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Ob3 Modified Unit 4 and Unit 5

This document provides an overview of the key concepts in group dynamics. It discusses what defines a group, how groups form and develop over time, why group members interact, factors like group structure, roles, norms, conformity, status, and appropriate workplace behavior. The document aims to give an understanding of group dynamics, which is the science of studying groups - their interactions, processes, development and impact on their members.

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Poonam Sachdev
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
95 views24 pages

Ob3 Modified Unit 4 and Unit 5

This document provides an overview of the key concepts in group dynamics. It discusses what defines a group, how groups form and develop over time, why group members interact, factors like group structure, roles, norms, conformity, status, and appropriate workplace behavior. The document aims to give an understanding of group dynamics, which is the science of studying groups - their interactions, processes, development and impact on their members.

Uploaded by

Poonam Sachdev
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Name of the subject: Organisation Behavior

Class: FYBBA

Semester : IInd Semester

Unit number: UNIT 4- Group dynamics

" Group Dynamics is derived from the greek word which means "force".It is science of study
about the group,It gives Knowledge about the following matters.
Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioral patterns of a group. Group dynamics
concern how groups are formed, what is their structure and which processes are followed in their
functioning. Thus, it is concerned with the interactions and forces operating between groups.
Group dynamics is relevant to groups of all kinds – both formal and informal. If the UPA
government has set up Group of Ministers for every governance issue, the Supreme Court of
India has 27 Group of Judges committees overseeing all manner of non-judicial work in the apex
court. In an organizational setting, the term groups are a very common and the study of groups
and group dynamics is an important area of study.
1)What is group?
Every organization is a group unto itself. A group refers to two or more people who share a
common meaning and evaluation of themselves and come together to achieve common goals. In
other words, a group is a collection of people who interact with one another; accept rights and
obligations as members and who share a common identity.

2) How group develops and declines?


1)Forming
Direct the team, and establish clear objectives, both for the team as a whole and for individual
team members .
2)Storming
Establish processes and structures.
Build trust and good relationships between team members.
Resolve conflicts swiftly if they occur. Provide support, especially to those team members who
are less secure.
Remain positive and firm in the face of challenges to your leadership, or to the team's goal.
Explain the "forming, storming, norming, and performing" idea, so that people understand why
problems are occurring, and so that they see that things will get better in the future. Coach team
members in assertiveness and conflict resolution skills , where this is necessary.
Use psychometric indicators such as Myers-Briggs and the Margerison-McCann Team
Management Profile to help people learn about different work styles and strengths.
3)Norming
Step back and help team members take responsibility for progress towards the goal. (This is a
good time to arrange a team-building event.)
4)Performing
Delegate tasks and projects as far as you can. Once the team is achieving well, you should aim
to have as light a touch as possible. You will now be able to start focusing on other goals and
areas of work.
5)Adjourning
Take the time to celebrate the team's achievements – you may work with some of your people
again, and this will be much easier if people view past experiences positively.
4) why the members of group interact with each other?
Members come together,learn about each other and determinr the purpose of the group,
members engage in more direct communication and get to know each other.conflict between
group members will often arise in this stage.Members establish spoken or unspoken rules about
how they communicate with each other.
The core concept of group dynamics is interaction among the members, Here interaction means
members of the group, which may be verbal or non-verbal.
Group Structure:
Group structure is defined as members of group,roles, norms,confirmity,work place, behavior,
status,reference group,social loafing, cohoritis group, demography and cohesiveness
Group structure has been defined as the rules that define group norms, roles and status (Stangor
2004). Group structure can be crudely divided into what can be written on paper (formal
structure) and implicit structural features (informal structure). The second category is both more
important and less accessible. It is often the informal structure and personnel who have been
involved for a long period of time that maintain and perpetuate the key norms and values. Top
performers, leaders, directors and head coaches may come and go but these key individuals may
continue to work for the team/organization provided they do not become too ambitious or
suddenly represent a hindrance to the performance of the group, necessitating a clearing out of
the ‘old guard’.

Developing or maintaining a group structure that maximizes the resources of the group and does
not result in the dissatisfaction of its personnel is an exercise in diplomatic relations (see the
importance of politics stressed in Ch. 8). A subtle approach to this problem was employed by PH
during his time at Tigers (Fig. 9.2). Despite the proposed change being subject to intense
scrutiny, his knowledge of the team enabled the change to the group structure to be perceived as
complementary to the organization rather than a threat to core values.
Group Roles: the different roles of a person plays as a part of group Role that group individuals
according to their effort made to maintain healthy relationship in the group and acheive the
goals. there are fived categories of individuals. Harmoniser, gatekeeper, tester,encourager and
compromiser.
Norms: The typical standards set by the group collaberatively that each member has to follow.

A norm is accepted by group members. It is a rule of conduct that has been established by
group members. They are standardized generalizations concerning expected behaviour in matters
that are of some importance of the group.

