Air Pollutants

UNIT 9 AIR POLLUTANTS

Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 Air Pollution Phenomenon
Air Pollutants: Common Forms
9.3 Classification of Air Pollutants
Natural and Anthropogenic Pollutants
Particulate and Gaseous Pollutants
Primary and Secondary Pollutants
Stationary and Mobile Source Pollutants
Ambient Air and Indoor Air Pollutants
9.4 Effect of Air Pollutants on Human Health
Carbon Monoxide
Nitrogen Oxides
Hydrocarbons
Sulphur Oxides
Suspended Particulate Matter
9.5 Effect of Air Pollutants on Animals
Arsenic
Fluorides
Lead
Insecticides and Pesticides
9.6 Effect of Air Pollutants on Vegetation
Sulphur Dioxide
Ozone
Nitrogen Dioxide
Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate
Fluorides
Ethylene
9.7 Effect of Air Pollutants on Materials
Ferrous M etals
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
Copper and Silver
Building Materials
Leather
Paper
Textiles
9.8 Effect of Air Pollution on Visibility
9.9 Summary
9.10 Terminal Questions
9.11 Answers

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first unit of this block you studied about the nature and importance of
atmosphere. Atmosphere or air is an important resource necessary for the sustenance
of life on earth. Human beings are, of course totally dependent upon air for survival.
An average adult daily requires about 1.5 kg of food and about 2 kg of water but the
requirement for air is much greater; about 14 kg per day. Moreover, if cut off from all
the three, lack of air would be the first factor to become critical. It has been estimated
that a human being can live for 5 weeks without food, for 5 days without water, but
barely 5 minutes without air.

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Atmosphere If some components of air increase or decrease in their concentration beyond certain
limit they constitute polluted air and the components are called the air pollutants. In
the previous unit you studied the meteorological factors which play an important role
in the diffusion and transportation of these pollutants. In this unit we will discuss
about different types of air pollutants and the effects caused by them on human
health, animals, vegetation and materials. The next and the last unit of this block is
related to the monitoring and control of air pollutants which is very essential for the
welfare of the mankind and other living beings.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:

• explain the air pollution phenomenon,

• define various forms of air pollutants,
• classify different pollutants depending on their nature, origin, source, etc. and
• explain the effect of air pollutants on human beings, animals, vegetation, material
and visibility.

9.2 AIR POLLUTION PHENOMENON

Air pollution means the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more
Mist: mass of fine droplets
of water in atmosphere near
contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour in quantities and
or in contact with the eart h.
duration so as to be injurious to human, plant, or animal life or to property or which
unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property. Air that
becomes less useful by the removal of normal constituents is also said to be polluted.
Besides this, indoor air may also be called polluted depending upon indoor conditions
as you will read later in the following section.

Air Pollution is not a new phenomenon. The early cave man that discovered fire for
heating and cooking was also affected by the undesirable smoke which made
breathing difficult. This forced him to abandon his cave and make a better ventilated
hut. It allowed him to take full advantage of fire, while providing an outlet for the
unwanted smoke. This solution was simple till the urbanisation and industrial growth
took the problem of smoke from inside to outside. i.e., from a domestic problem it
become a problem of the town.

After ventilation, the next attempt to keep the air clean was to raise height of the
chimneys so that smoke could be blown out to a higher level where it cou ld diffuse
and drift away. However, with the rapid growth of population, industrialisation, and
increasing use of automobiles, the capacity of air atmosphere to absorb the smoke has
been diminishing. Today, the magn itude of air pollution has reached a menacing
proportion. It now not only threatens the health and well being of the population in a
particular city, but also produces effects on a global scale e.g., ozone layer depletion
and global warming discussed in the previous unit. The contamination of air has
become a threat to the continued existence of many plants and animals and may
ultimately threaten the very survival of the human race.

Before learning about the sources, classification and effects of air pollutants, let us
look into the common forms of air pollutants.

