iier performs important second- Small though it is the thyratron pas'ies very
ary functions however: By shaping its gain char- large peak current and can do so inany tGmes
actenstic properly if Lssists the directivity pattern before its characteristics begin to change. This
Mnproperly locating the point of btust; it sup- allows proper testing in the fuze factoxy. The
presses much of th- tube microphonic noise; an- power supply is unt capable ot piasxsg current
by proper design it suppre.ves hum from AC enough to fire the electric detonator. It is the
operation of the tub- filaments, high instantanacus surge from the final filter
The frequency of maximum gain is selected by condenser that aipplies the energy.
trial to give proper burst location. As the fuze
approaches the target, the freqiency first re- 12-5.7 ELECTRICAL SAFETY DEICES
ceived is too high and the gain is small. When All VT fuzes have several electrical safety 3e-
it gets closer the output of the amplifier grows vices which prevent their premature. operation
because (a) the distance is iess and input signal upon firing or if handled roughly. Some of
is greater; (b) becate the target is in a better these, which vary with the type of fuze, are
rosition to be seen and the input signal is greater, listed below:
and (c) because the frequency is lower Pnd the (a) Battery activation fowatillery fuzes. This
gain higher. All thrme factars combine to give a element of saeety is provided by the trw, and
very steeply rising amplifer output. IL effeCt, means required to activate the battery as dis-
thz contribution of all factors makes the regi,'n crassed in Par. 12-15.1.
of influence around the fuze much more sharply (b) Resistor-condenser time. The current d3-
defined than the directivity envelope alone would veloped ay the battery or gerator flows through
indicate, the firing circuit where an-ther safety fMature is
124SA FIRING aw , provid&i by a resisto, and condenser conbina-
tion. The passage of current is restricted by a
The fuze functions and bursts the prkxetile fixed renstance in its Rlow into a condenser of
when the output from the aunpifier iwn'eaa• be- kn.,xn capacity. The time required fom the con-
yond a certain critical value. The vacuum tube denser to reach its Bring potential provids a
in Zhe firing circuit !s a small thyratron deveioped awe= 4i d,-termv. , arbitrarily the mlnlst.m
) for the purpose. It will be ,•eemberec that a

thyratron is a gas filled tnode. Wher. the grid of
a thyratron is based below cutoi, the tube will
arming time of the fu-. Thi timei is sppend-
nately 0.3 second for standard andsiaurft ar-
tillery and aprn a/m- tel" 1.0 second for field
12.1' 1
___
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ I
.__ '
ALMAIRI'I HEAD
C- Plastic ogiveA
D- Radio assembly
E- Shield can
F- Fuze base
G-Battery plates
H-Electrolyte ampoule
I- Ampoule support I
J- Self destruction switch
I.- Electric squib
M -Auxiliary detonafor ussembli
N-.Booster
0-Rear fttaing
Fig. 12.14 Artillery VT fuze.
artillery fuzes. high enough. When rotational velocity dros)s to

(c) Self -destruc~ton switch, (for antiaircraft). a certaiin predetermined level, the switch closes
This is a closed switch placed in the circuit to again, short c'rvuiting the thyratron tube and
short circuit the thyratron tube which acts as a exploding the round.
firing switch; it also serves to drain the condenser (d) Rear fitting (arming mechanism). Part
Af any voltage set up during handling and ship- of -the arming mechanism short circuits the elec-
ping. Centrifugal force causes the switch to open tric primier (squib) and also removes it from
and remain open as long as rotational ve~locity is the :-est of the firing circui!. This short provides
12-18
FUZES
- Rinj type
(Longitudinkall ex.iAstion)
Bar type T
(Transv.rse excitation)
(a) (b)
Fig. 12-15 Directional sensitivity patierns.
a path for the flow of current around the pdmer Figure 12-15 shows antenna directivity pat-
during handling and for about a second after terns for two common types of antennas. These
the round has i'een fifed from the weapon. It directivity patterns are actually figures of revo-
is also constructed so thot centrifugal force is lution about the axis of the proiectile. In actual
necessary to cause the rear fitting to operate. practice, there it an effective directivity pattorn
In addition to special electrical safety devices, for a VI' fuze som,,hat different from that
VT fuzes include mech anical safety features corn- shown. It will be recalled that the detected
parable to those found in regular artillery fuzes. Doppler frequency is amplified to provide the
Interrupters are safety devices located in the firing signal. As the velocity of closing between
auxiliary detonator. Each consists of two rotors missile and target changes, the Doppler ire-
or plates which, when unarmed, are locked in quency changes. The amplifier can be made to
position over the detonator, one covering each have a very high gain at a particular frequency;
end of the detonator. These provide detonator for othei frequencies its gain will be lower.
safety in the fuze. Thus, the point of burst can be more closely con-
An impact element 4s used --- antiair•craft and trolled than would be indicated by the direc-
ground artillevy VT' fuzes. It is designed to finc- tivity envelope above. If a series of targets
tion the round on impact when the radio section moves past the fuze at different distances and
fails to operate normally. points of burst are plotted, the shaded area of
FigLre 12-16 woi;ld actually describe the re-
12-5.8 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS gon of influence.
A projectile or bomb must buist at a certain For ground artillery fire, it can be seen from
distance from the target for the ensuing blast Figure 12-15a that burst height is controlled to
and fragrnents to be of maximum effect. The a certain extent by angle of fall of the projectile.
burst distance will vary slightly since it is a func- For the type of antenna illustrated in Figure 12-
tion of the angle of approach to the target, whici 15a, a steeper angle of fall will give a lower
in turn depends on the shape and location of the height of burst.
field of sensitivity of the VT fuze With this The burst height may also be influenced by
phenomenon in rrind, the burst distance may be characteristics of the target itself, such as the
varied by varying the antenna type used (Fig- degree of moisture contained in the target area,
ure 12-15) and/or the angle of approach of the ranging from low burst height for dry soil tar-
I
missile for the sane target. gets to maximum burst height over a watery
12-1
L
i
They are also extremely useful against light ma-

teriel such as aircraft or trucks. Hcwever, they
/W "are not effective against arnnvred vehicles or
Awf $I against any target where penet.,haion before
~•- -'0bursting
mwx aar is desired.
Early model VT fuzes were armed as soon as
the electrical safety delk. s had completed their
, operatio•i. This resulted in many e-arly bursts
from low, dense cloud. formations, hill masses
over which the projectile passed within burst
S- height, or other objects within bursting radius.
/ This conditin was dangerous in many cases and
led to the dev-lopment of controlled arming
O't•' i¶
• ,M'ZN (CVT) proximity fuzes. All VT fuzes being pro-
duced today are of the CVT type. There are in
general, two types of CVT fuzes:
(a) The bracket arming type fuze is for use
against airborne targets. At (predicted time-to-
"target) settiags greater than 3 seconds, the VT
element of the fuze becomes armed at approxi-
mately 2 seconds prior to thz set time and will
Fig. 12.16 Relation between directivity envelope then detonate the shell upon proximity approach
and burst surface. (within approximately 60 feet) of a suitable air-
borne target. If no suitable target is encountered, -.
the fuze will detonate the shell at approximately

ttarget. If the target area is wooded, especially 2 seconds after the set time. The impact ele-
ýwith deciduous trees (trees which have broad ment will cause the fuze to function with super-
leaves), the burst height may be increased as quick ,iction.
much as the height of the trees themselves, de- (b) The adjustable delay arming type fuze
pending on the density of the woods. Some tar- is for use against teniestrial targets. These fuzes
get materials, such --s tow target sleeves, may are totally inoperativc (for safety reasons) for
reflect waves of sucih low amplitude that the 2 seconds after firing. The VT fuze element be-
'fuze fails to function the round on the tai-get. comes armed approximately 3 seconds prior to
VT fuzes are useful wherever air bursts are de- the set time and will function on proximity ap-
sired, but cannot be used against many types of proach to any land or water mass. The impact
targets. They are exth'*mely effective aga" -st per- element becomes armed 2 seconds after firing,
sonnel in uncovered positions, since bursts oc- regardless of setting and remains armed until
curring overhead will reach even into foxholes the fuze detonates.
12-6 FUZES FOR GUIDED MISSILES
The fuzing requirement for guided missiles is these missiles is great and they may carry nuclear
basically the same as for smailer projectiles. The warheads. At the same time, the probability of
missile must be safe to handle and the fuze must a premature burst must oe cut to a very low fig-
initiate detonation with a high degree of re- ure since the premature explosion of a nuclear
liability. In fact, reliability for guided missile warhead would be far more disastrous than
fuzes must be even greater than for artillery or would the premature explosion of a high ex-
high explosive bomb fuzes, since the cost of plosive warhead. The probability ot premature
12-20
FUZES
arming can be reduced by using three similcr missile fuzes employ a radio proximity fuze for
arming devices and requiring that all be armed the detonation signal. However. to control burst
before fuze functioning is possible. This, how- height more closely; to • oid counter-iaeasures;
ever, will also reduce the reliability of arming bind to assure that the missile is over the proper
at the. proper time. In effect, each individual
arming device must be manufactured so that its target, more complex circuitry is required.
arming reliability is very high in order to ob- In some missiles employing a command guid-
tain sufficient overall arming prubability. Alterna- ance system, thn fuze is closely integrated with
tively, an additional arming elnment (',nsisting the guidance, and the actual fire signal is trans-
of three devices) of the same t, can be utilized
such that arming will be accomplished if either mitted from the ground station when the proper
system arms. In this way probability of proper intercept point is reached. fn this case, the
functioning can be increased while probability safety and arming devices will be in the missile,
of improper functioning is decreased. This re- but the safety and arming signals may come from
dundancy of fuzing is possible in large missiles the ground control as does the fire signal.
because space restrictions are not nearly so acute In general, there is no standard missile fuze
as is the e ihso gene ar tislefu
as in smaller projectiles. The actual fuzing sys-
teni may differ considerably in detail from as is the case with some general purpose artiilery
smaller, self-contained fuzes; however, the same fuzes. Instead, the fuze becomes part of the
basic forces are utilized and the same basic prip. weapon system and is designed e~pecially to
#ziles apply in obtaining fuze operation. Many suit the needs of that system.
REFERENCES
1 Merrill, Goldberg, Helmholz, Principles of Development, American Journdl of Physics,

