JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
JKUAT SODeL

SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING

P.O. Box 62000, 00200
©2013

Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: [email protected]

HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

JJ II LAST REVISION ON July 9, 2013

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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
This presentation is intended to covered within one week.
The notes, examples and exercises should be supple-
mented with a good textbook. Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
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clicking the green Exercise tag. To move back to the same

page click the same tag appearing at the end of the solu-
tion/answer.
©2013

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the re-

sponsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
[email protected].
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
LESSON 9
The Role of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT)
Development
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Learning Outcomes
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A study of this lesson should enable students to:

ˆ Explain the position of ICT in development
ˆ Discuss the forms of ICT and their application
ˆ Describe the use of ICT in the various sectors of the econ-
omy
JJ II ˆ Discuss the obstacles hindering expansion of ICT
J I ˆ Appreciate the role of ICT as the driver of globalization
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
9.1. What is Information and Communication Technol-
ogy?
It is not easy to come across a comprehensive definition of Infor-
mation and Communication Technology (ICI). This is because
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the models, methods, appliances and applications involved in it

are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis. It is difficult
to keep up with the changes. They just happen excessively fast.
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Consequently, ICT is easier to describe than to define.

The simplest way to conceptualize ICT is to consider all the
digital devices and techniques used by organizations and indi-
viduals to create, capture, organize, package, store, use, dissem-
inate and dispose information. In the Information Age there are
JJ II so many such gadgets that their list can never be exhaustive.
J I Nonetheless, some examples include personal computers, televi-
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
sion, electronic mail, robots, scanners and digital cameras, to
mention but a few. Thus ICT is concerned with the manage-
ment and exploitation of data. Crucially, it is also concerned
with the way these different tools work with each other and the
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skills the users utilize to harness their potential.

Thus, IT can be perceived as the catch-all idiom employed
to explain a wide array of technologies used in varied extents for
©2013

gathering, storing, retrieving, processing, analyzing and trans-

mitting information. It is a mash-up of information technolo-
gies, data networks and communication technologies to craft a
single technology facilitating efficient and cost-effective informa-
tion creation, processing and dissemination.
JJ II In conclusion, therefore, when we think of ICT, the following
J I must come to mind:
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
1. Convergence of technologies;
2. Software and applications used with the technologies;
3. Techniques and procedures used with the software and the
technology;
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4. Creativity and rapid change/evolution;

5. Reduction in costs of communication;
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6. Versatility; and
7. Information management (capture/creation, processing, or-
ganizing, storage, use, dissemination, disposal).
On a more convoluted front, study of ICT would also encompass
exploring the nature of information focusing on its societal value,
JJ II how and who controls it, legal issues - copyright, privacy, infor-
J I mation tights, etc. - as well as the overt and covert limitations
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
of technology in harnessing it. Delicate information manage-
ment requirements e.g. keeping information secure, processing
and distribution of information as well as designing, deploying
and maintaining networks to share information among individ-
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uals, organizations, groups and societies would also be covered.

Information as a business resource would also con a vital com-
ponent of such discourse. However, for the scope this book we
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will hub on the new technologies and application in enriching the

structure and process of inter and intrapersonal communication.

9.2. Forms of ICT

There are many ICT tools in the market today. They include:
JJ II 1. Computers, Internet, Intranets,World Wide Web (WWW)
J I 2. Satellite systems
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
3. Radios
4. Televisions
5. Photocopies
6. Fixed line telephones
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7. Mobile telephones
8. Scanners
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9. Digital cameras
10. Beepers
11. pagers
12. Hand held devices
JJ II 13. Persona; Electronic Organizers
J I 14. Portable Digital Assistant (PDA)
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
15. Software solutions and systems
16. Networked systems
17. Fax systems
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9.3. Practical uses of ICT Communication

Communication seems to be one of the major beneficiaries of
the ICT revolution. There are many communication tasks that
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can now be done better using mobile phones, computers and

personal planners that used to be done using letters, face to
face meetings and diaries. Undoubtedly, these ICT tools gener-
ally make communication faster, cheaper, convenient and more
efficient. Networking enables sharing of resources, remote ac-
JJ II cess, etc.; Extranets, Intranets, email, usenets,. blogs, discussion
J I boards, chat rooms and forums facilitate instantaneous sharing
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
of ideas and information in real time; Voice over IP (VoIP) fa-
cilitates affordable phone calls over the Internet. Free telephony
services like Skype already exist for international calls and short
message services; Scanning of documents and/or storing and
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sharing them electronically saves time, storage space, costs, etc.

