Papers in Physics, vol. 7, art.

070004 (2015)

www.papersinphysics.org

Received: 17 November 2014, Accepted: 2 March 2015

Edited by: L. A. Pugnaloni
Reviewed by: G. Lumay, University of Liège, Belgium.
Licence: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4279/PIP.070004
ISSN 1852-4249

Characterizing flowability of granular materials by onset of jamming in

orifice flows

Paul Mort1∗
This paper describes methods to measure flow rate and jamming onset of granules dis-
charged through a flat-bottom cylindrical hopper with a circular orifice. The intrinsic
jamming onset for ideal particles (spherical, monodisperse, smooth) is experimentally
measured by two independent methods, with good agreement. For non-ideal particles,
the normalized jamming onset increases with elongated granule shape, broadened size dis-
tribution and increased friction as measured by the drained angle of repose. An empirical
model of the jamming onset is introduced to quantify these effects over the range of mate-
rials investigated. The jamming onset can be used as a measure of differentiation between
relatively free-flowing granules.

I. Background to quantify incipient bulk flow (i.e., yield loci) of

powders and granules. Flow functions calculated
The motivation for this work is to find a means using yield loci can differentiate between strongly-
of characterizing and differentiating flow quality of cohesive, mildly-cohesive and free-flowing materi-
relatively free-flowing granular materials. On the als [1]; this is highly relevant to bulk storage and
one hand, industry requires methods that can be handling of powders. However, shear cell measure-
performed relatively simply and reproducibly. On ments are relatively insensitive in regards to differ-
the other hand, both industry and academia seek ences among freely-flowing granules. For applica-
better fundamental understanding of granular rhe- tions where the quality of granular dynamic flow is
ology via physical mechanisms governing flows; in of interest, we need a more sensitive methodology,
the case of industry, fundamental understanding hence the motivation of the current work. Various
should extend to commercially-relevant granular approaches are discussed in the literature, includ-
materials. This paper correlates the onset of jam- ing using rotating drums [2, 3] and impeller-driven
ming with granular characteristics, including par- flows [4, 5] to measure granular rheology. The cur-
ticle size distribution and particle shape. Details rent work focuses on the onset of jamming in orifice
are provided on size and shape characterization of flows to differentiate the quality of otherwise freely-
commercially-relevant materials. flowing granules.
Characterization of cohesive powder flow has Let us consider jamming in the context of a shear
been relatively well established using shear cells cell analysis. According to continuum modeling,
∗ Email: [email protected] a “cohesionless” material measured using a shear
cell (i.e., a yield locus passing through the origin)
1 Procter & Gamble Co., 5280 Vine Street, Cincinnati, OH implies flow through a hopper cone opening of in-
45217, USA. finitesimal diameter. At this limit, the continuum
model fails because the orifice must be at least as

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Figure 2: Interpolation of Jamming Onset (J) at

25% mass discharged.

quired to extend the range of orifice diameters. The

range of orifice sizes used with the Flodex included:
Figure 1: Schematic of a flat-bottom cylindrical 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18
hopper device (FlodexTM ). and 20 mm. Experiments were done with common
materials including narrowly-classified glass beads,
Ottawa sand, and a variety of granular detergent
large as the particle diameter. Further, local pack- samples. In all cases, these samples were relatively
ing and jamming effects require the opening to be free-flowing according to shear cell measurements.
significantly larger than a single particle [6]. A A schematic of the orifice flow instrument is
theoretical analysis of intrinsic cohesion suggests shown in Fig. 1. Approximately 100 ml of mate-
a boundary layer effect of 3-5 particle diameters rial is used in the test, filling the 5.7 cm diameter
[7]; as a starting point, this can be taken as a the- stainless-steel hopper to a height of about 4 cm by
oretical minimum dimensionless orifice size for an pouring the granular sample through the loading
otherwise free-flowing granular material. Experi- funnel. After the sample settles, the spring-loaded
mental studies on the physics of jamming in gran- discharge gate is opened and the sample is allowed
ular flows report jamming transitions on the basis to drain through the orifice into a receiving cup be-
of a dimensionless hopper opening at the onset of low. Once the flow stops and remains stopped for
the jamming transition [8,9], where the dimension- 30 seconds, the mass of discharged material is mea-
less hopper opening (Do /d) is defined by the ratio sured. Clogging is defined as a persistent jammed
of the opening size (Do ) relative to a monodisperse state where the orifice remains obscured by the
particle size (d). The current work is an empir- granules at the point of flow stoppage. For each
ical investigation, seeking to elucidate the effects measurement, the mass% discharged is calculated
of both size distribution and shape factors on the according to the formula: (mass% discharged) =
jamming probability of free-flowing granules. 100 × (mass discharged) / (sample mass). The av-
erage of the three mass% discharge calculations is
II. Experimental plotted as a function of the dimensionless orifice
size (Do /d), with the mass% discharged on the or-
The experimental device used in this work was a dinate and the dimensionless orifice size on the ab-
flat-bottom cylindrical hopper with a set of inter- scissa. This procedure is repeated using incremen-
changeable disks having a range of discrete orifice tally larger orifice sizes until the hopper discharges
sizes; it is available as a commercial flow testing without clogging for three consecutive trials. The
system, FlodexTM (Hanson Research, Chatsworth, averaged data are linearly interpolated to find the
CA, USA), with additional disks machined as re- Jamming Onset (J), defined here as the value of the