Guided Missile D-N"gn-Operations Re- Vol. 15, No. 2, pp 95-110, March-April, 1947.
search, Armamert, Launching, Princeton,
N.J., D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1956, pp 3 Department of the Army Technical Manual,
TM9-1901, Washington, U.S. Government
2 Page and Astin, Survey of Proximity Fuze Printing Office, 1950, pp 242-353, 369-W80.
12-2i
t 12-21
fI,. .
' -
I|
APPENDIX A
A-1 SELECTION OF METHOD
The primary objectives of gun design and con- the method of gun construction must involve the
struction -re as follows: detailed cognizance and appreciation of the fol-
(a) Increase muzzle velocity )owing factors:
(b) Increase rate of fire
(c) Increase life of barrel (a) Availability of facilities
(d) Peduce weight, especially for airborne (b) Economy in raw materials
uses (c) Rate of production
(e) Make guns big and flexil'-!, yet use exist- (d) Adaptability to mass production
ing transporters (e) Availabi!ity of labor
In achieving such objectives, the selection of (f) Cost
A-2 SHAPING THE TUBE
From early days dhrough the Civil War prac- guns wili probably still be made by forging.
tically all cannon were made by the time honored Centrifugal casting of tubes can be used in
method of casting At first iron was used then volumne productioa for cannon up to and includ-
brass and bronze, a,)d finally steel. Strength was ing the 90-mm gun and the 105-rmm howitzer.
increased by simply adding more metal to obtain This process (Figure A-1) involves pouring mol-
greater wall thickness. Then in the latter part ten metal (alloy steel) into a cast iron chill mold
of the 19th century the proc ss of hot-working as it is rotated in a horizontal position at speeds
large pieces came into use and guns, single-tube from 900 to 1750 rpm. Thie centrifugal force
and built-up, were made ly forg:ng. The de- causes the metal to take the shape of the mold
mand for stronger yet lighter gwis provided initial (a conical section) as it solidifies; impurities
impetus to the development of fine steels, not move toward the center and can be bored out.
only as to composition of th, metal but also as After about 10 to 25 minutes, when the casting
to its heat treatment. Specificateon. w'ere, high hnq
,16 cooled sufficiently to handle, the red hot
and the processing was relatively slow so that casting is pushed out of the mold and buried in
production was limited; costs too were high as cinders to cool for up to 48 hours. Normalizing,
was osage of critical materials. quenching, tempering, turning and boring of the
This situation was clearly realized during the tube, and cold working (autofrettage) follow in
period between World War I and World War that order. Since the centrifugal casting of long
I and much expcrimentatiou was done to de- heavy wall sections, such as are required in gun
vise new methods of gun construction. Out of tubes, has not found a commercial application,
this developmental'work came the new produc-
tion
• methods for mak;ng monobloc tubes by for the manufacture of these important items.
centrifugal casting, and processes similar to those The mnufacture tee
of imporanit
used in producing seamless steel tubing. In any This insures volume production of medium cali-
vcmune production program small and medium ber canr-n early in an emergency.
caliber guns will be produced by one or both The other recently perfected method consists
of these processes in addition to those produced of producing gun tubes from seamless steel tub-
by forging. The comparatively few arge cal.'!er ing. This process involves heating a steel bar of
A-1
I
INURATCH SECTION A-A

.lOLTINMIrTAL
Fo" ,W A ,.-CASTIRON MOLD Z/MNi PINIONI
--EAR -IYDIIAULiC CYLINDER
A ROLLERS
Fig. A-1 Centrifugal casting.
gun tube size, piercing it, and upsetting the ing mills can be utilized entirely in this process.
breech end (if a heavy bfee-ch section is re- Piercing (Figure A-2) takes 15 seconds con-
quired). Piercing hot wLrks the metal a, in trasted to 6 hours for the former forging and
f(,rging. Proof tests of such tubes are compar,.ble drilling operation. The upsetting of the breech
to guns made by conventional methods. Maiy takes 5 seconds and eliminates the need for ma-
40-mm and 75-mm tubes were produced from chining, casting, or forging thý, breech from a
.,eamless tubing duriag the war. With this method bar of breech diameter, and mote than 5 hours
large quantities of gun tubes could be produced productior time can be saved in boring the tube.
without the neccssity for extra bloom heating The saving of scrap or waste metal is also rea:.lily
and forging capacity- existing rolling and pierc- apparent.
A-3 ASSEMBLY AND STRENGTHENING OF COMPLETE TUBE
The advantages, in weight saving and higher or hoops, a-ound a gun tube. Guns from 6 to
permissible powder pressunrs, of having the in- 18 inchs in caliber were made in this manner.
ner fibers of a gun tube un-!er an initial tan- The 280-mm gun tube now being produced is
gentiai compressive stress, have already been built up. The inside of the jacket is made slightly
discussed. kn early methoc. of achieving this smaller than the outside diameter ol the tube.
was to wrap wire under tension around the gun The jacket is expande(" y heat until it fits over
tube. This method is now obsolete for large the tube. Then, as it is cooled, the jacket shrinks
guns, since inadequate longitudinal strength into place, putting 'he tub.? into a state of com-
caused drooping of the tube and greater whip pression
thgu.I and inabeset
ef :ct increasing the strength of
'heolrnsb-
action under the firing .itresses. Rocket launch- the gun. It may be seen ti* the tolerances he-
tween jacket and tube necefsitate highly accurate
ers were wire wrapped around the portion where machining of both contacting surfaccs. Jackets
maximum pressure occurred. were formerly heated by electrical elements and
The next method used was to build up a gun required approximately 17 hours to reach the
by shrinking one or more cylinders, called jackets necessary temperature (Figure A-3). Recent
A-2
a, 1
Fig. A-2 Piercing operation in making heavy gun tubes from seamless tubing
(courtesy Timken Roller Bearing Company).
studies indicate thdtt ths heating can be accom- cast, or made from seamrless tubing.I
plished by induiction heating in about one hour. With such i monobloc conitruction the cold
[pow~erWith guns of smdller caliber where lower

pressures are permissible, monobloc or
working or self hooping prc vess may be em-
ployed, in which the interior portion of the tubt
Iof
one piece coisstrLuction is used, including various is hydraulically stressed, wit out being heated,
heat tieating and cold-working processes. Coins beyond its el-stic limit. The outer fibers of the
A
up to 8-inch caliber may be made in this man- tube thent act like a hoop or jacket in tangentially
ner, slarting with the tube forged, ceaix.ifugally compressing the inner portion. This process was
A-3
Fig. A-3 16-inch gun after shrinkage of B hoop in electrically heated pit
at Wateryliet Arsenal.
first applied to small arms barrels by firing a In applying this cold working process to can-
proof cartridge which producedla pressure of non tubes the tube is placed in a container ( Fig-
about 1.75 times the pressure of a service car uire A-4), tCe interior of which has the shape and
tridge. dimensions re(nuired for the gun after its bore
The distribution of the s,"esses in the walls of is permanently enlarged by hydraulic pressure.
a cylinder, during the app;,cation of vol-work- A pressar' of 44,(XX) to 100),X)O psi is normally
ing pressure, cannot |x- computed by the usual required to produce a 6'T enlargement of the bore
equations which apply only below the elastic and a 40% increase (A the proportional limit of
iimit. The stress distribution, however, can be the gun metal. The autofretted tube must be
closely approximated from ipecial mneasurements machined to finished dimensions. Removal of
showing the strains existing at various ritdii, :wld metal from the bore and from the exterior affects
from the new elastic lioit found in samples taken zbe residual stress con(lition, dFcrcasing the bene-
from various sections (A the wall. fits to some extent.
A-4
I
Additional cons'derations should be liscussed

which affect this cold-working process. During ,$.
the war impmved heat treating and better alloys...........-.... ..... C -
gave physical characteristics fa; above those ob- -
tained from ca-rf,'r alloy stcels even after 2old-
working. As a,, -xample, a tensile strength of..........FnlrPicE
150,000 psi was obtained on the 7T-mrn aircraft
- .- - - -ft3
.- r Rod
d
I
cannon without cold-viorking. This increase may
be attributed directly to improvements of metal-
lurgy. Manufacturing difficulties in cold-working
also enter the problem. A cold-worked gun must
be finished to a fine degree in order to be readily
removable from the cold-work chamber. Cold- -continer
---ForYMYt
w orking is a severe test of m etal, and th~e occur- Zif Pod' ... fi'ller Niece (S twol
rence 4n soft spots after cold-working is rather Stem