A rule dictates what must be done by another whereas norm refers to what should be done.
Group norm is a standard of behaviour. In other words, group norm is a rule that tells the
individual how to behave in a particular group. Thus, group norms identify the standards against
which behaviour of group members will be evaluated and help the group members know what
they should not do. Norms could be formal or could be informal.

Example: In a group that drinks tea together every evening a norm arises. Every day a
different member buys tea for the other members of the group.

The individuals are expected to comply with group norms.


Confirmity: The decisions or stand taken by each member in the group.

Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, politics or
being like minded.[1] Norms are implicit, specific rules, shared by a group of individuals, that
guide their interactions with others. People often choose to conform to society rather than to
pursue personal desires because it is often easier to follow the path others have made already,
rather than creating a new one. This tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or society
as a whole, and may result from subtle unconscious influences (predisposed state of mind), or
direct and overt social pressure. Conformity can occur in the presence of others, or when an
individual is alone. For example, people tend to follow social norms when eating or watching
television, even when alone.
People often conform from a desire for security within a group—typically a group of a similar
age, culture, religion, or educational status. This is often referred to as groupthink: a pattern of
thought characterized by self-deception, forced manufacture of consent, and conformity to group
values and ethics, which ignores realistic appraisal of other courses of action. Unwillingness to
conform carries the risk of social rejection. Conformity is often associated with adolescence and
youth culture, but strongly affects humans of all ages.

Work place behavior: Ethics one need to follow while working with an organisation.
What is appropriate workplace behavior? This question is actually twofold. There is appropriate
employer behavior and appropriate employee behavior. And it’s not just limited to problem
behavior. The behavior you expect of your employees—and your employees expect of you—
contributes to the entire company culture. It is also integral to the success of the organization
itself.
Why is behavior important in the workplace? Ensuring that all employees conduct themselves in
a professional manner promotes the safety and well-being of both individuals and the entire
company. When people exhibit inappropriate behavior in the workplace, everyone suffers. For
instance, if someone is frequently late to work, her disruptive behavior might affect a coworker’s
ability to do her job, because she is depending collaboration with the late arrival.
So, how should you behave in the workplace? If you are an employer, how do you ensure that
everyone is engaging in professional behavior in your workplace?

1. Follow Workplace Behavior Trends and Best Practices.


Depending on the size of a business workplace behavior may be governed by human resources or
another individual or department. If you do have a human resources department, work with your
representatives to develop policies and procedures that promote the well-being of your
employees and outline consequences for unsafe behavior or disruption to the workplace.

Status: Designation of members in a group.


Research suggests that employee status, and various status proxies, relate to a number of
meaningful outcomes in the workplace. The advancement of the study of status in organizational
settings has, however, been stymied by the lack of a validated workplace status measure. The
purpose of this manuscript, therefore, is to develop and validate a measure of workplace status
based on a theoretically grounded definition of status in organizations. Subject-matter experts
were used to examine the content validity of the measure. Then, two separate samples were
employed to assess the psychometric properties (i.e., factor structure, reliability, convergent and
discriminant validity) and nomological network of a five-item, self-report Workplace Status
Scale (WSS). To allow for methodological flexibility, an additional three samples were used to
extend the WSS to coworker reports of a focal employee’s status, provide additional evidence for
the validity and reliability of the WSS, and to demonstrate consensus among coworker ratings.
Together, these studies provide evidence of the psychometric soundness of the WSS for assessing
employee status using either self-reports or other-source reports. The implications of the
development of the WSS for the study of status in organizations are discussed, and suggestions
for future research using the new measure are offered.

Social loafing: The phenomenon where group members put less efforts, towards achieving the
goal.Social loafing describes the tendency of individuals to put forth less effort when they are
part of a group. Because all members of the group are pooling their effort to achieve a common
goal, each member of the group contributes less than they would if they were individually
responsible.

Example of Social Loafing Imagine that your teacher assigned you to work on a class project
with a group of ten other students. If you were working on your own, you would have broken
down the assignment into steps and started work right away. Since you are part of a group,
however, the social loafing tendency makes it likely that you would put less effort into the
project. Instead of assuming responsibility for certain tasks, you might just think thats one of the
other group members will take care of it.
Or in some cases, the other members of your group assume that someone else will take care of
their share of the work, and you end up getting stuck doing the entire assignment yourself.