9.2.1 Air Pollutants : Common Forms

The list of air pollutants is very long. It includes the classic parameters like, smoke,
dust, smog and other particulates, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, oxidants and
other gases as well as other parameters, such as noise, heat or cold, fog, radioactivity,
excess radiation (uv, visible, and microwave) and similar properties that satisfy the
definition of air pollutants given above.

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The common forms of air contaminants or pollutants are as given below. Air Pollutants

Aerosols: Air or gas with suspended particles of usually less than 500µ or 0.5mm in 1µ = 10 –6 met re
diameter.

Dust: Solid particles generated by handling, crushing, grinding, rapid impact and Flocculation: coagulation
detonation of organic or inorganic mater ials such as rock, ore, metal, w ool, wood, of finely divided particles
into particles of greater
grain, etc. Dusts do not tend to flocculate except under electrostatic forces and also do
mass.
not diffuse in air but settle under the influence of gravity.

Fly-ash: These are particles of ash which become entrained in the combustion gases Entrainment: movement of
and are carried into the air. particles (e.g. fine droplets)
in a moving stream of fluid
(e.g., vapour of a boiling
Fog: An aerosol of liquid droplets near the ground. It is different from clouds which
liquid).
form much farther away from the surface.

Fumes: These are solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous state,
generally after volatilisation from molten metals, etc. and often accompanied by a
chemical reaction such as oxidation. Fumes flocculate and sometimes coalesce.

Gases: Normally formless fluids which occupy the space of enclosure and which can
be changed to the liquid or solid state only by the combined effect of increased
pressure and decreased temperature. Gases do undergo diffusion.

Haze: Suspension of small (sub-micrometer sized) particles in the air which makes
distant, large objects indistinct.

Mist: Suspended liquid droplets generated by condensation from the gaseous to the
liquid state or by breaking up a liquid into a dispersed state, by splashing, foaming or
atomising.

Noise: Sound is the effect that rapid, local fluctuations of the atmospheric pressure dB scale is the decibel scale
have on the ear. Noise refers to the unwanted sound. Its duration, pitch and loudn ess which is used for measuring
determine the discomfort to human beings. Generally human ear is sensitive to 0 dB to intensity or loudness of
150 dB of sound levels and the sound levels beyond 70-80 dB cause a lot of irritation sound. One dB is equal to:
and other physiological disturbances. 0 dB is the threshold of hearing i.e. the faintest intensitymeasured
sound which human ear can hear. 10 log10
referenceintensity

Radiation: Electromagnetic radiation plus those corpuscular emissions classed as

“rays”.

Radioactivity: The nuclear disintegrations that atoms undergo giving off ionising
radiations.

Smaze: Mixture of smoke and haze. The term has been suggested for photochemical
smog but is not widely used.

Smog: Mixture of smoke and fog, a term coined in England. Presently it is used to
describe photochemical aerosols such as those observed in Los Angles.

Smoke: Carbon or soot particles (often < 0.1 mm in diameter) that result from the
incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials such as coal, oil, tar and tobacco.

SAQ 1
Choose the most appropriate answer from the given options .

49
Atmosphere Air is said to be polluted when
i) atmosphere looks very foggy and has poor visibility.
ii) the constituents of atmosphere are present in more than required concentration.
iii) there is lot of smoke coming out of the chimneys of factories .
iv) it starts affecting human health adversely.

9.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Air pollutants include almost any natural or artificial form of matter capable of being
present in air. These may occur as solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases, or in
various admixtures of these forms as discussed above. There is no unique way of
classifying air pollutants. Depending on the contexts and perspectives these have been
classified on the basis of following criteria. Though the list is not exhaustive it covers
the most commonly used ways of classification.
• Origin
• Physical state
• Production
• Source type
• Area of influence

These criteria and the categories falling under these are discussed in the following
subsections.

9.3.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Pollutants

On the basis of their origin air pollutants can be broadly categorised into following
two types .