frequent. Satisfactory equipment to build up the -Base
high pressure required and successfully transmit
r this pressure from the pumps to the bore of the
t-:hc is lImited by the strength of the materials.
The shortage of cold-working facilities detracts
from the more obvious advantages of the process. Fig. A:4 Partial layout.of co;d-workir, equipment. y
A-4 BORING PROCESS
The finishing of guns involves various machin- a triangular or atrow shaped tool to open the
ing proc-sses performed on the steel forgings, hore, and a wood packed bit (Figure A-6) or
centrifugal castings, or s--amless tubes. While series of Euch tools, to enlarge the bore. The tools
the fundamental principles of ordinary machin- cut from both e.;ds of the tube toward the -en-
k ing are used, in these applications they represent ter in order to minimize errors caused by long
especially engineered adaptations and techniques tool travel. When the inner diameters of outer
developed over a long period of ti!-:- *n various members are to be tapered from Oreech to muz-
ordnance factories. Considering that it is not at zle to facilitate assembly, the operation consists f
all unusual for one of these gun tubes, which in first of cutting a series of cylindrical zones,
the finished state may cost several thovsand dol- progressively smaller ias dianet~r. This step-bar-
j lars, to be scrapped after finish-boring definite ing is performed with packed bits. A series of
techniques 4f manufacturing con. o' must be tapered reamers, including roughing and finish-
adopted. ing sets, is then used to blend the various zones
Natural~y, all built up guns requi:., more .x- into a continuous conical surface of the desired
tensive machining operations since bcforc- the accuracy and finish.
assembly of two members t'!v e.uter member is Finish-boring is performed on the bore after
finished to include step bori,.g i Figure A-5) and the a.•-embly of tube and jacket is complete or,
taper reaming of the interior, and the im, i mcm- in monobloc gi ns, after all exterior work has
her to include fnish-grindimig of the exterior. The been performec This operavion is prorrned
processes involved are sioiiar for both smal! u'ntirely from the br, ech end. *Ihe powder chain-
arms and cannon tubes excorpr Omha•a,".r inall armns ber is then bored to size an" s-hape and finished
,he boring may he nerformnei in a single pass of b" th." use of special rough and filishing reamers
the tool. vh.ch conform to the prescrib' .3ize and con-
HRough boring is (lone•i. an engine lathe. u"sitg 'our e( the chamber.
Fig. A-5 Mod.; showing boring operation.
Fig. A-6 Packed bit.
A-5 HONING
The generation of gun bores from solid steel considerable stock in a small fraction of the timt
forgir•gs or even hollow tubes is a slow and costly formerly required.
process. With a fced of 6 to 12 inches per hour In one recent test, hydraulically actuated hon-
for a finish.boring ope-ation in a bore of 4.5 ing tools were used b, lione a rough bored gun
inches in diameter by 17 feet long, ap,,oximately tube in 2.5 hours to an accuricy of 0.0005 in.
20 to 30 hours operating mlme per cut is required. The final surface finish was completed in 10
The honing operation has contributed Important minutes with the removal of 0.0006 in. The older
alteration.; in the finish processing of gun tubes. proceass ux, finish-lapping would have requiredý
Several installations have been made where it several days. The latest type of equip.ment de-
has been demonstrated that honing can follow at veloped for honing large caliber guns is shown
least a semiflnish-borin, opemation, removing in Figure A-7.
A.6
GUN TUBE CONSIRUCTION
II
Fig. A-7 Large caliber gun hone.
A-6 IRIFLING METHODS
Far cutting rifling grooves two methods may onm set of grooves is ,:onpletely fin~shed, the
be employed: The tool room or pilot lot method bpr of the machine is rotated for succeeding
requires a special rifling machine similar to a grooves. Cutters must be able to cut t1he entire
gun lathe but without headstock or turning car- length of the %ore without losing sharpness or
riage (Figure A-8). The Tifling bar is fed longi- varying the depth of cut. At least three cuts
tudinally by a motor at the tailstock end of the must be made to finish each rifling groove com-
machine. Twist of the rifling is controlled by pletely.
either an adjustable rail which conforms tu the In order to eliminate the obvious disadvan-
developed form of the rifling, or by a groove cut tages of rifling cutters, especially the great time
into the bar -whiclh contacts a key at the forward involved, a rew produrton meinod has lately
bar support. The rifling head at the end of the been employed, nameiy broaching. When used
bar .onsists of a body with a shank for attach- for the rifling of small arip,, a gang broach f Fig-
ment to the r'achine and a sleeve which con- ure A-9) Asemployed. This tool; with each in-
forms closely to the finished bore of the gun. dividual cutter of slightly greater diameter than
Guile grooves are provided in the forward end the preceding, is pulled through the gun tube
of the bldy for the support and accurate spacing and in two passes completes the rifling operation,
of the cutters, any number of which can be used. The time and expense saved is considerable. Be-
A tapered plug inside the head holds the end of -fore the rifling broach was used, the cost of rifling
each cutter and provides the means for their a cal. .30 barrel was 17 cents. With the broach
radial adjustment outward for each cut. When mnchod the cust iN11 cents, including the cort
A.7
M
Fig. AI8 Model of rifling machine.
Fig. A-9 Small arms gaoeg broach in use
A4
S)
Fig. A-1O Series of rifling broaches.
of the brcach. A rifling broach with tungsten the case of the Carbine, Cal. .30, MI, the button
cerbide cutters for the rifling of stellite liners is method of rifling has been used with remarkable
cUrrently uT.der development, success. It consists primarily of cold swaging
Where broachi.cg is employed in cannon tubes, the grooves into the specially prepared bore of a
large individual broaches must be employed barrel blank. This is done by forcing the outton
(Figure A-10) Each such broach is of different of very high grarde tool steel (Figure A-lI)
size and must 'e changed after each pass of the through the bore by means or a hydraulic ram.
tool. Successivtly larger broaches are used until The barrel blank is drilled and reamed to a pre-
the required groove depth is reached. Chatter is dettrmined diameter which is -ifficiently below
not entirely avoidable when broaching the rifling the desired bore diameter to allow for a result-
grooves in mediu caliber tubes. Usually such ing increase in diameter due to expansion which
imperfections are not more than 0.0005 inches takes place during the swaging operation. The
deep and are not of sufficient importance to cause wall thickness is very important since a thin wall
rejection, however, in order to provide the high- will allow the button to expand the blank too
est quality in fighting materiel, honing of the readily and an insufe.cent groove depth will
result. To decrease the friction between the but.
rifling groovest is mploycd. For rifling with in- ton and the bore, copr'er plating is applied to
creasing twist a specia honing tool must be used the bore for lubrication. No metal is removed
in which the stone car,'er! are free to rotate, al- as the button it passed through the bore; metal
lnwing the stones to pivot with the change in is mrercly displaced, resulting in an increase of
I helix angle. the outside diameter. The twist of the rifling is
I I A brief description oi !i recent radical methoo,

of small arms riling is in trier at this point. In
achievel by the groove element of the button
which automatically causes the button to rotate
A-9
-I-
-- •-~~~LOiD ImmilI~e W"M0i

LUMLIMmon
LAD 301MD
II
Fill.A I3 iln ufn -
MIR=A& l ~n utn
the proper amount. The slightly raised edges hardness and should improve the wear resistance
along th~e corners of eachU• land are ironed smooth characteristics of the barrel. Only one p-3s of
again by the third element of the button. Such the machine is required to produce the finished
cold-'working causes a slight increase in the rifti,.-g.
A-7 TAPERED-BORE GUNS
The variotui eons-derations of gun construc- Pak antitank gun whose bore tapers froin 28 mm
-ion which have• already been discussed in. this at the breeh end to 20 .rm at the muzzle. The
chapter present' a somewwht different problem tapering of the bore is not uniform. Beginning
when applied wo guns employing the tapered- at the origin of the rifing, at the breech end the
bore principle. A good example of a tapered-bore bore is cylindrical for tht; first 18 inches. The
(or Ge"lic• principle) gun is the German 28/20 next 9 inches of the barrel has a rapid taptr of !
A-10
022 in./1 in. The taper of the last 23 inches of kinetic energy in 300 yards, wheeas the Ameri-
the tube decreases to .002 in./1 in. The pitch can 20-mm AP-T shot M95, witt, a asiuzzle ye-
of the rifling is not uniform. During its travel locity ot 2800 ft/sec, loses only 29 ot it# energy
through the bore the projectile is swaged into a in 300 yards.
smaller diameter, improving obturation of the From the viewpoint of a gun manufacturer,
pt.wder gases but increasing the energy needed such a gun presents special problems. The
to squeeze the bullet through the tapered bore, tapered boring and reaming of die tube is very
The projectile referred to achieved a muzzle ve- complicated: The rifling of the tube is also diffi-
locity of 4600 ft/sec, but loses about 40% of its cult and costly in time and expense involved.
A-8 EROSION PROBLEMS