9.3.1. Transport
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Many ICT tools are currently being used to aid various processes
in transportation.. These include air traffic control, monitoring
of freight, navigation of maritime vessels and logistical support
to transport operations. In Kenya, for instance, computerized
systems have been used to manage fuelling of fleet, diagnose au-
JJ II tomobile faults, and facilitate booking of transport facilities (e.g.
J I e-ticketing), among others. Plans are also underway to digitize
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
documents such as drivers’ license and vehicle logbooks in a bid
to facilitate ease of access and management of the information
contained therein. In more developed countries, utilization of Z
ICT tools in the sector is even more extensive. For instance, in
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South Africa ICT systems support parking of vehicles, boarding

of public taxis (matatus), traffic control and monitoring. The
use of. ICT in transport basically results in efficiency, greater
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control, convenience, cost reduction and discipline.

9.3.2. E-Government
E-Government is the use of new ICTs to transact government
business. This is a transforming concept that enables govern-
JJ II ments to digitally offer services, streamline their operations and
J I facilitate collaboration amongst their workers. The concept, as
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
we know it today, was first used by the United States govern-
ment under former President Bill Clinton in 1998- 1999. The
general benefit of e-government is convenient and ready access
to government information and services. The Government of
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Kenya (GOK) launched e-government strategy and directorate

in March 2004. The main objective the initiative was to mod-
ernize its operations as a means towards:
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1. Enhancement of transparency, accountability and g gover-

nance;
2. making the government more result oriented, efficient cit-
izen centered; and
3. enabling citizens and businesses to access government ser-
JJ II vices and information as efficiently and as effectively as
J I possible through the use of the Internet and other emerg-
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ing channels of communication.
Since then, in spite of challenges and other setbacks, the GOK’s
e-government initiative has come a long way. To date all govern-
ment offices in Nairobi have been networked through a mesh of
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Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs)

forming the Government Common Core Networks (GCCN) which
enables its officers to collaborate in performing their roles. This
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has not just reduced the turnaround time but also injected a
fresh team spirit among the civil servants. Work is also ongoing
to network all the provincial headquarters and link them to the
GCCN. The interconnectivity would enable the offices to offer
virtually all services at the provincial level to the benefit of the
JJ II wananchi.
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
The GOK is also working together with CISCO, a lead-
ing telecommunication technologies solutions provider, to install
video conferencing facilities in all its major offices. The project
will commence by linking the. President’s and Prime Minister’s
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offices to enable them to interact in real time and consult while

seeing each other. CISCO installed a similar solution at the US
White House which enabled the then President George Bush to
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transact government business in real time online. Definitely this

reduces costs of operation and consultation and ultimately en-
hances efficiency in the government. The US embassy in Nairobi
has a similar facility that enables it to communicate with (the
White House and other global offices cost-effectively.
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
9.3.3. Education and learning
ICTs have enabled easy access to research and other lean ma-
terials. They have also enabled seamless interaction bet learn-
ers and other learners as well as between teachers. learners and
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other teachers. Distance learning, virtual lean and e-learning are

all education services founded on the benefits of ICT systems.
There are many e-learning initiatives in Kenya coordinated by
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the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), School-

