Brief History of Martial Arts

Martial arts are systems of codified practices and traditions of training for combat. Though studied
for various reasons, broadly speaking, martial arts share a single objective: to defeat a person
physically or to defend oneself from physical threat. Some martial arts are linked to spiritual or
religious beliefs/philosophies such as Buddhism, Daoism or Shinto while others have their own
spiritual/non-spiritual code of honour. Martial arts are commonly associated with East Asian
cultures, but are by no means unique to Asia. Throughout Europe there was an extensive system of
combat martial arts, collectively referred to as Historical European martial arts, that existed until
modern times and are now being reconstructed by several organizations while Savate is a French
kicking style developed by sailors and street fighters. In the Americas Native Americans have a
tradition of open-handed martial arts, that includes wrestling and Hawaiians have historically
practiced arts featuring small and large joint manipulation, a mix of origins occur in the athletic
movements of Capoeira that was created in Brazil by slaves, based on skills brought with them from
Africa.

While each style has unique facets that makes it different from other martial arts, a common
characteristic is the systemization of fighting techniques. Methods of training vary and may include
sparring or forms (kata), which are sets or routines of techniques that are performed alone, or
sometimes with a partner, and which are especially common in the Asian and Asian-derived martial
arts,[1].The word 'martial' derives from the name of Mars, the Roman god of war. The term 'Martial
Arts' literally means arts of Mars. This term comes from 15th century Europeans who were referring
to their own fighting arts that are today known as Historical European martial arts. A practitioner of
martial arts is referred to as a martial artist. Variation and scopeMartial arts vary widely, and may
focus on a specific area or combination of areas, but they can be broadly grouped into focusing on
strikes, grappling, or weapons training. Below is a list of examples that make extensive use of one
these areas; it is not an exhaustive list of all arts covering the area, nor are these necessarily the
only areas covered by the art but are the focus or best known part as examples of the area:

Striking

 Punching - Boxing (Western), Wing Chun

 Kicking - Capoeira, Savate, Taekwondo
 Other strikes (e.g. Elbows, knees, open-hand) - Muay Thai, Karate, Shaolin Kung Fu

Grappling

 Throwing - Glima, Judo, Jujutsu, Sambo, Shuai jiao

 Joint lock - Aikido, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Hapkido
 Pinning Techniques - Judo, Wrestling

Weaponry

 Traditional Weaponry - Fencing, Gatka, Kendo, Silambam, Kali

 Modern Weaponry - Eskrima, Jogo do Pau, Jukendo
Many martial arts, especially those from Asia, also teach side disciplines which pertain to medicinal
practices. This is particularly prevalent in traditional Chinese martial arts which may teach bone-
setting, qigong, acupuncture, acupressure (tui na), and other aspects of traditional Chinese
medicine.[2]History

Pictorial records of both wrestling and armed combat date to the Bronze Age Ancient Near East,
such as the 20th century BC mural in the tomb of Amenemhet at Beni Hassan, or the 26th century
BC "Standard of Ur".

East Asia
Early history

The foundation of the Asian martial arts is likely a blend of early Chinese and Indian arts. Extensive
trade occurred between these nations beginning around 600 B.C., with diplomats, merchants, and
monks traveling the Silk Roads. During the Warring States period of Chinese history (480-221 B.C.)
extensive development in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in The
Art of War (c. 350 B.C.)
An early legend in martial arts tells the tale of the Indian monk Bodhidharma (also called Daruma),
believed to have lived around 550 A.D. He is credited with founding the meditative philosophy of
Zen Buddhism and influencing the unarmed combat arts of the Shaolin temple in China. The martial
virtues of discipline, humility, restraint and respect are attributed to this philosophy. [3]The teaching
of martial arts in Asia has historically followed the cultural traditions of teacher-disciple
apprenticeship. Students are trained in a strictly hierarchical system by a master instructor: Sifu in
Cantonese or Shifu in Mandarin; Sensei in Japanese; Sa Bum Nim in Korean.