As the demand for lighter, yet longer range bewreonditioned by replacing the worn liner
or higbhr velocity weapons increases it should with a new one. This method tended to expedite
be apparent that the problem of gun tube erosion the field repair of worn guns, but the added ex-
must receive increased attention. Cooperation pense of extra machining operations on both the
from troops must be obtained, in such ways as liner and the gun tube was too high wheh com-
:imitirg the rate of fire to the minimum re- pared with improved monobloc construction.
.Juired to accomplish the tactical mission in order Large built up guns over 6-inch caliber can be
to eliminate overheating of the tube. The gun relined by shrinkage methods. This is an ,rsenal
manufacturer however, must continually strive b y
for long tube life under the most adverse con-
difions. A fixed stellite liner (Figure A-12) for the
One of the earlier, rather negative attempts to cal. .50, M3, machine gun has recently been
prolong gun life was the use of a removable standardized. Liners of nick,.! alloys are under
loose liner. This was an inner cylinder contain- consideration but arc not as yet "utisfactory. The
ing a comnlete rifled bore, which was inserted added gun life achieved with the usc of the stel-
into and locked inside the tube. The tube could lite liner in the cal. .50 machine gun results in
I•
Fig. A-12 Cutaway view oc'caliber .50 machuine gun barro:, showing sff#. line.
A-1l
a unit cost increase from $9.00 for the old bar- depth of .01 inch is also being tried
rel to abou!. $26.00 for the new one; however, One other method ol improving erosion re-
thc barrel liiLC under co t rvsous fire increases sistance warrants a brief description: Induction
from 200 rounds to 401V0 tu.t..i.s. heating of the lands and l:rooves above 'he criti-
Another method, originallyýused by the Navy cal temperature, followed by either water or air
and now used by' the Army in its 90-mm high quenchirg, has raised the Rockwell C hardness
velocity tank gun, is chromium plating the gun of the surface from 30 to 50. Such treatment
tube. The thickness of the plating is approxi- however shrinks the bore diameter slightly
mately .005 inchej. Chrome plating of the c'iam- (.001 inch in 75-mm gun). Studies on this are
bers of 57-mm and 75-mm recoilless rifles to •. continuing.
A-12
TA
j2
V 0)
00 0
WEAPON: Caliber, Type, and * , .

Carriage Model >, > -,
75-MM How, MIAI, Carriage M8 1270 9620 MiAl 59.3 20,000 HSW CPM13 NIA4 HPC 25 32 1250 -89
105-MM How, M2A2, Carriage M2A2 1550 12,205 M2A2 101.3 20,000 HSW CPMI13 M2A1 HPC 39 42 1100 -89
105-MM How, T96EI, MTR Carriage M52 1550 i2,205 T96EI 99.8 20,000 VSW SIP T77E1 CHSP 12 131 None -179
155-MM How, MIAI, Carriage MIA2 1850 16,355 MIAi 149.2 15,000 STIS PHMI M6 HPV 41 60 1500 -0
Est. T95
I55-MM How, M45, MTR Carriago M44 1150 16,355 M45 150.6 15,000 STIS T108 M80 HS 191 19f None -89
155-MM Gun, M2, Carriage MI 2800 25,715 M2 277.3 1800 STIS PHMI M3AI HPV 29 70 1820 -30
ELEC
155-MM Gun, T80, MTR Carriage M53 2800 25,715 T80 291.7 1800 STIS INER HS 18 20 None -8
8-Inch How, M2, Carriage MI 1950 18,510 M2 202.5 W600 STIS PHM1 M4 HPV 29 70 20M0 .- 3ý
8-Inch How, T89, MTR Carriage M55 1950 18,510 TS9 216.7 6000 STIS ELEC HS 18 20 Ncne -
240-MM How, MI, Carriage MI 2300 25,255 M! 331 2000 STIS PHMI M8 HPC 60 60 1400 +26
I PH T80 P32 42 700

280-MM Gun, T131, Carriage T72 2500 31,200 T131 512.5 NA STIS ELEC T81 HP S 40 95 990 (
4.2-Inch Mortar, M30, Mount 24 6000 M30 8--
4.5-Inch Multiple RL, M21 9000 M21 36 FLEC

[ [ ' Percus- j
57-MM Rifle, Recoilless, MI8 1200 4340 M18 48 2500 IL sion -40(
I -
3000t I8 Percus
75-MM Rifle, Recoillh., M20 1000 7200 M20 65 PIeon -115
S' Pertum-
105-MM Rifle, Recoillcm, M27 1650 M27 134 5000 i 8 ion-
I ~Perue-
106-MM Rifle, Reeoilleuu, M40 1610 A40 134 is sionu -314
Key and |ootnoh to this table tre on p. b1-3/114

TABLE B-I COMPARATIVE CHART FOR FIELD ARTILLERY AND RECOILLUSS WEAPON SYSTEMS*
I 0~
-- e. e, x-
0e -00
Mod.
C 25 32 1250 -89 800 24 Axle 53 5 . o pig None 20 Ml 3l 1
3 4 00 -89 1156 10 Pintle 409 400 J Split Spring Hand 40 M12A70 M21A1 M19 M4
1Ring
~and
IP 12 131 None -179 1156 21 Race 1066 1066 21 None N3ne Veh. Track 149E! 179 M
V 41 60 1500 -0 115
I IAir
14.8 Pintle 448 418 10.3 Split Spring Hand 55 M12A7C M25 M34 M]
F 16.16 R.
and Torsion
B 19J 191 Nore -89 11,6 S2 Race 533 533 12 Spade Bar Veh. Track M12A7E4 190 M34 M
V 29
70 1820r-36__1Bog. 45 - Ml-M
V 970 18 -36 1156 13.1 Pintle 533 533 I 10 Split P.eu. Air Limr. 65, M12A7C M18A1 M19 M38=MI-
Ring
and Veh. Hydraulic
18 20 None -89 1156 Race 533 j3mP.Ae Gas Veh. Tek ý49I 179E2 N
70_ 2 _ .Men.. ý 19-
V 29 70 2000 .- 36 1156 13.1 Pintle 533 533 10 Split Pneu. A 6 ,l2.J2 MISA1 -- •I
Ring
and Veh. Hydraulic
Ne, 89 1156 Rac20 533 533 Spade I JGs Velh. Track 149E1 179E2 M33 M1
C 00 60 1400 +267 1156 1U.5 Pintle 400 400 8.1 !ýplit lIP Air 25 M12A7C M30 M22-35 Ml
P 32 42 700; Ball 6400 [

S40 --U- C4.-'
... 0 0 - .- Socket 133 133 - --. 1111 - Air
--- I M12A7C M30 M22,3,1 MI
6400
il(vo 1045 125 125 M34A2 M79 M42 N, I
0 1333 10 Axle
Swish-
64 57 5 bove Hand 2540 M62 M79 M42 Ml
--- M86C
-400 +500 Pintle 6400 &600 Tripod M86F M74 M45
M85C MM36D
I115 +480 25 Iiatle 6400 ,4(:, 25 i M85C M78 M369 l
-230 +890 7 j Pintle 14 0 0 140 0 38
Ii IM92
-310 1+1150 Pintie 6400 640 M62AIC M79 M42
APPENDIX B
TEMS*
4 >4
0
4) ,---
+Ton
EAT.
S+02
M2!A! M19 bO 236 60 3 4 M5 C 21 6-75 9-325 IS.E, F
. . [. . . . . .W P, LL,
I[79M1i
1-779 54,100 !54,100 226 126 :33 CHE F
rC M25 M34 M M5 I-T
. . 14400 288 71 9-331 SF
....... 1440 HE, WP, -F
ILL
H ,
I CI
01M S
ý4 190 M34 Ml 62,500 52,500 240 !28 122 1 3 D 63 5-92 19-7004 SL
*M12 M4
SM18AL__ M19
_. M38
.... M1 27,700 30,100 442 98.9 !07 _---___ 1-6 hr 2 74-Ton D .4
___----- .......6-90 9-35%) HE,
ILL,A WP
CHUM SL
ILL 2ML
179E2 Mi 96,000 96,000 370 140 140 1 2 D *9 6- 9-7212 CHristI SL

M19- - M4 -
M18AI 33-36 Ml 29,700 32,000 432 98.9 108 1-6 hr 1 74-Ton D 29 6-91 9-335 HE SL
179E2 M33 M1 96,000 96,000 325 140 140 1 D49 6- 9-7220 HE 8L

H 439 118--- 84
M30 M22-35 ml 98,220 64,700 H 429 118 1283 1-6 hr I D 31 6-95 9-341 HE SL
M30 W12-35 M! 166,638 1010 124 146 12 1 T0 D 57 6-96 9-338-1 HE
6-50 HE. WF,

M79 M42 Mi 650 645 1-3 15-20 A85 23- 0 0 HF PM BF
I '-Ton
M79
N M42 M 1530 1530 179 79.5, 7 5 25 21-Ton C 90 &55 9-3036 H_ F
w/tri land i, WP,