Cohort: sharing common behavior in the group.The group of people showing similar behavior in
a group is called cohort.
Reference Group: Other Groups to which group is compared to. Sociologists use the term
‘reference group’ for such groups that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves
and their own behaviour. These are the groups to which we psychologically identify with to
which we may and may not belong but we may aspire to belong. People do not actually have to
be members of the group to which they refer. Mustafa Sherif (1953) defined reference groups as
“those groups to which the individual relates himself as a part or to which he aspires to relate
himself psychologically”.
This definition points clearly to the importance of defining the groups with which an individual
identifies, whether or not he belongs to them. These are the groups whose values, standards and
beliefs guide the person in carrying out his actions and in evaluating himself.
Group Demography: Extent of sharing some behavior.
Explored the relationships among group demography, social integration of the group, and
individual turnover in 79 field representatives from 20 work groups made up of employees of a
convenience-store chain. Data were collected in 1979 and at follow-up in 1985. Questionnaire
results suggest that heterogeneity in group tenure was associated with lower levels of group
social integration, which, in turn, was negatively associated with individual turnover. The more
distant group members were more likely to leave. Individual-level and group-level age
demography directly affected turnover and were not moderated by social integration. Findings
suggest a process by which group demography affects outcomes and support the usefulness of
organizational demography for understanding group and individual functioning.

Cohesiveness: Extent of belongingness towards each other in the group.


Cohesiveness refers to the degree of unity or “we-ness” in a group. More formally, cohesiveness
denotes the strength of all ties that link individuals to a group. These ties can be social or task
oriented in nature. Specifically, a group that is tied together by mutual friendship, caring, or
personal liking is displaying social cohesiveness. A group that is tied together by shared goals or
responsibilities is displaying task cohesiveness. Social and task cohesiveness can occur at the
same time, but they do not have to.
For example, a group of friends may be very cohesive just because they enjoy spending time
together, regardless of whether or not they share similar goals. Conversely, a hockey team may
be very cohesive, without liking each other personally, because the players strongly pursue a
common objective.

Group Effectiveness: Group Effectiveness is a capacity the team has to accomplish,the goals or
objectives, administered by authorised personnel in an organisation.A group is collection of
individual who are dependent in their task, share responsibility,and view themselves as
unit.while still maintaining their independence as group, their members are independent of each
others role,skill,knowledge,purpose.

POWER
Power refers to posession of authority and influence over others,Power is the tool that depending
on how it is used can lead to positive or negative outcomes,in the organisation.
Where does power come from, what is it that gives an individal or group that influence others.
Power has been an important aspect of human civilization since time immemorial. Power might
be physical, political or social. In the context of business as well, power dynamics tend to
influence decisions and people transactions heavily. So defining power can be difficult as it is
understood and interpreted in several ways however power can definitely not be called a force
which gets you what you want. Power basically emanates from position or authority which can
influence people both positively and negatively.
For simplicity and understanding purposes power is usually classified into following categories:

Sources of power are:


1) Formal Power
2)legitimate Power
3) Expert Power
4)Referent Power
5) Coercive Power
6) Reward Power
7) Informational Power
8) connection Power
9) Charismatic Power

Coercive Power- This kind of power involves the usage of threat to make people do what one
desires. In the organizational set up, it translates into threatening someone with transfer, firing,
demotions etc. it basically forces people to submit to one’s demand for the fear of losing
something.
Reward Power- As the name suggests, this type of power uses rewards, perks, new projects or
training opportunities, better roles and monetary benefits to influence people. However an
interesting aspect of this type of power is that, it is not powerful enough in itself, as decisions
related to rewards do not rest solely with the person promising them, because in organizations, a
lot of other people come into play like senior managers and board.
Legitimate Power- This power emanates from an official position held by someone, be it in an
organization, beurocracy or government etc. The duration of this power is short lived as a person
can use it only till the time he/she holds that position, as well as, the scope of the power is small
as it is strictly defined by the position held.
Expert Power- This is a personal kind of power which owes its genesis to the skills and expertise
possessed by an individual, which is of higher quality and not easily available. In such a
situation, the person can exercise the power of knowledge to influence people. Since, it is very
person specific and skills can be enhanced with time; it has more credibility and respect.
Referent Power- This is a power wielded by celebrities and film stars as they have huge
following amongst masses who like them, identify with them and follow them. Hence, they exert
lasting influence on a large number of people for a large number of decisions; like from what car
to buy to which candidate to choose for a higher office in the country.
Informational Power: Informational Power is where a person Possessess needed or wanted
information.It comes from access or control over information.
Connection Power: It is where a person attains influences by gaining favour or simply
acquaintances with powerful person .The power is all about networking.If I have connection
with someone that you want to get .i.e going to give power.
Political Power The power comes from support of group .It risesm from leaders ability to work
with people and social system to gain their allegiance and support.
Charismatic power : Charismatic power is an extension of referant power stemming from an
individual personality and interpersonal style.
So, power can be defined in a number of ways however what is important is the usage of the
power by people who possess it. Within the organizational context the power dynamics and
equations need to be carefully managed as they have a huge impact on the motivation and
engagement level of employees. It also defines the organization’s culture in general and people
transactions within the organization in particular. A very hierarchy and power driven organization
finds it difficult to accommodate new and innovative ideas, any change is vehemently refused,
egos clash and lesser opportunities are made available for the high performers, thus delaying
organizational growth. On the other hand, in an organization which is flat in structure, people are
encouraged to innovate and explore, thus bringing in new concepts and ideas to accelerate
organizational growth and expansion.