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dimensionless orifice size at the point of 25 mass%

average discharge (Fig. 2).
For trials that drain without clogging, the
drained angle of repose, φd , is calculated accord-
ing to Eq. (1), derived assuming the granular ma-
terial discharges in the form of an inverted cone
with a base diameter equal to the hopper diameter,
Dh , and truncated where the cones apex protrudes
through the orifice with diameter, Do . Assum-
ing the remaining volume of retained material has
cylindrical symmetry (Fig. 3), simple solid geome-
try and the material’s repour (loose) bulk density,
ρbulk , are sufficient to relate the measured mass of
retained material, Mret , to the drained angle of re-
pose. Figure 3: Vertical cross section of residual mass
in a cylindrical hopper after draining successfully
  without a clog.
24Mret
φd = arctan (1)
πρbulk (2Dh3 − 3Do Dh2 + Do3 )

Orifice size is made dimensionless by scaling the

orifice size (Do ) to a characteristic particle size (d).
The Sauter mean (d32) is used as the character-
istic size for this study. Note the Sauter mean is
weighted toward the surface area of the granules,
the surface area being relevant to inter-particle con-
tact and frictional interactions of the flow. Stud-
ies of cohesive dry powders show correlation be-
tween the Sauter mean size and flow properties [10].
Size distributions were measured by sieving, fitting Figure 4: Examples of particle size distribution
the size distribution using a log-normal distribu- analysis for four samples, A-D. The data points are
tion model to obtain a mass-based geometric mean from sieve analysis; the fitted curves are based on
(d43) and geometric standard deviation (σg ) for a log-normal distribution, weighted to the mass on
each sample, then converting to the Sauter mean each sieve.
using the Hatch-Choate relation [11], Eq. (2). Ex-
amples of size distribution characteristics are shown
in Fig. 4, for select samples A-D discussed in detail
later in the results section.

ln d32 = ln d43 − ln2 σg (2)

Shape characteristics were measured using an au-

tomated image analysis system, Solids Sizer (JM
Canty, Buffalo, NY), using statistical averaging of
104 cross-sectional particle images per sample. An
example of particles counted in a freeze-frame cap- Figure 5: Image analysis freeze frame and cross-
tured by the image analysis system is given in sectional aspect ratio (AR) analysis: a) grayscale
Fig. 5. Note that the particles are in free-fall at the image; b) B&W image resulting from threshold
point of image capture, so the cross sectional im- analysis with particles outlined in red, AR =
age is randomly distributed over the possible states d1/d2.

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 Papers in Physics, vol. 7, art. 070004 (2015) / P. Mort