M74 M45 93.95 44.4 61.6 1 Carry I C 73 23-80 93062 HEAT - F
w44.4
o / tri - [ " _- -- - -- ----
I•
M36 I i Hand IE, WP,
M78 M42 MI 168 .58 82 Carry C 74 23-81 9-3140 HEAT F
. . .--- S.. H E, E
I709) - -Ton
I__ C,77 9-399 HEAT, ~P F
_ -HE, HEP,
M7 M42 4S31I I-Tron C 1. 9-3058.HEAT F
110M.
- TABLE B-2 COMPARATIVE CHART FOR SMALL ARMS SYSTEMS
WEIGHT METHOD TYPE MAX. RATE SUSTAINED MAX. RANGE. MAX. EFFEC
WEAPON WITHOUT OF OF OF FIRE RATE OF IN YARDS TIVE RN
AMMUNITION OPERATION FEED (rpm) FIRE (rpm) (NEAREST 50) (y'ds)
Pistol, Auto. 2.41 Short Recoil 7-rd 21-28 10 1650 50
Cal. .45 M1911 A I Semiautomatic Magazine
Submachine Gun 8.7 Blowback 30-rd 450 40-60 i 750 !of)
Cal. .45 M3A I Automatic Magazine
U.S. Carbine 5.53 Gas Operated 30-rd 750-775 40-60 220030
Cal. .30 M2 Semiauto. & Auto. Magazine
U.S. Rifle 9.5 Gas Opezated 8-rd Clip 16-24 16 3500 500
I
--
Cal. .30 M I _Semiautomatic
U.S. Rifle Cal. .30 12.31 Gas Operated F.rd Clip 10-15 10 3500 900-1000
MIC & MID (Snipers) Semiautomatic
U.S. Rifle Cal. .30 12.34 Manual Manual 4 4 250 Point Target 7
M I w/Rifle Grenade Single Shot 350 with N17 Area Target 3(
La.4ncher M7 & Rifle cartridge
Grenade M9AI
Brownin Auto R'F 19.4 Gas Operated] 20-rd 350-550 40-60 3,500 .500
Cal. .0M 1918A2 Automatic Magazine
!Ivy. M.G. Cal. .30 94 2(0 (d) Recoil BlMali 45-0 5JdO700 AA
M1171Automatic L~ink 2000 Grd
Lt., M.G. Cal. .30 -. 32., Bipod Recoil Belt, Metallic 400-550 60 3500 700 AA
M1919A6 49.5 Tripod Automatic Lmik 2000 Grd
Hvy. M.G. Cal. .50 128 Ground Recoil Se miauto. Blct, Metallic 400-600 40 7400 1000 AA
HB, M2 on Ord Mt 8&(b, R.ipg &Automatic Link 2000 Grd
.M3 168 Pedestal
Lau&nche RM9AI 2.6-nc ~cet158 MnuiBreech

Si97
Mnuale Shtig
Load-
ad70-0;
9 4 700 Area Targets
P'oint
I Targets 300
2.36-Inch Rocket 10.3 Manual Breech Load- 8 t 4 700 Area Trargets

Launcher, M18Sig S& ing byv Hand i700; 'ýoint
SingleSho?,Targets
300
3.5-Inch Rocket 14 35 Mianual Breech Load- 84 900 Area Targetx

Launchier, M20 Single Shot ing by [land 9100; Point
I I ____________- _____________ ______________ Targets 200
(a) RltaJius of bursting area

(b) Does not include weight of ring mount %132
ý'e) Includes 7 pints of water weighing 8. 1 lb
(ti) D~oes not include ammunit'on belt. rhest of AMMUniti-mn. %teamconid-,osing dt-vie or %~ater chest
An
MS,SYSTEMS FIRE CAPABILITIES TEMPLATE
RANGE MAX. "i:FFEC- EFF. BURST- WT. COM-
(ARDS TIVE RN ING &.REA PlETE RD
LEST 50) (yds) (yds) (lb8) R
650 50M
75C 100
200 300 -
.500 )0
_____T131
.500 800-1000
250 Po;'m Target 75 10(a) IRifleGrenade

rith M47 Area Target 365 MOA I L.31
ridge 4Y
&)00 500
&00 700 AA IS.

2000 GrH
600 700 AA
2000 Grd 4
'400 1000 AA b
"200 G rd 10
700 4lrea Targets Rkt V, 1 M IOA3 rPkt WI'MIOA3 M

700: Point 20(a), Rkt 11VAT r3.4; Rk~t HEAT
'r~rgetst 300 M6A5: 15(al M6A5 3.4
700 Area rargets Rkt W P 'MIOA3 Rkt WP' M1OA3
700; Point 20(al; Rkt HEAT 3.4; Rkt hIEAT 'c,
Taretit 300 M6&5: 15W %16A5 3.4
1000 Area ,Targes _20- Hkt Ili2-,T

9100; Point
- jTarget,% 20
M28A 1; R.1.I
racttuT M2IIA 1
I. 5
APPENDIX B
CAPAMIUTIES 1WI4TE KEY TO TABLE 1-1

IS - Interrupted Screw HS - Hydro Spring
IL - Interrupted Lug MP - Mule Pack
'ISW - Horizontal Sliding Wedge PAR -- P-achute
Range, SW - Vertical Sliding Wedge I-Ton - Jeen
Rg STIS - Stepped Thread Interrupted Sc.ew 2 -Ton - Truck
Meters ELEC - Electric M5 - Tractn-
INER - Inertia M4 -- Tractor
"•- -es, s ) PH - Percussion Hammer 71-Ton - Truck
CP -- con;.Us Pull TI0 - Transporter
Z rn Gun Spring Actuated Inertia Puil 5-Ton - Truck
"- ... .- 25-- 000 HPC -MHydro Pneumatic Constant M6-38 - Ton High Speed Tractor
CHSP - - Concentric Hydro Spring F - Fixed
HPV Hydro Pneumatic •r•ariable SF - Se:.ifixed
HP - Hydro Pneumatic RL - Separate Loading
FOOTNOTES TO TABLE B-I

(1) Standard (S); limited pmrcurcnent (LP); sub-standard
-20000 (SS); limited standard (LS); te;
- .(2) Ranges listed are maximum 'o~ainable i,,m gun or howit-
o.Ao1 - -A "0'tb 2- bt,- -- zer. Range for self-propeled or tank weapons is that
which can be reached with vehicle on level terrain. Effec-
,j
0•."Utive maximum t'g(K ean be obtained by comparison of
' .... - oprcbable errers. ijanges of AA Weapons when using time
'00 -SN o*time fuze or traccr fuze (shell destroying) are dependent on
of fuze functioning or tracer burnout.
S -15, (3) Sliding wedge bree zhblock (SW); vertical sliding wedge
000 breechblock (VW1I); horizontal sliding wedI 2 breech-
Sock (HSW); mierrupted screw bieechblock (IS); in-
* errupted lug (II"); continuous pull firing mechanism
:W :r M 44 tCP);solenoid a.'d inertia firing mechanism (SI); per-
SEussion hammer firing mecharism (PH); interrupted
ldl .-o- thread breechblock (IT).
""4
- '1 Telescopes: Straight (S.; panramic (P); elbow (E).
('5) Cyclic: Fastest rate of fire that gun is mechanically ca-
MZ -? 10, 000 pable of develcpig.
C3:,0 Maximum: Rate of fire which can be obtained for short
perioJs of time without changing barrels or resting the
Prolonged: Rate of fire possible without changing barrels

S- or resting the gurm.
f O %, (6) Dimensions givern are those of weapon p.epa tor
S-towing.
2
j- . - 5,00(7) M2A2 carriage has respirator, larger shields, and screw-
000 type traversing riechaniim.
(8) MIAl carriage has electric brakes replaced by air brakes;
M1A2 has rack and pinion jack replaced by screw type
jack.
(9' Limber is tu'pped with combat type 1L.0Q x 20 tihes
inflated to 65 pounds pressure.
(10) Incluies wei,,ht of heavy carriage linber M5, 2200
-0 pounds.
(11) Barrel and recoil mechanism carried on Transport Wagon
MIAI, carriege on Transport Wagon M3A1. Gun erm-
placed with Truck Mounted Crane M2, or by winch on
prime mov-7r.
M60: Tru, k-Tractor, 4-5 T, 4 x 4
(12) Barrel and recoil mechanism carried on Transport Wagon
V.2,i. carriage on Transport Wagon M3A1.
Howitzer emplaced with Truck Mounted Crane M2, or
by winch on prime mover.
B-3/B-4
-ta
APPENDIX C
NOTES 0A CURRENT GUIDED MISSILE SYSTEMS
C-1 GENERAL
This appekidix outlines most of the guided mis- The contents of thir appendix will, of neces-
sile system-s that are presently operational or are sity, be unclassified. The data listed in the table
scheduled to become oj.-rational in the future. were obtained from unclassif ed publications.
C-2 MISSILE DESIGNATIONS

Often a missile is referred to by a s-ries of lar name. The most common coJes are expia.ned
code letters and numbers, as well as by its popu- below.
C.-2.1 JOINT ARMY-NAVY-AIR FORCE Suffix N indicates Navy development.