NET, African Virtual University (A Eduvision, Global Educa-
tional Partnership (GEP), Kenya Educational Network Trust
(KENET), Computer for Schools and a number of ICT-mediated
education organisations. In 2004 the Ministry of Education and
JJ II the private sector formed the ICT Trust Fund to. spearhead
J I adoption of ICT for education in Kenya. The most visible of
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
these is the NEPAD e-School Initiative which aims at equip-
ping and connecting schools with ICT networks and a minimum
set of ICT tools (radio, computers, TV Internet,. telephone,
etc) to improve the provision of education in Africa. In imple-
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menting the project President Mwai Kibaki launched the pilot

e-School project in Kenya at Isiolo Girls Secondary School in
2006. Other schools earmarked for the project are Mumbi Girls
©2013

(Central), Maranda High (Nanza), Chavakali Boys (Western),

Menerigai High (Rift Valley) and Wajir Girls (North Eastern).
The mainstreaming of mobile telephony in education is also
in progress. Recently Nokia launched a project to support Math-
ematics learning (numeracy) through e-learning systems operat-
JJ II ing on mobile phones. These, systems can be based on SMS/MMS,
J I or audio media, through which students can interact, seek and
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
receive desired educational support from other learners or ed-
ucators. Though the project is in its infancy stages, it can be
considered a harbinger of similar projects in the near future.
Such initiatives are bound to have great impact given the up-
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take levels of mobile phones in Kenya.

ICTs have enabled easy access to research and other lean ma-
terials. They have also enabled seamless interaction bet learn-
©2013

ers and other learners as well as between teachers learners and

other teachers. Distance learning, virtual lean and e-learning are
all education services founded on the benefits of ICT systems.
There are many e-learning initiatives in Kenya coordinated by
the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), School-
JJ II NET, African Virtual University (A Eduvision, Global Educa-
J I tional Partnership (GEP), Kenya Educational Network Trust
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
(KENET), Computer for Schools and a number of ICT-mediated
education organisations. In 2004 the Ministry of Education and
the private sector formed the ICT Trust Fund to. spearhead
adoption of ICT for education in Kenya. The most visible of
JKUAT SODeL

these is the NEPAD e-School Initiative which aims at equip-

ping and connecting schools with ICT networks and a minimum
set of ICT tools (radio, computers, TV Internet,. telephone,
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etc) to improve the provision of education in Africa. In im-

plementing the project President Mwai Kibaki launched the pi-
lot e-School project in Kenya at Isiolo Girls Secondary School
in 2006. Other schools earmarked for the project are Mumbi
Girls (Central), Maranda High (Nanza), Chavakali Boys (West-
JJ II ern), Menerigai High (Rift Valley) and Wajir Girls (North East-
J I ern). The mainstreaming of mobile telephony in education is
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
also in progress. Recently Nokia launched a project to sup-
port Mathematics learning (numeracy) through e-learning sys-
tems operating on mobile phones. These, systems can be based
on SMS/MMS, or audio media, through which students can in-
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teract, seek and receive desired educational support from other

learners or educators. Though the project is in its infancy stages,
it can be considered a harbinger of similar projects in the near
©2013

future. Such initiatives are bound to have great impact given

the uptake levels of mobile phones in Kenya.

9.3.4. Health
Many African countries declared their fight against hunger, dis-
JJ II ease and ignorance at independence. However, the continent still
J I bears the heaviest burden of all these. Specifically, World Health
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Organization (WHO) reports that out of 58.03 million people
who died in 2005, 10.9 million (18.8%) were from Africa. Sadly,
majority of these deaths were from health conditions which can
be prevented or cured and for which tested interventions ex-
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ist. Even though Africa has the weakest health systems, one
of the greatest impediments of effective disease management in
Africa is lack of relevant information. Actually, WHO cites lack
©2013

of capacity to generate, analyze and disseminate the right in-

formation as one of the five leading challenges to the provision
of credible health care services in Africa. The other challenges
include poor leadership and governance; extreme shortage of
health workers; rampant corruption in medical supplies; and
JJ II lack of adequate health funding.
J I The application of ICTs in the health sector is founded on
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
its capacity to bridge the information and physical gap between
medical care providers and the patients. This is most critical in
rural setups where health facilities are sparsely located. Here,
it enables virtual consultation and delivery of services thus re-
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ducing costs of access to medical care and saves lives. ICTs