Figure 7: Cylindrical hopper discharge data, jam-

ming onset calculations and drained angle of repose
Figure 6: Discharge rate data for Sample D, mea-
for glass bead and washed sand samples.
sured over a series of orifice diameters (4 mm to 9
mm). For each condition, the flow rate is the time
derivative of mass discharged. The flow rate data ples characterized in this work included commercial
are plotted according to the Beverloo relation in granules having similar compositions, but with a
Fig. 9. range of particle size and shape characteristics, the
effect of which resulted in relative jamming onsets
of rotation. The median aspect ratio (AR50) was up to 30 and drained friction angles in excess of
used as the characteristic shape factor in this study. 60 Degrees. Because the commercial samples have
several aspects of variability, a multivariate model
The granular discharge rate was measured by
was formulated to assess the relative effects of fric-
placing the receiver cup on an electronic balance
tion, size distribution and shape characteristics.
with data acquisition to record the discharge mass
with time. This experiment was done using orifice Data from the broader set of 23 samples (Ta-
sizes above the jamming onset. Discharge data are ble 1), including commercial granular materials
provided in Fig. 6, using Sample D as an exam- and manipulations thereof, were used to gener-
ple. Sample D is discussed in more detail in the ate a multivariate power-law model for the jam-
results section. The flow rate was determined by ming onset (J) as a function of particle parame-
taking the time derivative (slope) of the cumula- ters [Eq. (3)]. The model parameters include the
tive discharge. The mass flow rate is converted to shape factor (median aspect ratio, AR50), size dis-
a volumetric rate using the repour bulk density. tribution breadth (geometric standard deviation,
σg ) and an excess friction factor defined as XF =
max[1, tan(φd )]. The range in breadth of size dis-
III. Results and Discussion tribution was from about 1.0 to 2.2; the range of
median aspect ratio was from about 1.0 to 1.4. The
i. Analysis of jamming onset using a mul- fitted coefficients (a, b, c) represent exponents in
tivariate model the power-law form of the model. While this equa-
tion is purely empirical, its form is logical in the
Results for nearly “ideal” materials including
sense that it reduces to an intrinsic jamming inter-
tightly classified glass beads and washed Ottawa
cept (kj ) when the other terms are minimized. In
sand are shown on Fig. 7. These samples are nearly
other words, extrapolation to kj represents the jam-
mono-disperse. The glass beads are nearly spher-
ming onset of an idealized sample (mono-disperse,
ical, while the sand is slightly irregular in shape.
spherical, smooth, low friction).
Both have relatively smooth-surfaces and a low
drained friction angle. The jamming onset for the
glass beads is in the range of 3 to 5 particle di-
ln(J) = ln(kj ) + a ln(AR50)
ameters. The washed sand has a slightly higher
jamming onset of about 7 diameters. Other sam- + b ln(σg ) + c ln(XF ) (3)

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 Papers in Physics, vol. 7, art. 070004 (2015) / P. Mort

The results of the multivariate model are shown

graphically in Fig. 8. While the correlation coeffi-
cient (∼0.86) indicates that the model is reason-
ably predictive, the scatter suggests uncertainty,
perhaps in the choice of model parameters, their
interaction and/or uncertainty in measurements.
For example, the model may be over-simplifying
the parameter space, ignoring potentially impor-
tant factors such as more complex shape factors,
the breadth of the shape distribution, and interac-
tions between size and shape distributions.
The statistical analysis is shown in Table 2. The
most statistically significant factors are the intrinsic
jamming intercept, kj , excess friction factor, XF ,
and the geometric size distribution, σg . The value
of kj is ∼2.9, at the lower end of the range predicted
by Wier [7]. While the particle shape factor, AR50,
is somewhat less significant statistically, its high
coefficient (2.38) indicates that particle shape can
have a strong impact on jamming, even over the
Figure 8: Multivariate regression of jamming onset relatively narrow range tested.
model [Eq. (3)]; deviation from the diagonal rep-
resents uncertainty in the empirical model. Solid ii. Flow rate measurements and Beverloo
data points labeled A-D indicate samples used in analysis
Flow Rate analysis (Fig. 9); their size distributions
are shown in Fig. 4. Flow rate data were analyzed using the Beverloo
equation [12]. It is shown here in volumetric form
[Eq. (4)], where V 0 is the volumetric feed rate, Do is
the orifice diameter, d is the characteristic particle
size (Sauter Mean), g is the gravitational constant
and C and kf are fit parameters; Do − kf d rep-
resents a reduced orifice size for active flow caused
by a boundary layer that scales with doparticle size.
For the purpose of regression analysis as a function
of relative orifice size (Do /d), the Beverloo equation
can be written in linearized form, Eq. (5), where
C is solved using the regression slope and kf using
the intercept.
√ 5/2
V 0 = C g (Do − kf d) (4)