D73IGNATIONS Suffix AF indicates Air Force development.
SAM-surface-to-air missile C-2.2 AIR FORCE DESIGNATIONS
AAM-air-to-air missile
ASM-air-to-surface missile WS-weapon system-This designation, fol-
SSM-surface-to-surface missile tGwed by a number, is used to identify contract
development prujects before they reach the op-
AUMI air-to-underwater missile eain!pae
erational phase.
SUM-surface-to-underwater missile TM-tactical missile
Prefix X indicates an experimental model. SM-strategic missile
Prefix Y indicates operational suitability test- INI-interceptor missile
ing (Air Force), or service testing (Army). GAM-guided aircraft missile
Suffix A indicates Army development. GAR-guided aircraft rocket
C-1J
4
TABLE C-i GUIDED MI
CAEOYNAME ISERV VE MANU- LENGTH WEIGHT W

-)
__________________________ (f,-(l -)
Air-to-Air Ge~nie iUSAF Douglas - -- ___ Ato
Falcon IUSAF Hughes .5 115 HE

Navy
SidewinJer USAF -] Philco 9 HF
Spa-arow Navy Sperry 9 280 HE
Air-tc-Surface luegi USAF Bell 3b 13,000 Ato

Builpup Navy MartinI
Petre Navy Fairchild
Surface-to-Air Nike Ajax Army Douglas 21 1,000 3 H
Nike Hercules Army Dolag~is 27 to~
Bomarc USAF Boeing 46 15,000 __Mo
Hawk Army Rspytheoin 16 F
Talos A rmy McDonnell 15 3,000 HE
Tartar Navy Convai- HIE
STerrier Navy - -Con-v&air 15 HE
Surface-to-Surfa e Atlas USAF Convair, 80) 180,000+ Mto
-Titan- __ U A Martir10 200i000 Ato
Thor USAF Dougla. IAto
Jupiter Army Chry,31 r 58 Ate
Polaris Navy Lockheed 40-50 Ato
Corponmi Army Fireitorie4 120500
Sergeant Army Sp,ýrry
Pershinf -----------------------------------------------------------
Armny Martin
Redstone Army Chrysler 69 Ato
Srxirk USAF Northrop 74 ý6,00 two
Lacrosse Army _,Mrtin 2 H
D~art Army Utica-Bend lip,
Regulus Navy Chance-Vought 33 114,500 Mo

Triton Navy McDonnell 47 1201,000 Ateo
-Matador- USAF Ma~rtin 40 14,000 Ato

Honest
John IArmyy ~ uga 27 6,000 Ato
Little John Army IDouglas 12 Mo.4

Lp ot rplatrce
lpr 90liud propellant rocket
1p liuiprop~ellnrce
-- ramjet
SAGE -Se~mi-Automnatc (;rou!;A Environme-nt
As
GUIDED MISSILE SYSTEMS
TABLE C-i GUIDED MISSILE SYISTEMS
MANIJ- 'LENGTH WEIGHT AINF RANG

SERVICE FATRR (t ') WARHEAD GUIDANCE ENGNA MACH (OiE) REMARKS
USAF Douglas Atomic None
USAF Hughes 65 115 HE Radar Infrared I spr 2 6 F-101, 102, 106

4
Navy
USAF Philco 9 HE Infrared 1 spr 2.5 5 F-101, 102, 104, 106
Nv Sp28 HERadar I Bpi 35
USAF Bell 35 13.9000 Atomic Inertial Command 3 lpr 1.5 90 Carried or. *B-47, 52
Navy Martin ___I I9pr~ 1.8 3
Navy Fairchild i ti 0.7 Antisubmarine
A-rmy Doughs. 21 ,000 1 HE Command I lpr 2 20
i. Army Douglas 27 Aomnic, HE Command spr 3 71'
USAF Boeing 46 100) Atomic, HF SAGE 2 ri 1 2.5 200
IArmy Raytheon 16 HE adrI spr 15

Navy -____________
Army McDonnell '15 3,0.00 HE Radar 1 rj _4
N avy Convair HEI Beam Ridar I spr_____
Navy Convair 15 HE Beam Ridec I spr 2.5 20
USAF Convair 80 180,0100-1 Atomic- Inertial 3 p 0 5500 1 CBM
USAF Martin 100 200,000 Aoro Inertia' 2 Ipr 20 5500 1-C1BM

ISF DulsAtomic Inertial I ipr 10 1500 IRBM
Army Chrv9Ier 158 Atomir Ineriial I lpr 10 1500 Il{BM
Navy Lockheed 40-50 Atomnic Inertial R-pr i10 1.500 IRBM

A~rmy Fires~tone 40 12,000......................................--K-I
Army------ - I nertial Ispr 75
Army ý-Martin Inrta s I
Army Chrysler 69 IAtomic Inertial I 1pr ~ 250 First stý.ge of Jupiter-C
j USAF Northrop 74 25,009Z Atoni, Celestia! Inertial I tj 0.9 5500 _ -
L Arir) Martin 20 11 P" Command 1 8pr----- 15

-
-__________
- - - ---- -. -9- - - l .- -. --- A____ - ________
Army Utc-BF 5 HE 'Aire Optical I spr o.9 IAntitank

Navy Chance-Vought 33 -. 14,500 Atomic Radio I ti 0.8 600
47 20,000~ Atmi Inrta I ri 3.5 1500
711
Navy McDonnell
UArF Iviiti 0 14.000 Atomic Radio Fre Roke
Ary ouglas 27 6,000 AtAomic None I spr 20 FreRct
-- Arri- -1 Douglas 12 Atomic None -~ I spr Fre-~ Rocket1
C-3/C-4
INDEX
Accelerating torques, 2-3 Base cover, 11-16

Accelerometer, linear, 4-3 Bell Telephone Laboratories, 3.1
Airframe, 1-2 Binary system, 3-5
Ambient fuzes, 12.3 Blowback, 9-9
Ammunition, mortar Bbgies
(see *,l:'tarammunition) (see Gun mounts)
Ammunition, recoilless rifle, 11-21 Bombs, 11-22
cartridge case, 11-22 classification, 11-24
prepelling charge, 11-22 arrno, piercing (AP), 11-25
rotating band, 11-21 chemical-gas and smoke, 11-27
. ,• , ~~~Ammunition, small arms, 11-1 ceia-neday 12
ch 5 -nical-incendiary, 11-28
depth, 11-26
bullet, 11-611-3
compont'nts, drill, 11-30
cartridge case, 11-4 fragmentation, 11-26
primer, 11-4charge, 11-6
propelling general
light casepurpose
(LC), (CP),
11-2 11-2- j
Sgrading, 11-9 photofl'ash, 11-29
terminology, 11-3 practice, 11-3O
t gsemi-armor piercing (SAP), 11-26
Amplifier circuit, fuze, 12-17 target identification (Tx), 11-30
I
"
Analog computers, 3-1
comparison with digital, 3-8
differential equation so!ution, 3-3
cluster adapters, 11-30
design and manufacture, 11-23
arming wsre asse.nbly, 11-23
operational amplifier, 3-1
summing and integrating circ ýe, 3-2 fuzes, 11-24
systems analysis solution, 10-5 wuzes, 12-14
S ~warheads, 11-30
Antiaircraft gun recoil system, 7-9 11-35
Aniesne mie813 ooby traps,
Antipersonnel mine, - Booster M2iA4, fuze, 12-10
A•;fiank mine, 11-36 Bore evacuator, 5-6
Armor piercing (AP) bomb, 11-25 Bores, tapered, A-II
Artillery ammunition, 11-10 Bovrrelet, 11-16
components of round, 11-13
cartridge case, 11-13 Breechblocks, 5-3
primer, 11-13 Breech mechanism.,- 9-7
ptopelling chsge, 11-14
Brown Boss, 11-1
fixed ammutaition, 11-11 Browning automatic rifle, 9-6
semifixed ammunition, 11-11 Buip guns, 6-8
separated ammunition, 11-13 calculations, 6-9
separte loading ammutition, 11-12 problems, 6-11
Autofrettage, 6-14 Bullets, 11-6
Autonmatic weapons, 9-4. armor piercing, 11-7
incendiary, 11-7
•'• ~ ~~Bangalore torpedoes, 11-39 taei.
BAR, 9-6 Caliber, 5-2
-------- _-----
Canisters, 11.18 Cylinders, stress in
SCannelure, 11-4 C(see Stress in cylinders)
SCarbine, 9-4 Cylinders, thin walled, 6-14
Carriages, weapon Dart missile, 8-4

(see Gun carriages)
Cartridge, 11-2 DeBange obturator, 5-5
centerfire, 11-3 Decelerating torques, 2-3
Cartridge case, artillery ammunition, 11-13 Delay fuze, 12-2
recoilless rifle ammunition, 11-22 Demolitions, 11-39
Cenitifugal casting, A-2 Depth bombs, 11-26
Chassepot, 11-1 Differential equation, 3-3
Chemical bombs, 11-1.7 Digital computer, 3-5
fuzes, 12-2 comparison with analog, 3-8
hand grenades, 11-33
rifle grenades, 11-34 Doppler frequency, 12-14
Circuit, fuze amplifier, 12-17 Drill bombs, 11-30
fuze firing, 12-17
integrating, 3-2 EDA circt.1t, 3-1
summing, S-2 Electrical sfety devices, iz- 17
Closed loop control, 2-1 Electronic computers, 3-1
Cluster adapters; bomb, 11-30 Equalizers
Computer, analog (see Gun mounts), 8-3
(see Analog computers, Equilibrators, 8-3
digital, 3-5 (see also Gun mounts)
'omiparison with analog,
6c'.-:ronic, a- l 3-8 Equivalent unidirectional stress, 6-18
guidance, 4-5 Ero;ion in gun tubes, A-11