Name of the subject: Organisation Behavior

Class: FYBBA

Semester : IInd Semester

Unit number: UNIT 5 Organisational Change.


ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE:
Greenberg and barron describe organisational change as " planned or unplanned transformation
in an organisation structure,technology or people.
Meaning of Organisational Change:
Organisational change refers to any alteration that occurs in total work environment.
Organisational change is an important characteristic of most organisations. An organisation must
develop adaptability to change otherwise it will either be left behind or be swept away by the
forces of change. Organisational change is inevitable in a progressive culture. Modern
organizations are highly dynamic, versatile and adaptive to the multiplicity of changes.
Organisational change refers to the alteration of structural relationships and roles of people in the
organization. It is largely structural in nature. An enterprise can be changed in several ways. Its
technology can be changed, its structure, its people and other elements can be changed.
Organisational change calls for a change in the individual behaviour of the
employees.Organizations survive, grow or decay depending upon the changing behaviour of the
employees. Most changes disturb the equilibrium of situation and environment in which the
individuals or groups exist. If a change is detrimental to the interests of individuals or groups,
they will resist the change.
Causes of Organisational Change:
(A) External Pressures:
i. Change in Technology and Equipment:Advancements in technology is the major cause (i.e.,
external pressure) of change. Each technological alternative results in new forms of organization
to meet and match the needs.
ii. Market Situation:Changes in market situation include rapidly changing goals, needs and
desires of consumers, suppliers, unions etc. If an organization has to survive, it has to cope with
changes in market situations.
iii. Social and Political Changes:Organisational units literally have no control over social and
political changes in the country. Relations between government and business or drive for social
equality are some factors which may compel for organisational change.
(B) Internal Pressures (Pressures for Change from Within the Organisation):
i. Changes in the Managerial Personnel:One of the most frequent reasons for major changes in
the organisation is the change of executives at the top. No two managers have the same style,
skills or managerial philosophies.
ii. Deficiencies in the Existing Organization:Many deficiencies are noticed in the organisations
with the passage of time. A change is necessary to remove such deficiencies as lack of uniformity
in the policies, obstacles in communication, any ambiguity etc.
iii. Other Factors: Certain other factors such as listed below also demand a change in the
organisation.Employee’s desire to share in decision-making.Employee’s desire for higher wage
rate.Improvement in working conditions, etc.
Response to Organisational Change: Every change is responded by the people working in the
organisation. These responses may be positive or negative depending upon the fact as how they
affect people.
Before introducing a change, the manager should study and understand employee’s attitudes so
as to create a positive response. Three sets of factors-psychological, personal and social- govern
the attitude of people.'
The wide variety of forces suach as economy,competition,new
technology,organisationalrestructuring,natural disaster,takeover brings about dramatic change in
an organisation.
The characteristics of change is as follows:
1)The whole organisation is affected: Even a small change tends to affect the whole
Organisation.
2) Disequilibrium: Change tends to disrupt the existing equilibrium in the
organisation.Organisation tend to acieve equilibrium in social structure.
3) change requires adjustment: when change takes place people working in an organisation
makes drastic adjustment, hence change is not technical probles but also a human problem.

ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Organisational Development is a family of techniques designed to help organisation change for
better . through the use of behavioral science,principals and procedures ,organisation
development helps an organisation improve its performance.
Newstorm and Devis:
Organisation development is a systematic application of behavioral science, knowledge at
various levels to bring about the planned change.
Organisational development (OD) is therefore something that is important to ensure effective
growth and longevity. It is essentially the process used to improve the overall effectiveness of an
organisation through managing the behaviours of people within that organisation. But it is
important to have the systems in place to allow change to be implemented and planned
effectively and that analyse real data, which can then be used to implement further change.
There’s a good chance you’re already doing some OD without even realising it by creating great
teams and giving them the conditions in which to thrive, and tweaking your systems to improve
their effectiveness or resolve problems you have come across. But it’s equally important that
your managers are aware of OD too – by explaining to them why OD is important and getting
them on board with changes you wish to make, you’ll get reduced resistance to any changes,
they’ll be advocates for what
According to porras and robertson, a definition of OD should include the following themes:
1) Purpose: purpose of OD is to improve an organisational effectiveness,its ability toadapt to
changes and to develop new and creative solution to organisational problems.
2) concept : concept of OD is derived from behavioral science theory,research and science and
technology.
3) Process: od process is planned and value based .It is implemented through the aidof consultant
and has the support of top-management.
4) Target: OD targets at bringing about change in organisation culture,structure,strategy and
Processes.
Approaches and Methods:
The objective of OD program is to improve an organisational effectiveness however this is
easier said than done.Od is a complex process that requires careful planning and systematic
execution . The typical OD program has following steps:
1) Diagnosis: At this stage OD consultants hold meeting with the top management to determine
the nature of problem.they also discuss the OD approaches that are most likely to be useful.
2) Data collection: In this stage no consultant may conduct a survey to determine organisational
climate andidentify current deficiencies or performance gaps.The survey also include baseline
information.
Information regarding the organosational level of operation that can later be used todetermine the
effectiveness of OD program.
3) Data feedback and confrontation: The information collected through the survey is given to
employees for their view and to decide on their course of action.
4) Action Planning and problem Solving: The group uses the data to develop scientific
recommendations for change , Exact plans are drawn, a time frame is decided and responsibility
assigned.
5) Use of intervention strategies: The consultant now help the participant to implement the plan
through the use of appropriate intervention strategies .The strategy used depends on the nature
of problem and may focus on individual team and whole organisation.
6) Evaluation and Follow-up: The result of a program is evaluated ,if neccessary the existing
program may be modified or additional program may be modified.