also support health knowledge systems by facilitating creation
and access to clinical information, telemedicine, continuing med-
©2013

ical education and exchange forums ICTs have also been used
to create and sustain versatile health management information
systems facilitating better planning, implementation and mon-
itoring of health programs and interventions. Thus, ICTs en-
hance the access, efficiency, effectiveness, equity and quality of
JJ II health services to uplift the quality of lives globally.
J I ICTs have been used extensively in telemedicine through
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
computer aided operations (diagnosis, etc), expert systems, pa-
tient monitoring equipments, etc. The list is as long as your
imagination. Dr David Green, a Cape Town physician has de-
vised the cell phone based Prompted Self Administered Therapy
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(PSA’T) that utilises SMS to remind his patients to take their

TB medication. This has resulted in reduced TB resistance cases
hitherto encountered by most patients and health workers.
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In Kenya, AfriAfya (also known as African Network Health

Knowledge Management and Communication) has initiated a
number of ICT facilitated health interventions it countryside.
Most of these initiatives target health education, community mo-
bilization, research, disease management, health systems devel-
JJ II opment and knowledge management. The network is currently
J I implementing projects all over the country.
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
9.3.5. Agriculture
The economies of developing countries heavily rely on natural re-
sources. Agriculture, in particular, contributes a huge chunk of
their Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Kenya is no exception as
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Agriculture remains the cornerstone of the economy. The agri-

cultural sector employs over 80% of the population contributes
more than 50% of export earnings through cash crops such as
©2013

tea, coffee, pyrethrum, flowers and sisals to mention but a few.

Agriculture also provides the bulk of organic foods that most
of the population relies on. The staples include maize, beans,
potatoes, cassava, rice and sorghum. Over-rellance on natural
resources such as rainfall has constrained the levels of production
JJ II in the sector and greatly affects food security in the country. To
J I boost production and ensure food security; effective information
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
and knowledge management has been cited as a possible cata-
lyst to stimulate a transformation. ICTs, particularly, have been
singled out as potential tools of transformation the sector.
The WSIS lauds the use of ICTs to improve agriculture rec-
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ommends that the focus should be on facilitating exchange of

information rather than mere technology. It reports that its sur-
veys indicate that agricultural stakeholders are keen on improve-
©2013

ments in processes such as information dissemination, access,

and exchange; and communication, participation, network/community
building activities amongst rural stakeholders (WSIS, 2007).
Many examples on how ICTs can improve agriculture exist.
Generally, ICT tools have been used to strengthen far organi-
JJ II zations, increase access to credit, improve farm management,
J I disease and pest control, disseminate publications, facilitate dis-
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
tance learning, develop market systems and enhance extension
services. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAQ) has
initiated the Virtual Research Communication.

9.4. The ICT Industry in Kenya

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1. The government still plays a major role in the regulation,

licensing and provision of ICT services;
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2. There is no facilitative legislation in place to support the

expansion and widespread adoption of ICT services and
tools. A good attempt has been made to achieve this
through the Kenya Communication (Amendment) Act 2008
but there are controversies on some of its sections. It is
JJ II still under review;
J I 3. Most ICT tools are imported from the developed count
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
making them more expensive and complicated;
4. There is less research and development of ICT tools tech-
niques leading to lack of local content, technologies and
innovations;
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5. Public sector ICT tools are mainly donations which ordi-

narily out of date and cannot be effectively used;
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6. Driven generally by profit minded organisations out to t

maximum returns on their investments; and
7. Low national budgets.

9.5. Factors hindering widespread use of ICT in Kenya

JJ II There are many factors that have hindered faster and widespread
J I adoption of ICTs in Kenya. Some of these include:
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Inadequate infrastructure
Effective access and use of ICT requires basic infrastructure
like electricity and telephone services. To date, a vast major-
ity (about 80%) of Kenyans live in areas where these amenities
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are either dilapidated or non-existent. This is the biggest im-

pediment to widespread adoption of ICT in Kenya.
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High costs
The costs of acquiring, accessing and maintaining ICT services
and equipment is beyond the reach of most Kenyans. With ma-
jority (about 56%) of the populace living below the poverty line,
ICT is considered a non-essential luxury by most households
JJ II struggling to meet their basic needs. The cheapest computers,
J I for instance, cost more than these people can spend in a year!
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Even the proposed locally assembled Madaraka PC is still too
costly for the ordinary citizens.