V 02/5
 
Do
= C 2/5 g 1/5 − kf (5)
d d
Several flow rate data sets are shown in Fig. 9.
Figure 9: Regression [Eq. (5)] of flow rate data These data sets (Samples A-D) represent similar
collected for selected samples (A-D) having a range materials, but with different shape and size distri-
of jamming onsets. bution characteristics. Sample A is a commercial
granule; samples B and C are manipulated by clas-
sification; and sample D is classified then further

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rounded in a layering process. The jamming onsets

(J) of these samples span a significant range from
Table 1: Experimental data for relative jamming
about 8 to 20. However, the Beverloo regressions
onset (J) as a function of excess friction factor
are remarkably similar. All lie on a common slope
(XF ), geometric size distribution (σg ), and median
(C ∼ 0.57) and extrapolate to a similar zero-flow
aspect ratio (AR50).
intercept (kf ∼ 2.64). In other words, the granular
flow behavior is consistent for orifice sizes above the
Sample J XF σg AR50
jamming onset, but subtle differences in the gran-
A 18.6 1.49 1.84 1.36
ular characteristics and frictional properties have
B 16.2 1.01 1.76 1.35
a significant effect on the onset of jamming. This
C 11.8 1.05 1.63 1.35
suggests that the onset of jamming is a useful mea-
D 7.9 1.00 1.37 1.26
sure to differentiate the flow behavior of relatively
E 6.8 1.00 1.33 1.30
free-flowing granular materials.
F 7.1 1.00 1.34 1.24
Consider kf to represent an “intrinsic jamming
G 8.9 1.10 1.64 1.25
onset” at which the flow rate goes to zero. Note
H 9.6 1.08 1.48 1.32
that the extrapolated value for intrinsic jamming
I 28.9 1.90 1.79 1.41
(i.e., no flow) is only slightly lower than the power-
J 15.1 1.00 2.14 1.26
law intercept of the multivariate model (kj ∼ 2.9).
K 18.3 1.53 1.50 1.32
Recall, the measurement of the jamming onset, J,
L 28.2 1.24 1.79 1.34
is based on the interpolated orifice size for an av-
M 15.6 1.00 1.56 1.41
erage 25% sample discharge from the test hopper.
N 19.1 1.83 1.56 1.41
Thus, it is logical that kj , which is based on multi-
O 6.5 1.08 1.47 1.28
variate analysis of J, may slightly exceed kf , which
P 7.3 1.00 1.39 1.27
implies zero flow. On the other hand, the slope
Q 9.1 1.05 1.41 1.26
of the jamming probability function tends to be
R 7.6 1.09 1.32 1.27
quite steep in the range from zero to 25% discharge.
S 17.6 1.73 1.31 1.26
So, for the purpose of this paper, we can merge
T 6.8 1.00 1.23 1.21
the interpretation of kj and kf —both represent
U 7.1 1.00 1.10 1.20
an intrinsic jamming limit. Indeed, even though
V 4.3 1.00 1.05 1.10
each one was measured independently using differ-
W 3.5 1.00 1.05 1.15
ent methods, their values are nearly identical.
An interpretation of this result is that the “in-
trinsic jamming onset” is characteristic of orifice
flow for an ideal particle (monodisperse, spherical,
no excess friction), and that differences between the
Table 2: Parameter estimates and standard errors intrinsic onset and the actual measured jamming
obtained from multi-variate regression of Eq. (3) onset are due, in large part, to irregularities in the
using the data of Table 1. “Prob> |t|” is the proba- size distribution, shape and frictional roughness of
bility that the true parameter value is zero, against the granules.
the two-sided alternative that it is not; values less
than about 0.05 are typically regarded as highly
significant. IV. Conclusions
Term Estimate Std Error P> |t| The statistical analysis of jamming is a promis-
ln(kj ) 1.072 0.225 0.0001 ing approach for characterization of relatively free-
a 2.380 1.267 0.0758 flowing granular materials. In this work, we eval-
b 1.404 0.398 0.0023 uated the effect of dimensionless orifice size on the
c 1.095 0.265 0.0006 onset of jamming and flow rate. A multivariate
analysis of the jamming onset suggests an intrinsic
jamming probability of about 2.9 particle diame-

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ters for an idealized sample; irregularities such as [2] G Lumay, F Boschini, K Traina, S Bontempi,
size distribution, shape or excess friction support J-C Remy, R Cloots, N Vandewalle, Measuring
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icant in the regression analysis, the result suggests
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As materials become more cohesive and/or com- per design, In: Handbook of Conveying and
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