STRESS:
Stress may be defined as psychological or psyological imbalance resulting from disparity
between situational damand and individual ability and motivation to meet those demands.
Stress is your body’s way of responding to any kind of demand or threat. When you sense danger
—whether it’s real or imagined—the body’s defenses kick into high gear in a rapid, automatic
process known as the “fight-or-flight” reaction or the “stress response.”
The stress response is the body’s way of protecting you. When working properly, it helps you
stay focused, energetic, and alert. In emergency situations, stress can save your life—giving you
extra strength to defend yourself, for example, or spurring you to slam on the brakes to avoid a
car accident.
Stress can also help you rise to meet challenges. It’s what keeps you on your toes during a
presentation at work, sharpens your concentration when you’re attempting the game-winning
free throw, or drives you to study for an exam when you’d rather be watching TV. But beyond a
certain point, stress stops being helpful and starts causing major damage to your health, mood,
productivity, relationships, and your quality of life.
If you frequently find yourself feeling frazzled and overwhelmed, it’s time to take action to bring
your nervous system back into balance. You can protect yourself—and improve how you think
and feel—by learning how to recognize the signs and symptoms of chronic stress and taking
steps to reduce its harmful effects.
Fight-or-flight response: what happens in the body
This is because low level of stress results in boredom and absence of job challenges.
As stress increases performance also improves.
Stress threshhold:
We are aware of the term pain threshold. Still clarifying it, the word threshold is defined as the
level at which something starts to have an effect. low pain threshold means that one will begin to
react even when there is minor pain. Similarly, there is stress threshold. A low stress threshold
translates into one reacting even when there is a minor stress. And if someone has this problem,
it has a crippling effect on the quality of life.
Changes are inevitable in this world and all changes are not pleasant. Rather a majority of
changes bring some stress and this cannot be helped. Many of us are guilty of having unrealistic
ambitions. And what does this doIJ We come under excessive stress. And when one tries to live
up to a wrong image of oneself, there is readymade stress. Another reason for being overstressed
is not being sufficiently skilled to handle one’s duties. Also when one takes undue risks. Or one
is unable to meets one’s goals.
These are some additional reasons why there is excessive stress. One is not able to support
oneself financially. One has family problems. There is a break in relationship, like divorce. One
suffers from poor health, especially of the mental kind. And one has too many attachments for
material objects.
However, we can deal with them. To begin with, let us realise that no stress is going to last
forever; it comes and goes. We can look back and assure ourselves that we have been able to
overcome such stress quite successfully without suffering much damage. Then, one should not
consider every stress as excessive, ie have a high stress threshold. life is full of ups and downs,
one must accept this reality. Rather one should be prepared to face new challenges. A wise
person avoids getting in stressful situations.
Everyone must have a lot of patience. The world moves at its own speed. We have to synchronise
our thinking with it, not the other way around. Developing lot of skills and capabilities will help
greatly because that will reduce dependency. There must be faith in God and his unfailing system
that adverse circumstances come and go; they don’t last forever. One should pray to God for
relief, and ability to tolerate suffering. If one is connected to God, he does help. Seek help from
others as well, without being an object of ridicule. One should acquire spiritual knowledge,
which will help in navigating through stressful situations. lastly, one should use relaxation
techniques.
If we don’t do something about excessive stress, we get hurt in many ways. To begin with, peace
will be lost, and we know what that means. Sleeping is the first thing which gets affected. Health,
both physical and mental, is affected. In a highly stressed state, one is more likely to make
mistakes and behave irrationally. One will not be able to perform according to one’s ability.
Surely, one will not be happy and the quality of life will be poor.
Changes are inevitable in this world. It is true for everyone without any exception. And these
changes do not always favour us. But what we consider stressful is important. When our stress
threshold is high, we ride many difficult situations with ease and confidence.
Stress threshhold is the level of stress that a person can tolerate before negative feelingsabout
stress occurs and has an adverse effect on performance.Individual differs in levels of stress
tolerance or stress threshhold.Individual internal resilience plays an important role in his capacity
to handle stress.
Perceived control :
The way one thinks is the way one feels.How a person Perceives a situation, and what he thinks
about it,determine whether an individual experience stress or not.
Healthy and successful individuals often have a strong sense that they are in control of their lives
and the world around them. Likewise, men and women who feel that they are in control of their
lives tend to be healthy and successful. An individual's perception of his or her ability to be
effective in the world, what psychology textbooks refer to as perceived control, is widely studied
because it has such an important, and sometimes obvious, impact on an individual's physical and
mental health. Perceived control reflects the degree to which an individual believes that a
situation is controllable and that he or she has the skills necessary to bring about a desired (or
avoid an undesired) outcome. There are two fundamental aspects: contingency (i.e., does the
person believe that this outcome is controllable?) and competence (i.e., does the person perceive
himself or herself as capable of producing the desired, or suppressing the undesired, event?).