Illiteracy
For anyone to be able to effectively use most ICT tools they
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must know how to read and write. It is estimated that about

30% of adult Kenyans do not know how to read and write. This
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implies that this huge segment of the Population, therefore, can-

not effectively use ICT.
ICT knowledge is another facet of this illiteracy. Effective
ICT use requires certain skills that not many people in Kenya
have. Basic computer literacy, for instance, is still quite low.
Unless, drastic steps are taken to correct this, ICT will still
JJ II
remain a pipe dream for many people in Kenya for many years
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
to come.

Proximity of ICT services

Most ICT services are concentrated in urban centres for eco-
nomic reasons. People in rural or sub-urban settings are there-
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fore unable to access the services due to the distances involved.

This adds to the costs of accessing ICT which in turn restricts
©2013

it to the exclusive privilege to urban dwellers and the rich. In-

adequate ICT legislation Until 2006, there was no serious legis-
lation to regulate facilitate the ICT sector in Kenya. An ICT
policy was drafted in 2006 to seal this gap. However, that too
is wanting in many fronts. A thriving ICT sector can only exist
with supportive legislations. Recently, the Kenya Communica-
JJ II
tion (Amendment) Act 2008 was enacted but it is still bedeviled
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
by controversies.

ICT Championship
Kenya lacks an ICT champion who can market the benefit of ICT
tools to the people and encourage them to harness it. Rwanda
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is a good example where superior ICT champion in President

Paul Kagame has worked wonders. Kenya needs to identify and
©2013

use an appropriate champion to promote the potential of ICTs.

Socio-cultural factors
These include gender, age, social class, economic status biases
that result in inaccessibility, lack of awareness of and inability
to afford the ICT services. Women and youth, who are the
JJ II majority, are generally disadvantaged and so cannot effectively
J I use ICT tools as expected.
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
9.6. Globalization
This is the growing interdependence of countries world-wide
through the, increasing volume and variety of cross-border trans-
actions in goods and services, and also through the more rapid
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and widespread diffusion of technology and communication. Peo-

ple around the globe are now more connected to each other than
ever before. Information and money flow more quickly than
©2013

ever. Goods and services produced in one part of the world are
increasingly available in all parts of the world as well. Inter-
national travel is more frequent. International communication
is commonplace. The world is shrinking into a global village
thanks to advancing technology.
JJ II Globalization gained prominence in the 1980s. It has brought
J I diminishing national borders and the fusing of individual na-
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
tional markets. The fall of protectionist barriers has stimulated
free movement of capital and paved the way for companies to
set up several bases around the
world. The rise of the Internet and recent advances in telecom-
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munications have boosted the already surging train. Globaliza-

tion has some negative implications for the developing countries
e.g.
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1. Exposes their economies to external forces over which they

have no control;
2. Reduced national sovereignty making macroeconomic man-
agement by domestic governments difficult;
3. Declining taxation and customs regimes; and
JJ II 4. Strengthens the position of the developed countries which
J I are able to take advantage of the technologies, etc.
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics

Example . Discuss the role of ICT in research and develop-
ment?
Solution:
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Useful in publication of research findings

Improves accuracy or research work
Improves marketing and marketing and buying and selling
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of goods. 

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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Revision Questions

Exercise 1.  Discuss the role of ICT in research and devel-

opment?

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Exercise 2. Describe the globalization negative implica-

tions towards the developing countries
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References and Additional Reading Materials

JJ II
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 HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 2.

Exposes their economies to external forces over which they

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have no control
Reduced national sovereignty making macroeconomic man-
agement by domestic governments difficult;
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Declining taxation and customs regimes

Strengthens the position of the developed countries which
are able to take advantage of the technologies, etc.
Exercise 2

JJ II
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