Natural Pollutants
These results from a natural activity like,
Sometimes, nature is the
culprit in creating sources • Pollen grains and volatile organic compounds from plants
of air pollution; a relief for
humans in not creating all
• Bacteria
sources of pollution! • Products like sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide gases from volcanic
eruptions and decay of organic materials
• Particles from wild forest fires, soil erosion and sea
• Natural radioactivity

It is worth mentioning here that naturally occurring pollutants normally are not very
high in concentration and tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short time. Therefore
these do not lead to permanent atmospheric damage.

Anthropogenic Pollutants
These are produced as a result of human activity e.g. soots smog etc. These types
could ar ise mostly by the industrial operations carried out by human beings. These
sources tend to be more concentrated and thus pose a greater human health threat.

It has been observed that the world wide emissions due to anthropogenic activities
are ∼ 2 billio n metric tons per annum.

9.3.2 Particulate and Gaseous Pollutants

Depending on the size and physical state air pollutants can be classified into two broad
classes viz., particulate matter which may be solid or liquid in nature and the gaseous
types including a number of gases.

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Particulate Pollutants Air Pollutants

“Particulates” are dispersed matter, solid or liquid in which the individual aggregates
are larger than single small molecules (about 0.0002 µ in diameters, but smaller than
500µ). Particulates include aerosols, fumes, dust, mist and soot. The particles of most
interest lie between 0.1 µ in diameter, which is roughly the size of bacteria (the
unaided human eye has a resolving power of about 100 µ ). Particles smaller than 0.1µ
undergo random (Brownian) motion, through coagulation generally grow to sizes
larger than 0.1µ and particles larger than 10µ settle quickly as dust. A 10µ particle has
settling velocity of about 18 cm per minute. Particles smaller than about 1µ result
largely from the condensation of vaporised materials after combustion, while particles
larger than about 10 µ result largely from mechanical processes such as grinding and
erosion.

The particulate matter (PM) with a diameter of less than 100µ, which remains
suspended in air for a long period is called the suspended particulate matter (SPM).
The suspended particles having diameter of less than 10µ are small enough to enter
into respiratory tract and pulmonary system of human beings. These are called the
respirable particulate matter (RPM or PM10).

In cities, particulate matter may also include particles composed of iron, copper,
nickel and lead. These particles influence the respiratory system immediately and
make breathing difficult for people with chronic respiratory disorders. Airborne lead
can accumulate in the tissues and bones of humans and other living organisms. When
particles are inhaled, their effects depend on the site of deposition in the respiratory
tract which in turn depends on the physical characteristics of the aerosols.

Gaseous Pollutants
Carbon oxides: These include carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO)
which arise in huge amounts during combustion of carbonaceous fuels. These are
colourless, odourless and tasteless gases. Carbon monoxide impairs the oxygen
carrying capacity of haemoglobin in human blood and causes carboxy1 poisoning.
The annual emission of CO is 1 billion metric tons. Carbon dioxide exists naturally
and has a possible long range influence of global warming and related phenomena.

Sulphur compounds: Combustion of sulphur containing fuels contributes large

amount of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and some quantity of sulphur trioxide (SO3). When
fuels are burned, sulphur is released mostly as sulphur dioxide with a much smaller
percentage of sulphur trioxide. Sulphur dioxide has a very pungent odour. Its annual
emission is 114 million metric tons. Many industrial processes and waste disposal
practices generate hydrogen sulphide (H2S).

Nitrogen compounds: The most abundantly generated and released gaseous nitrogen
compounds are nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ammonia (NH 3). The
first two of these are naturally released from soils by bacteria and also produced in
high temperature combustion of normal atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen. Nitrogen
dioxide is irritating to tissues at relatively low concentrations. It is associated with an
increase in acute respiratory disease at commonly occurring urban concentrations.
The major interest in both the oxides (NO2) and (NO) is related to their participation in
atmospheric photochemical reactions. The annual emission of nitrogen oxides is 230
million metric tons .

9.3.3 Primary and Secondary Pollutants

On the basis of the way the air pollutants are produced, these can be broadly
categorised into following two types.

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Atmosphere Primary Pollutants
These are emitted directly from identifiable sources and are often categorised on the
basis of chemical properties, physical phases and magnitudes of the pollutants.
Industrial activity and transportation are the major source of this type of air pollution.