Perceived control differs from objective control in that it focuses on a person's subjective
perception (i.e., what the person believes is accepted as the reality for that individual, regardless
of the actual control available). When people perceive themselves to be in control, but are not, it
is called an illusion of control. A number of studies have investigated illusions of control.
However, because the amount of control actually available is often not known, the practicality of
examining this aspect of control has been questioned. Overall, research points to a fundamental
difference between the actual control available in a situation and a person's perception of control;
the perception of control (whether accurate or not) influences people's behaviors and emotions
more strongly than actual control.

SYMPTOMS OF STRESS:
Cognitive symptoms:
Memory problems
Inability to concentrate
Poor judgment
Seeing only the negative
Anxious or racing thoughts
Constant worrying
Emotional symptoms:
Depression or general unhappiness
Anxiety and agitation
Moodiness, irritability, or anger
Feeling overwhelmed
Loneliness and isolation
Other mental or emotional health problems
Physical symptoms:
Aches and pains
Diarrhea or constipation
Nausea, dizziness
Chest pain, rapid heart rate
Loss of sex drive
Frequent colds or flu
Behavioral symptoms:
Eating more or less
Sleeping too much or too little
Withdrawing from others
Procrastinating or neglecting responsibilities
Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to relax
Nervous habits (e.g. nail biting, pacing)
Causes of stress
The situations and pressures that cause stress are known as stressors. We usually think of
stressors as being negative, such as an exhausting work schedule or a rocky relationship.
However, anything that puts high demands on you can be stressful. This includes positive events
such as getting married, buying a house, going to college, or receiving a promotion.
Of course, not all stress is caused by external factors. Stress can also be internal or self-
generated, when you worry excessively about something that may or may not happen, or have
irrational, pessimistic thoughts about life.
Finally, what causes stress depends, at least in part, on your perception of it. Something that’s
stressful to you may not faze someone else; they may even enjoy it. While some of us are
terrified of getting up in front of people to perform or speak, for example, others live for the
spotlight. Where one person thrives under pressure and performs best in the face of a tight
deadline, another will shut down when work demands escalate. And while you may enjoy
helping to care for your elderly parents, your siblings may find the demands of caretaking
overwhelming and stressful.
Common external causes of stress include:
Major life changes
Work or school
Relationship difficulties
Financial problems
Being too busy
Children and family
Common internal causes of stress include:
Pessimism
Inability to accept uncertainty
Rigid thinking, lack of flexibility
Negative self-talk
Unrealistic expectations / perfectionism
All-or-nothing attitude
Top 10 stressful life events
According to the widely validated Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale, these are the top ten stressful
life events for adults that can contribute to illness:
Death of a spouse
Divorce
Marriage separation
Imprisonment
Death of a close family member
Injury or illness
Marriage
Job loss
Marriage reconciliation
Retirement
What’s stressful for you?
Whatever event or situation is stressing you out, there are ways of coping with the problem and
regaining your balance. Some of life’s most common sources of stress include:
Stress at work
While some workplace stress is normal, excessive stress can interfere with your productivity and
performance, impact your physical and emotional health, and affect your relationships and home
life. It can even determine the difference between success and failure on the job. Whatever your
ambitions or work demands, there are steps you can take to protect yourself from the damaging
effects of stress, improve your job satisfaction, and bolster your well-being in and out of the
workplace.
Job loss and unemployment stress
Losing a job is one of life’s most stressful experiences. It’s normal to feel angry, hurt, or
depressed, grieve for all that you’ve lost, or feel anxious about what the future holds. Job loss
and unemployment involves a lot of change all at once, which can rock your sense of purpose
and self-esteem. While the stress can seem overwhelming, there are many steps you can take to
come out of this difficult period stronger, more resilient, and with a renewed sense of purpose.
Caregiver stress
The demands of caregiving can be overwhelming, especially if you feel that you’re in over your
head or have little control over the situation. If the stress of caregiving is left unchecked, it can
take a toll on your health, relationships, and state of mind — eventually leading to burnout.
However, there are plenty of things you can do to rein in the stress of caregiving and regain a
sense of balance, joy, and hope in your life.
Grief and loss
Coping with the loss of someone or something you love is one of life’s biggest stressors. Often,
the pain and stress of loss can feel overwhelming. You may experience all kinds of difficult and
unexpected emotions, from shock or anger to disbelief, guilt, and profound sadness. While there
is no right or wrong way to grieve, there are healthy ways to cope with the pain that, in time, can
ease your sadness and help you come to terms with your loss, find new meaning, and move on
with your life.
How
Duration:
How long the causes of stress continues.
Strength:
How powerfull the stressful situation is.
Individual characteristics:
The individual stress tolerance level and the ability to handle stress.
Stress affect the physiological,psychological and behavioral aspect.
Behavioral effect:
1) Overeating
2) undereating
3)Loss of sleep
4) Excessive desire to sleep
5) Excessive drinking
6) Reckless driving.
7) Drug addiction.
8)Poor interpersonal reletionship.
9) Agression.