Modern history

In many countries local arts like Te in Okinawa,[4] Kenjutsu and Ju-Jutsu in Japan,[5] and Taekyon and
Soobak in Korea[6] mixed with other martial arts and evolved to produce some of the more well-
known martial arts in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries like Karate, Aikido, and
Taekwondo.

The Western interest in East Asian Martial arts dates back to the late 19th century, due to the
increase in trade between America with China and Japan. Relatively few Westerners actually
practiced the arts, considering it to be mere performance.

Edward William Barton-Wright, a railway engineer who had studied Jujutsu while working in Japan
between 1894–97, was the first man known to have taught Asian martial arts in Europe. He also
founded an eclectic martial arts style named Bartitsu which combined jujutsu, judo, boxing, savate
and stick fighting.

As Western influence grew in East Asia a greater number of military personnel spent time in China,
Japan, and Korea. Exposure to martial arts during the Korean war was also significant. Chuck Norris
and the late Joe Lewis were 1st exposed to martial arts while serving in the military overseas.
The later 1970s and 1980s witnessed an increased media interest in the martial arts, thanks in part
to Asian and Hollywood martial arts movies. The popularity of Bruce Lee and his movies led to one
of first widespread interest in the martial arts here in America. Later actors/martial artist Jackie
Chan and Jet Li are prominent movie figures who have been responsible for promoting Chinese
martial arts in recent years.

Europe

Martial arts existed in classical European civilization, most notably in Greece where sports were
integral to the way of life. Boxing (pygme, pyx), Wrestling (pale) and Pankration (from pan, meaning
"all", and kratos, meaning "power" or "strength") were represented in the Ancient Olympic Games.
The Romans produced Gladiatorial combat as a public spectacle.

A number of historical fencing forms and manuals have survived, and many groups are working to
reconstruct older European martial arts. The process of reconstruction combines intensive study of
detailed combat treatises produced from 1400–1900 A.D. and practical training or "pressure
testing" of various techniques and tactics. This includes such styles as sword and shield, two-handed
swordfighting, halberd fighting, jousting and other types of melee weapons combat. This
reconstruction effort and modern outgrowth of the historical methods is generally referred to as
Western martial arts. Many Medieval martial arts manuals have survived, the most famous being
Johannes Lichtenauer's Fechtbuch (Sword Tome) of the 14th century. Today Lichtenauer's tome
forms the basis of the German school of swordsmanship.

In Europe, the martial arts declined with the rise of firearms. As a consequence, martial arts with
historical roots in Europe do not exist today to the same extent as in Asia, since the traditional
martial arts either died out or developed into sports. Swordsmanship developed into fencing.
Boxing as well as forms of wrestling have endured. European martial arts have mostly adapted to
changing technology so that while some traditional arts still exist, military personnel are trained in
skills like bayonet combat and marksmanship. Some European weapon systems have also survived
as folk sports and as self-defense methods. These include stick-fighting systems such as Jogo do Pau
of Portugal and the Juego del Palo style(s) of the Canary Islands.

Other martial arts evolved into sports that no longer recognized as combative. One example is the
pommel horse event in men's gymnastics, an exercise which itself is derived from the sport of
Equestrian vaulting. Cavalry riders needed to be able to change positions on their horses quickly,
rescue fallen allies, fight effectively on horseback and dismount at a gallop. Training these skills on a
stationery barrel evolved into sport of gymnastics' pommel horse exercise. More ancient origins
exist for the shot put and the javelin throw, both weapons utilized extensively by the Romans.

Americas

Native peoples of North America and South America had their own martial training which began in
childhood. Some First Nations men and more rarely, some women were called warriors only after
they had proved themselves in battle. Most groups selected individuals for training in the use bows,
knives, blowguns, spears, and war clubs in early adolescence. War clubs were the preferred martial
weapon because Native American warriors could raise their social status by killing enemies in single
combat face to face. Warriors honed their weapons skills and stalking techniques through lifelong
training.

Okichitaw is a martial art based on Plains Cree of the Canadian Prairies that specializes in the
distinctive  war club, but also encorporates the use of bow, knife, long and short lance and
tomahawk as well as grappling and striking techniques.