Primary pollutants consist of materials (dust, gases, liquids and other solids) that enter
the atmosphere through natural and human made events. The main primary pollutants
influencing our atmosphere in order of emission (by weight) are carbon monoxide,
sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and particulate matter.
Pollutant oxides and particulate matter have been discussed in subsection 9.3.2.

Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are organic molecules that are mainly composed
of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They are commonly called hydrocarbons . The most
common volatile organic compound released into the atmosphere is methane. Methane
poses no direct danger to human health, however, it does contribute to global
warming through the greenhouse effect (cf. Sec 7.6 of Unit 7). Other volatile organic
compounds released into the atmosphere include benzene, formaldehyde, and
chlorofluorocarbons. Of these chemicals, benzene and formaldehyde are the most
dangerous to human health because they are carcinogenic i.e. cancer producing.

Secondary Pollutants
These are produced in air by interaction among two or more primary pollutants or by
reaction with normal atmospheric constituents, with or without photoactivation. The
total polluted air mass over a populated area is chemically and physically unstable. In
this polluted mass of air some species of pollutants undergo simple and complex
reactions forming secondary pollutants. Typical examples are formation of ozone,
photochemical smog and acid deposition. The secondary pollutants have been posing a
serious problem. Let us understand how are these being produced.

Ozone: Ozone is the product of secondary atmospheric reactions driven by solar

energy. You read in detail about ozone layer and its depletion as a global phenomenon
in Unit 7. There are two types of ozone depending upon where it is found. Good
ozone occurs naturally in earth’s upper atmosphere (10 – 50 km). It is called so
because here it forms a protective layer that shields us from the sun’s harmful UV-
rays. Bad ozone is formed at lower atmosphere when pollutants from various sources
react chemically in presence of sunlight. The related reactions are given in
photochemical smog formation discussed below.

Photochemical smog: Smoke and sulphur dioxide produced from burning of coal can
combine with fog to produce industrial smog. In high concentrations, industrial smog
The most famous London can be extremely toxic to humans and other living organisms. London is world famous
smog event occurred in for its episodes of industrial smog. Today the use of other fossil fuels, nuclear power
December, 1952 when five and hydroelectricity instead of coal has greatly reduced the occurrence of industrial
days of calm foggy weather
created a toxic atmosphere
smog. However, the burning of fossil fuels like gasoline can create another
that claimed about 4000 atmospheric pollution problem known as photochemical smog. Photochemical smog
human lives. is a condition that develops when primary pollutants interact under the influence of
solar radiation at a temperature greater than 18o C. The primary pollutants involved are
nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds which are associated with
industrialisation and transportation. The toxic components of photochemical smog are
ozone (O3) and peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN).

Nitrogen dioxide is formed when nitric oxide reacts with ozone or oxygen present in
atmosphere.By the former reaction nitric oxide (NO) acts to remove ozone from the
atmosphere and this mechanism occurs naturally in an unpolluted atmosphere.

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 O3 + NO NO 2 + O2 Air Pollutants

O2 + NO NO 2

On the other hand sunlight breaks down nitrogen dioxide as per the following
reactions:
NO2 + sunlight NO + O

The atomic oxygen (O) formed in the above reaction then reacts with one of the
abundant oxygen molecules (which makes up 20.94 % of the atmosphere) producing
ozone (O3).

O + O2 O3

Nitrogen dioxide can also react with radicals produced from volatile organic
compounds (VOC) in a series of reactions to form toxic products such as
formaldehyde, acrolein and peroxy acetyl nitrates (PAN).

NO 2 radicals
  from VOCs
 → CH2O + CH2 = CHCHO + H2COOONO 2
(formaldehyde) (acrolein) (PAN)

Development of photochemical smog is typically associated with specific climatic

conditions and centers of high population density. Cities like Los Angeles, New York,
Sydney, and Vancouver frequently suffer episodes of photochemical smog.