CONFLICT:
Conflict can be defined as mental struggle resulting from incompatiable or opposing needs ,
drives ,wishes and external and internal demands, where there are people ,there is conflict.
The word conflict has been derived from a Latin word ‘Conflicts’ which means ‘strike two things
at the same time’.

Conflict is an opposition or a tug-of-war between contradictory impulses. According to Colman


‘A conflict is the anticipated frustration entailed in the choice of either alternative’. Conflicts
occur in the individual when more than one, equally powerful desires or motives present at the
same time and pressurize for immediate satisfaction.
Classification of Conflict:
1) Intrapersonal
2) Intragroup
3) Interpersonal
4) Intergroup

Intrapersonal : Intrapersonal conflict take place within an individual ,within a team.The person
experiencing it in his own mind .Thus it is type of conflict i.e psychological involving individual
thoughts, values ,Principles and emotions.
Intragroup: Intra group conflict occurs among individuals within a team, the incompatiabilities
and misunderstanding between team members lead to intra-group conflict.Varied personalities
which leads to incompatiable choice and opinions
Intergroup conflicts:
Inter group conflicts arises when there is misunderstanding among different teams,within an
organisation.
For Example: Marketing department team with the customer support department.
Employee Counselling:
Employee counselling is the most important tool of a supervisor who wants to improve the
performance and behavior of an employee.
if performnace problem persists even after feedback and coaching there are two important
tools .
Counselling focuses on the problem ,not the employee and is postive and
constructive,counselling is normal,straight ,face to face conversation between a supervisor and
employee concerning conduct and Performance.
It is an Efficient means for supervisor to have a positive effect on employees performance.

Types of Conflicts:
There are different types of conflicts. Very common among them are:
a) Intrapersonal or Goal conflicts b) Interpersonal conflicts,

a. Intrapersonal conflicts:
These are the conflicts caused within the individual. These conflicts arise as a result of two or
more motives or goals to be achieved at a time. Hence, these are called goal conflicts. Lewin has
described three types of goal conflicts.

However, in addition to these there is one more conflict in which the individual faces more than
one attracting or repelling forces making the individual to experience more stress.

This is called multiple approach avoidance conflict. These are as follows:

1. Approach-approach conflict:

In this type of conflict individual will have two desires with positive valence which are equally
powerful. For example, a person has two attractive job offers and he has to choose any one of
them- tension arises. Such conflicts are not so harmful, because after selecting one, the other one
automatically subsides or loses its importance to him. But in some situation choice will be very
difficult. For example, a girl has to choose either loving parents or a boy friend for inter-caste
marriage. Such cases are like ‘you cannot have the cake and eat it too’.The individual will be
psychologically torn and may lose equilibrium. This type of conflict is diagrammatically
represented in Figure 4.3.

2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict:

This conflict involves two goals with negative valence. At times the individual is forced to
choose one among two negative goals. In such conflicts, both are unwanted goals, but he cannot
keep quiet without opting also. For example, a woman must work at a job which she dislikes
very much or else she has to remain unemployed.

Here the individual is caught between two repelling threats, fears or situations. When she cannot
choose either of them she may try to escape from the field itself. But the consequences of the
escape may also be harmful. For example, a person who cannot convince the mother or the wife
may resort to Alcohol consumption which is otherwise dangerous or some people may even
commit suicide. Such type of conflict is diagrammatically represented in Figure 4.4.
In the event of such conflicts when there is no way to escape- some people may find a way to
reduce their tension by developing ‘amnesia’ or defence mechanisms like regression or fantasy.

3. Approach-avoidance conflict:

This is also a most complex conflict and very difficult to resolve. Because in this type of conflict
a person is both attracted and repelled by the same goal object. Here the goal object will have
both positive and negative valences.

The positive valence attracts the person, but as he approaches, the negative valence repels him
back. Attraction of the goal and inability to approach it leads to frustration and tension.

For example, a person is approaching to accept a job offer, because the salary is attractive- but at
the same time he is repelled back as the job is very risky. A man wants to marry to lead a family
life, but does not want the responsibilities of family life. This type of conflict is diagrammatically
represented in Figure 4.5.