Capoeira, with roots in Africa, is a martial art originating in Brazil that involves a high degree of
flexibility and endurance. It consists of kicks, elbow strikes, head butts, and sweeps. Brazilian Jiu
Jitsu is an adaptation of pre-World War II Judo and jujutsu. Created by Carlos Gracie and his brother
Hélio, it was restructured into a sport with a large focus on groundwork. This system has become
a popular martial art and proved to be effective in mixed martial arts competitions such as the UFC
and PRIDE.[7]

As of 2003, over 1.5 million US citizens practice martial arts.[8]

Africa

African knives may be classified by shape typically into the 'group and the 'circular' group and have
often been incorrectly described as throwing knives.[9]There are also wrestling and grappling
techniques found in West Africa. "Stick fighting" formed an important part of Zulu culture in South
Africa.

Modern history

Wrestling, Javelin, Fencing (1896 Summer Olympics), Archery (1900), Boxing (1904), and more
recently Judo (1964) and Tae Kwon Do (2000) are the martial arts that are featured as events in the
modern Summer Olympic Games.

Martial arts also developed among military and police forces to be used as:

 arrest and self-defense methods. Examples include: Krav Maga: a self-defense system

developed by the special armed forces of Israel; San Shou: developed for Chinese armed
forces; Kombato: developed for the Brazilian armed forces; and Rough and Tumble (RAT):
originally developed for the South African special forces (Reconnaissance Commandos)
(now taught in a civilian capacity).
 tactical arts for use in close quarter combat warfare, i.e. Military Martial arts e.g. UAC
(British), LINE (USA).

Other combative systems having their origins in the modern military include Soviet Bojewoje
(Combat) Sambo.
On the modern battlefield

Some traditional martial concepts have seen new use within modern military training. Perhaps the
most recent example of this is point shooting which relies on muscle memory to more effectively
utilize a firearm in a variety of awkward situations, much the way an iaidoka would master
movements with their sword.

During the World War II era William E. Fairbairn, a Shanghai policeman and a leading Western
expert on Asian fighting techniques, was recruited by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) to
teach Jujutsu to UK, U.S. and Canadian Special Forces. The book Kill or Get Killed, written by Colonel
Rex Applegate, became a classic military treatise on hand-to-hand combat. This fighting method
was called Defendu.

Traditional hand-to-hand, knife, and spear techniques continue to see use in the composite systems
developed for today's wars. Examples of this include the US Army's Combatives system developed
by Matt Larsen, the Israeli army trains its soldiers in Krav Maga, the US Marine Corps's Marine
Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP), and Chinese San Shou.

Unarmed dagger defenses identical to that found in the fechtbuch of Fiore dei Liberi and the Codex
Wallerstein were integrated into the U.S. Army's training manuals in 1942[10] and continue to
influence today's systems along with other traditional systems such as Kali and Escrima.

The rifle-mounted bayonet, which has its origin in the spear, has seen use by the United States
Army, the United States Marine Corps, and the British Army as recently as the Iraq War.[11]

Testing and competition

Testing or evaluation is important to martial art practitioners of many disciplines who wish to
determine their progression or own level of skill in specific contexts. Students within individual
martial art systems often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to
advance to a higher level of recognized achievement, such as a different belt color or title. The type
of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms or sparring.

Various forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments. Some
competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of
rules, these are referred to as mixed martial arts competitions. Rules for sparring vary between art
and organization but can generally be divided into light-contact, medium-contact, and full-
contact variants, reflecting the amount of force that should be used on an opponent.
Light- and medium-contact

These types of sparring restrict the amount of force that may be used to hit an opponent, in the
case of light sparring this is usual to 'touch' contact, e.g. a punch should be 'pulled' as soon as or
before contact is made. In medium-contact the punch would not be 'pulled' but not hit with full
force. As the amount of force used is restricted, the aim of these types of sparring is not to knock
out an opponent; a point system is used in competitions.