programming of, 3-6 in small arms, 9-11
Concentric recoil mechanism, 7-12 Explosive rifle grenades, 11-34
Control, error-rate, 2-7
integral, 2-7 Feedback, 2-5
Control systems, 2-1 Fire capabilities template, B-4
.nalysis, 2-2 Firing ,:ircuit, fuze, 12-17
closed loop, 2-1
response, 2-5 Firing mechanisrms, 9-7
derivative feedback, 2.5 Fixed ai.nmunitio,. 11-11
erro"-rate control, 2-7
integral control, 2-7 Flares, 11-41
ramp input, 2-4 Flintlock musket, 9-1
step
cmeaisput, -Forces on gum carriage
e2.2 (see Cun carriage stresses)
Coriolis acceleration, 4-5 rgmentaign bomb, 11-26
Corrosion in small arms, 9-11 grenade. 11-32
Counterrecoil buffer, 7-11 French 75, 7-1
CounterrecoOi devices, 7-10 Fuzes, 12-1
Cradle
I(see Gun mounts)
boosters, 12 10
classification, 12-1
(
1-2
Fuzes, classification (cont) sliding-wedge, 5-4
ambient, 12-3 recoil systems
bomb, 11-24 (see Recoil systems)
chemical, 12-2 safety devices, 5-7
guided missile, 12-20 Guy, mounts, 8-1
radio proximity, 12-13
VT, 12-14 Gunpowder, 5-1
design, 12-3 Guns, 5-2
examples, 12-8 built-up, 6-8
electrical safety devices, 12-17 Gun tubes, 5-i
operation, 12-14 cold-worked, 6-12
amplifier circuit, 12-17 sore-weskin, 6-13
external pheiiomena, 12-14 stressin, A-i
firing circuit, 12-17 construction, A-1
general behavior, 12-19 assembly, A-2
internal action, 12-16 borigang, A-5
radio frequency section, 12-16 honing, A-6
safety features, 12-4 hoop h shrinkage,
ring, A- A-44
Gang broach, A-7 piercing, A-3
rifling methods, A-7
Gas bomb, 11-27 shaping, A-1

erosion problems, A-11
Gatling gun, 9-3 obturation, 5-5
General purpose (GP) bomb, 11-.25 rifling, 5-7, A-7
Grerader, 11-82 tapered bore, A-10
hard grenades, 11-32 Gyro drift, 4-7
chemical, 11-33 Gyroscope, integrating, 4-1
fragmentation, 11-32
offensive, 11-33 Hand grenades, 11-32
practice, 11-34 chemical, 11-33
rifle grenades, 11-34
fragmentation, 11-32
Giound flares, 11-41 offensive, 11-33
Guidance computer, 4-5 practice, 11-34
Guidance, inertial Hand weapons, 9-4

(see Inertial navigation) Hooke's law, 6-2
Guidance system, 1-2 Hoop shrinkage, gurn tube, A-4
Guided missile, C- 2 Horizontal breechblock, 5-4
Guided missile fuzes, 12-20 Howitzer, 5-2
Guided missile systems, C-1 ! 05-mm M2, 8-6
o'm m2, 8-6
Gun carriage stresses, 8-6 Hydrostatic fuzes, 12-2

forces of recoil, 8-7
forces on cradle, 8-8
forces on bottom carriage, 8-9 Illuminating shell, 11-18
forces on top carriage, 8-9 Impact fuzes, 12-2
forces on trail, 8-9
Incendiary bombs, 11-28
Guncomponents, 5-2 bullets, 11-7
bore evacuator, 5-6
breech mechanisms, 5-3 Inertial guidance plane, 4-6
interrupted-screw, 5-4 Inertial navigation, 4-1
1-3
I.....
Mona="
.......
. .
Inertial navigation (dont) Piercing, gun tube, A-3
guidance computer, 4-5 Piezoelectric fuzes, 12-2
integrating gyroscope, 4-1
Poisson's ratio, 6-2
linear accelerometer, 4-3
Schuler period, 4-7 Practice bombs, 11-30
grenades, 11-34
Input, 2-2
Integrating circuits, 3-2 Primacord demolition, 11-39
Primers, 11-6
evelocity), 7.2 artillery ammunition, 11-13
LeDuc equation (projt~ctile elloctric, 11-14
electric, 11-1
Light case (LC) bombs, 11-25 pwrcussion, 11-13
Linear acceleromete;', 443 small arms ammunition, 11-4
Longbow, 9-1 Program for computers, 3-6

Projectiles, 11-15
Lublieation of small arms, 9-12 twist of, 5-9
types, 11-17
Machine guns, 9-4 velocity equation, 7-2
Mines, 1- velocity of rotation, 5-8
Missile fuzes, 2-20 . )pelling charge, artillery ammunition, 11-14
7c coilless rifle ammunition, 11-22
Missile launcheis, 8-1 Proplsion systn, 1-2
Missile launching techniques, 8-3 Proximity fuzes, 12 2
rail launch, 8-5
vertical launch, 845 Pyrotechnics, 1.1-4i0
zero-length launch, 8-5
Radio frequency section, fuze, 12-16
Mortars, 5-2
ammunit~on, 11-20 Radio proximity fuze., 12-13
Muzzle brakes, 7-4.' Rail-type m•ssile launcher, 8-4
double-baffle, 7.)5.Ramp function, z 4
Napilm bomb, 11-29 Ramp input,2-6

response, 2-4
Navigation, inertial
(see Inertial navigation) Receivers, 9-5
Recoil, 7-1
Obturation, 5.5 in small arms, 9-10
resistance to, 7-6
Offermive grenades, 1133 retarded, '7-4
Ogive, 11-7, 11-15 total resistance to, 7-14
Otput, 2-2 Rt-:oiqless rifles, 9-12
ammunition
1
(see Ammunition, recoilless rifle)
Pa.rachute trip flare, 11- l comparison with other weapons, 9-17
Parco Lubrite, 9-11 acceleration, 9-17
acurraey, 9-18
Parkerizing, 9-11 blast, 9-18
Penetrate, 9-11 weight, 9-17
maintenance, 9-16
Photoelectric cells, 12-13 principle of operation, 9-13
Photoflash bombs, 11-29 Recoil mechanisms, 7-8
Recoil mechanisms (cont)
antiaircraft gun, 7.9
Shotgun, 94
Shoulder weapons, 9-4
1
concentric, 7-12 Sights, sma'il arms, 9-8
howitzer, 7-9 Sleigh
special devices, 7-14 (ee Gun mounts)
variable length, 7-10 Small arms, Rq-.
Recoil systems, 7-1 ammunition
Scomponents, 7-8 (see alto Ammunition)
counterrecoil buffer, 7-11 classification, 9-3
counterrecoil mechanism, 7-10 components, 9-5
muzzle brakes, 7-13 barrel, 9-6
recoil brake, 7-8 breech mechanism, 9-7
special devices, 7-14 firing mechanist, 9-7
theory, 7-1 resistanceivei to9col571 receive, 9-5
mobile carriage stability, 7-4 developments,
nosn,-1 9-9
•rwroion. 9-11
,•resistance to recoil, 7-14
retarded. recoil, 7-4 eat and arosion, 9-11
velocity of recoil, 7-1 lubrdcation, 9-12
Retarded recoil, 7-4 recoil, 9-10

velocity versus tirne, 7-5 strength, 9-11
SRicochet, 12-10 operating cycle, 9-M
types of operation, C.'
Rifles, 9-4
Smoke bombs, 1J.-.
S~Rifle Rer grenades,
d, 11-34
-Spin axis, gyroscope, 4-3
Rifling, 5-7
gang broach, A-8 Steady-state solution, 27
rifling button,, A-9 Steilite liner, A-11
Rimfire cartridge, 11-3 Step function respone, 2-3
Ring-type VT fuze, 12-15 Step input, 2-3
Rockwell hardness, A-12 espons, 2-1
Stress ir cylinders, 8-1
Sttotadonai stresses, 6-16 calculations, -8J
Rotor, fuze, 12-6 effect of overstrain, 6-12

"equivalent unidirectional stre 6-3, 6-18
from rotation, 6-16
Schuler period, 4-7 from setback, 6-16
in-action stress, 6-11
Semi-armor piercing (SAP) bombs, .11-26 Foisson's ratio, 6-2
Semifixed ammunition, 11-11 theory, 6-2
Semple centrifugal plunger, 12-5 Stress in rotating projectile, 6-15
equivalent unidirectional stress, 6-18
Separated ammunition, 11.13 rotational, 6-16
Separate loading ammunition, 11-12 setback, 8-16
Submachine gun, 9-4
Servomechanisms, 2-2
Superquick fuzm, 12-2
. Setback
in fuzes, - Systems analysis, 10-1
"Setbackstresses, 0-16 analog computer olution, 10-3
Sefforward in fuzes, 12-4 Systems engineering, 1-1
'-5I
__.
Systems engnetring (cont) Velocity, retarded recoil, 7-5
S(are
conl70 "ys'eums
Control systems)
Velocity of rotation, projectile, 5-8
Vertical breechblock, 5-4
(
raileryrequremnts,1.2Vertical missile launcher, 8-5
Tapered-bore guns, A-10 VT fuze, 2-14 5