4. Multiple-approach-avoidance conflict:

Some of the situations in life we come across will involve both positive and negative valences of
multiple nature. Suppose a woman is engaged to be married. The marriage to her has positive
valences like-providing security to life and marrying a person whom she loves very much.

Suppose, on the other hand, if the marriage is repellent to her because she has to quit her
attractive job and salary, recognition which makes her dependent, the situation builds up tension
in her.

The resolution of this conflict depends upon the sum total of both valences. If the sum total of
attractive valence takes upper hand, she will quit the job and go for marriage; otherwise she may
reject marriage and continue the job if the sum total of negative valence is powerful. This type of
conflict is shown diagrammatically in Figure 4.6.

Approaches:
1)Humanistic approach:
Humanistic approach recognises the uniqueness of every individual.
It assumes that everyone has innate capacity to grow emotionally and psychologically towards
the goal of self-actualisation and personal fulfilment.
Client-centered counselling :
The cenral theme of client ceneterd counselling is the belief that we all have inherentresources
that enable us to deal with what life brings .A trained client centered counsellor shows empathy,
warmth and genuineness, which they beleive will enable the client self-understanding and
growth.
a) Empathy
b) Warmth
c) Genuineness
Behavioral Approach:
Behavioral approach focuses on assumption that the environment determines individual
behavior. Behaviorist believes that the environment is learned and therefore can be unlearned.
Problems which respond well to this therapy includes phobhia, anxiety,attack and eating
disorders.

2. Resolution of Conflicts:

The conflicts may arise from frustrations, competing roles or goals having positive or negative
valences. Some conflicts are of great danger to mental health of the individual. Hence, it is
necessary to resolve them as quickly as possible.

Otherwise, they may be carried on to the unconscious level, resulting in psychological problems
and psychosomatic disorders. The clash between the urges, desires and motives may go on
without being fully aware of it. These forces may disturb the individual causing lot of mental
turmoil.
Conflicts resolution depends upon the type of conflict. The double approach conflict may be
easily resolved by satisfying first one goal which is more important than the other; for instance, a
student attending the class first, then going for food even if hungry.

Alternatively, this conflict is resolved by giving up one of the goals. Obviously, approach-
approach conflict does not generate much anxiety, because the individual is not going to lose
much.

The double avoidance conflict is more complex. Since the individual does not want either of the
goals, he experiences more repelling effect as he moves near one goal by rejecting the other.
Finally when it is unbearable, the individual tries to leave the conflict situation, but the other
factors in periphery of the situation makes it difficult.

For example, a student who cannot face examination or failure may try to rim away from home,
but the love and affection of the parents or financial problems may prevent him from doing so.
Some people may resort to other means to get relief from tension, such as day dreaming, taking
alcohol, chain smoking, suicide, etc. Totally avoidance by some means is the goal of the
individual.

In approach-avoidance conflict, since there is only one goal object, it is very difficult to decide.
Here, compromise with the situation is the only alternative solution to overcome stress resulting
from conflict.

Finally, in multiple approach-avoidance conflict the individual has to take a decision depending
upon the sum total of positive or negative valences resulting in selection of goals.

Though these are the coping strategies at individual level, people facing conflicts may help
themselves by examining the causes of conflicts clearly, trying to choose the best alternative,
early decision making, etc.

They have to make use of their creative thinking, divergent reasoning and proper perception of
the situations. Motives may influence our behaviour, but the individual should not be the slave of
his motives, instead he should be the master of his motives, so that he can have control over
them. Finally taking advice from parents, elders, teachers and counsellors will be of great help to
cope with and to resolve conflicts,

b. Interpersonal conflicts:
Interpersonal conflict is caused between individuals. This can be resolved through some
strategies such as avoiding, smoothing, forcing, confronting and compromising. Assertive
behaviour and I am ok, you are ok interpersonal orientation help to resolve such conflicts easily.

3. Unconscious Conflict:
The mental conflict below the level of conscious awareness is called unconscious conflict. The
conflicts in conscious level, when repressed, shifts to unconscious. Here the desires which cannot
be satisfied at conscious level are repressed to unconscious level as a mechanism of escaping.
Many of our wants raised by Id may not be socially acceptable. Such wants are objected by the
Ego and the Super ego. Hence these are repressed to unconscious.

The repressed desires or wishes remain active in the unconscious part of our mind. They slowly
gather strength by making alliance with other similar experiences and become stronger. This
group of repressed wants which is working for the satisfaction try to come back to the conscious.
This process is called complex. As soon as complexes are formed they give rise to conflicts in
the unconscious.

They try to come back to conscious, but prevented by censor or preconscious. So they try to
enter the conscious level when censor is at rest or sleep. They may appear in the form of dreams,
slip of tongue, slip of pen, motivated forgetting, etc. Sometimes they may appear in the form of
peculiar behavior and mannerisms.

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