A referee acts to monitor for fouls and to control the match, while judges mark down scores, as in
boxing. Particular targets may be prohibited (such as the face or groin), certain techniques may be
forbidden, and fighters may be required to wear protective equipment on their head, hands, chest,
groin, shins or feet. In some styles (such as fencing and some styles of taekwondo sparring),
competitors score points based on the landing of a single technique or strike as judged by the
referee, whereupon the referee will briefly stop the match, award a point, then restart the match.
Alternatively, sparring may continue with the point noted by the judges.

Some critics of point sparring feel that this method of training teaches habits that result in lower
combat effectiveness. Lighter-contact sparring may be used exclusively, for children or in other
situations when heavy contact would be inappropriate (such as beginners), medium-contact
sparring is often used as training for full-contact.

Full-contact

"Full-contact" sparring or fighting is considered by many to be requisite in learning realistic

unarmed combat. Full-contact sparring is different from light and medium-contact sparring in
several ways, including reduced use (or no use) of protective gear and the use of strikes that are not
pulled but are thrown with full force, as the name implies. In full-contact sparring, the aim of a
competitive match is either to knock out the opponent or to force the opponent to submit. Full-
contact sparring may include a wider variety of permitted attacks and contact zones on the body.

Where scoring takes place it may be a subsidiary measure, only used if no clear winner has been
established by other means; in some competitions, such as the UFC 1, there was no scoring. Due to
these factors, full-contact matches tend to be more aggressive in character, but rule sets may still
mandate the use of protective gloves and forbid certain techniques or actions during a match, such
as punching the back of the head.

Nearly all mixed martial arts leagues such as UFC, Pancrase, Shooto use a form full-contact rules, as
do professional boxing organizations and K-1. Kyokushin karate requires advanced practitioners to
engage in bare-knuckled, full-contact sparring while wearing only a karate gi and groin protector
but does not allow strikes to the face, only kicks and knees. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and Judo matches do
not allow striking, but are full-contact in the sense that full force is applied in the application during
grappling and submission techniques.
Sparring debates

Some practitioners believe that sports matches with rules are not a good measure of hand-to-hand
combat ability and training for these restrictions may inhibit effectiveness in self defence situations.
These practitioners may prefer not to participate in most types of rule-based martial art
competition (even one such as vale tudo where there are minimal rules), electing instead to study
fighting techniques with little or no regard to competitive rules or, even perhaps, ethical concerns
and the law (the techniques practiced may include attacking vulnerable spots such as the groin or
the eyes). Others maintain that, given proper precautions such as a referee and a ring doctor,
sparring, in particular full-contact matches with basic rules, serves as a useful gauge of an
individual's overall fighting ability, and that failing to test techniques against a resisting opponent is
more likely to impede ability in such situations.

Martial sport

Judo and Tae Kwon Do as well as western archery, boxing, javelin, wrestling and fencing are
currently events in the Summer Olympic Games. Chinese wushu recently failed in its bid to be
included, but is still actively performed in tournaments across the world. Practitioners in some arts
such as kickboxing and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu often train for sport matches, whereas those in other arts
such as Aikido and Wing Chun generally spurn such competitions. Some schools believe that
competition breeds better and more efficient practitioners, and gives a sense of good
sportsmanship. Others believe that the rules under which competition takes place have diminished
the combat effectiveness of martial arts or encourage a kind of practice which focuses on winning
trophies rather than a focus such as cultivating a particular moral character.

As part of the response to sport martial arts, new forms of competition are being held such as the
Ultimate Fighting Championship in the U.S. or Pancrase, and the PRIDE in Japan which are also
known as mixed martial arts (or MMA) events. The original UFC was fought under very few rules
allowing all martial arts styles to enter and not be limited by the rule set.

Some martial artists also compete in non-sparring competitions such as breaking or choreographed
techniques poomse, kata or aka. Modern variations of the martial arts include dance-influenced
competitions such as tricking.
Some martial traditions have been influenced by governments to become more sport-like for
political purposes. The central impetus for the attempt by the People's Republic of China in
transforming Chinese martial arts into the committee-regulated sport of Wushu was suppressing
what they saw as the potentially subversive aspects of martial training, especially under the
traditional system of family lineages.