Target identification bombs, 11-.0
Tekscope mount, B-I Warheads, 1-2, U-1
(orv auo APwiiunitionl
Thystron. 12.17 •r4 11-30
r ,a.A- -; ruzes, 12-201
"ious,"eapons, automatic
Tota ,eists,,c3 to recoil, 7-14 (see Automatic oveaporn.)
Tracer bullets, 11-9 Welin breechblock, 5-4

Tr~v•,oi•-iWhitworth gun, 11-10
'frip flares, 1141 Winchester 73, 9-2

Twist of projetie, 5.9 ,
Zero-length missile launc.her, 8-4
Variable length recoil dwvice, 7-10 Zundnadelgewehr, 11-1
3'W
* U. Sk GOV 1I•,kII'1 P1•INTU4CG('frlPK : I,,, U -5 .•-V12 {f7MAA

LININEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK SEK[S
Engineering Design Handbook Series is intended to provide a compilation )f pr~rciples and fundamental dat,it"
experience In ass isting engineers in the evolution of new designs w!le; wili treattactical and techr,.
whil1Ldso embodying satisfactory producibilIity and ma int ai,eabIlIlt y.
e,ted below are t<'r: Handbooks which have heownpublished or 111nittvd ýor c--!ilcat~on. NV-Avcok! v~',.,bl',;atlon
j-eý p ior to August 1962 were published as 20-seriea Ordnanc. 1--.; paMphletj. AMC Clrc. Cr 3; ,Ju-t 1963,
~nJ.,qnated those publications as 706-series AMC l: mphlets ~
CO P 20-138 ewasredes li' v.v 11~'8). AlIl
new, reprinted, or ,%~sid f.e.ri'books are t,,Tn pý;biished a.;-O0-sernas AMC pamphlats.
General and Miscellaneaoss &sbjact. Ballistic Missile Series
Number Title Number Title

lt - Elements o!CA..ma-nent Engineering, Psiat 0v,, Z81(5-RD) Weapon System Effectiveness (U)
Sostjrcer oi -oergy Z82 Propulsion and Propellantst
107 Elemens of P..rmarmest iEngiacering, Part Two, 284 (C) Trajectories (U)
Ballistics 286 StructuresI
108 Ele~ments of Ar,,nameat Zogineering, Part Three,
10 Zprmt Saitcs, ectonen1s Basic 140Ban- TrajSectries, Differential Effects, and Data
capts and Analysis of Measurement Data for Projectiles
III Experimental Statistics, Saction 2, Analysis of 160(S) Elements of Terminal Balli,,tics, Part One.
Enumerative and Classificatory Data Wnroduction, Kill Mechianims, and
112 Experimental Statistics, Sectio-i 3, Planning and Vulnerability (U)
Analysis of C-nirparative Experiments 161(S) Element,i of Terminal Bgtlitkc,,, ftrt Two,
113 Experimental Statistics, Section 4. Special Collection and Analysis of Data Concern-
Topics0 ing Targets (U)
114 Experimental Statistics, Section S. Tables 162(S-RD) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part Three,
134 Maintenance Engineering Guide for Ordnance Application to Missile and Space Targete(U)
Design
135 Inventions, Patents, and Related Matte.es Carriages and Mounts Series
136 Servomnechanisms, Section 1, Theory; 341 Cradles
- 137 Servomechanisms. Section 2. Measurement 34Z Recoil Systems
and Signal Converters 343 Top Carriages
/138 Servomnechanisms, Section 3, Amplification 344 Bottom C'arriages
139 Servomechanisms, Section 4, Power Elements 345 Eq-ailibrators
and System Des~i'i, 346 Elevating Mechanisms
170(C) Armor and Its AtP lication to Vehiclec (U) 347 Traversing Mechanisms
270 Propellant Actuated Devices
'-90(C) Warheads -- General (U) Materials Handbooks
331 Compensating Elemnents (Fire Control Series) 301 Alumnum and Alumninuern '4110's
355 The Aut_-motive Assembil (Automotive Series) 302 Copper and Copper A17oyi.
Ammunition and lEsvsSre 303 Magw,,sium and Magnesium Alloys
*
______________ Series___ 305 Titanium and Titaniuxw, Allc ys
175 Solid Propellantt,, Part One 306 Adhesives
176(C) Solid Propellants, Part Two (U) 307 Gasket Mater ads (Nonneta:.llc)
177 Droperties of Meplosives of Military inoterest, 308 Glass

Section 1 309 PMalitics
173(C) Properties of Explosives of Military Intere,,t, 310 Rubber and Rubber-Like Mjsterials
Section 2 (U) 311 Corrosion und Corrosion Protection of Metalo,
210 Fuses. General and Mechanical
211(C) Fuses, ]Proximity, Zlectrical, Part One (U) Surface-to -Air Missile Series
212(S) Fuses, Proximity, Electrical, Part Two (U) 291 Pait One, System Inteiratlita
213(S) Fu:- is, Prw-lm;ty, Electrical, Part Three (U) 292 Part Two, Weapon Control
214 (S) Fuses, Proximity, Xlectrical, Part Four (111 293 Part Three, Computers
21S(C) Fuses, Prutximity, Electrical, Part Five (U) 294(S) Part Four, Missile Azmnamunit (U)
244 Section 1, Artll~.s 1 Arnsmumfti on--Goner al. 205(5) Pert Five, Countermeasure- (U)
with Table of Contents, Glosear-, and 296 Part Six, Structu-ee and Power Sourcsa
Index for Series 297(5) P~irt Seven, Sample Problemi (U)
Z45OC Secloss Z, Design for TermiAnal Effects (U)
246 liectia. 3, Design for Control of Flight Char-
acteristics
Z47(Cl Section 4, Design for Projection (U)
246 Section 5, Inopaction Aapects of Artillery
Ammunition Design
Z49(Cl Sectiuu 6, Manufacture of Metallic Componefitz
of Artillery Ammunition (U)

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UNCLASSIFIED

NEW LIMITATION CHANGE

USAMC ltr, 2 Jul 1973

THIS PAGE IS UNCLASSIFIED

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

ELEMENTS OF ARMAMENT ENGINEERING

ELEMENTS OF ARMAMENT ENGINEERING

UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND

AMCP 706-108, Elements of Armament Engineering, Part Three,

SEL-;YN D. SMITH, JR.

INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

1-1 IN T R OD U CT IO N .......................... ..................................... ..... 1...

2-2 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS ....... ............... .............. 2.1

2-6 RESPONSE TO A RAM P INPUT ............................................. 2-4

3-1 INTRODUC'lN .. 3-.

3-2.1 TIhe O perational A m plifier .................................................... 3.-1

3-4 .4 A daptab ility . .................................... .. 3......................

4-1 INTRODUCTION ..... ..... 4...............

5-1 IuSTOfO iCAL FUMMARY OF DEVICES FOR

5 -5 O B T U RA TIO N .............................. ................................ .... 5-5

I GUN MOUNTS AND MISSILE LAUNCHERS

8-1 G EN ERAL ......................................................................................... 8-

8-4.5 Forces Acting on Each Trail ....................................................... 8-9

9-1 HISfrORY OF SMALL ARMS ....................................................... 9-1 (

9-1.2 Development of Automatic Weapons ........................................ 9-2

9-11.4 Bla st ..... ... . ................ ..... ... .................. 9 -18...........................

10-1 IN TROD U CT IO N ................................................................... ... 10-1

11-1 SMALL ARMS AMMUNITiON-INTRODUCTION 1..............

11-8.5 Projectile Types .................................. ..................... 11-17

11-1.2 Ofenive 1-3

11-17.3 C hemical Grenades ...................................................................... 11-33

11-25.2 T rip Flares ...................................................................................... 114 1

12-1 IN TR O DU CT ION .......................................................................... 12-1

12-3 .1 Safety Featu res ............................ .. .......................................... 12-4

A-1 SELECTION OF METHOD ........................................................ A-1

AP P EN DIX B ........ ................................................. ....... ........... B-1

C -1 G E N E RA L ... ...... ........................................................................... C-1

I ND E X ... ..... ........ ........ ... ...... ........... .................. ...................... I

2-1 Schematic of an open loop control system ....................................... 2-1

Response to ,-tep input, 0, = A .........................................................

Responses to ramp input, 0, - wt ......... .........................................

3-1 Operational am p lifier ........................................................................... 3-2

4-1 Three-degree-of-freedom gyro ............................. 4-1

5-2 M easuv-em ent of caliber ...................................................................... 5-3

5-4 W elin b reech b loc k ............... .......................................................... .5. 4

5-7 D eBange obturator .5......................... ........ .......... ........... 5-5

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (cont)

Fig. No. Title Page

5-9 C ross section of bore ev Acuator ........................................................ 5-6

6-1 Stress.-strain diagram (m ild' steel) ............................................... 6-2

6-11 Y, when gun is in action (•ta) ........ .............................................. 6-10

7-3 V elocity of projectile versus tim e .......................................... . 7-3

_. ~~7-8 7-7 Resistance

7-9 Recoil mechanism for 105olm howitzer, showing movement

d urin g recoil .... .................. ............ 7-9

7-12 Spring counterrecoil mechanism .. ................................................ 7-10

8-1 105-mm howitzer, left rear view ..................................................... 8-2

8 -4 Eq u a lize r .................................................................... .. ... .............. .. 8-34

9-1 Flintlock musket, Springfield model of 1808 .................... 9-2

S--i- .-.-*..--.--- .-- - ______________-. . ...