Acid deposition: Acid deposition is not a recent phenomenon. In the 17th century,
scientists noted the ill effects that industry and acidic pollution were having on
vegetation and people. In 1960s, the problems associated with acid deposition became The term acid rain was first
an international problem when fishermen noticed declines in fish numbers and used in 19th century when
Angus Smith published a
diversity in many lakes throughout North America and Europe. Acid deposition is book called 'Acid Rain' in
known by other names like acid precipitation or more commonly acid rain. It is 1872.
used to specifically describe wet forms of acid pollution that can be found in rain,
snow, fog, and cloud vapour. Precipitation normally has a pH between 5.0 to 5.6
because of natural atmospheric reactions involving carbon dioxide.

Acid deposition is a consequence of secondary pollutants which is formed from the

oxidation of nitrogen oxides (NOx) or sulfur dioxide (SO2) gases that are released
into the atmosphere. These pollutants get converted in to nitric acid or sulfuric acid
respectively. The process of altering these gases into their acid counterparts can take
several days and during this time these pollutants can be transferred hundreds of
kilometers from their original source. Sometimes hydrochloric acid expelled directly
into atmosphere is also responsible for this pollutant.

Emissions of sulphur dioxide are responsible for 60-70 % of the acid deposition that
occurs globally. More than 90 % of the sulphur in the atmosphere is of human origin.
Sulphur dioxide undergoes the following reactions to produce acids that are
incorporated into the products of wet deposition.

SO 2 + H2O H2SO3
H2SO 3 + ½ O 2 H2SO4

Acids from nitrogen oxides are formed as a result of the followin g atmospheric
chemical reactions.

NO + ½ O2 NO2

53
Atmosphere
2NO 2 + H 2O HNO2 + HNO 3
NO2 + OH HNO 3

Acid deposition influences the environment in several diferent ways. In aquatic

systems, acid deposition can affect the ecosystems by lowering their pH.

The severity of the impact of acid deposition on vegetation is greatly dependent on the
type of soil the plants grow ing in it. In general, soils that have a lot of lime are better
at neutralis ing acids than those that are made up of siliceous sand or weathered acidic
bedrock. The effects in the latter cases can lead to plants that have reduced growth
rates, flowering ability and yields. It also makes plants more vulnerable to diseases,
insects, droughts and frosts.

Acid deposition can influence human health through many ways. The toxic
components get into drinking water, crops and fishes. Human beings consuming these
can face toxic effects on health.

You may be aware of the Acid deposition also affects a number of inan imate objects of human construction.
deterioration of the famous Buildings and head stones that are constructed from limestone are easily attacked by
Taj Mahal in Agra and the
Iron pillar near Qutab Minar
acids as are structures that are constructed of iron or steel. Paint on cars can react with
in Delhi due to acid rain. acid deposition causing fading.

SAQ 2
Below are given the major chemical pollutants in photochemical smog. Fill in the
sources of these pollutants

a) Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2)

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

b) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

c) Ozone (O 3)
…………………………………………………………………………………………...

d) Peroxy acetyl nitrates (PAN)

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

9.3.4 Stationary and Mobile Source Pollutants

Depending upon the type of their source, air pollutants may be classified into
following types .

Station ary Source Pollutants

As the name suggests these pollutants come from emissions of the structures which are
fixed at a place.The emissions may be from the following sources.

• Industrial processing e.g., fuel combustion (coal, oil, gas)

• Residential fuel burning
• Power plants
• Open burning of solid waste

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Mobile Source Pollutants Air Pollutants

These come from the emissions of moving structures and include the following.

• All types of motor vehicles on road

• Highway vehicles e.g., trucks
• Trains
• Aircrafts/planes

9.3.5 Ambient Air and Indoor Air Pollutants

On the basis of their area of influence, air pollutants can be classified into following
types.

Ambient Air Pollutants

Ambient: of the
These are present in atmosphere in unnaturally high concentrations and have the
surrounding area
potential to cause harm to the environment and human health. The major ambient air
pollutants and their sources have been listed in Table 9.1.

Table 9. 1: Major ambient air pollutants and their sources

Ambient air pollutant Sources

Sulphur compounds (SO2, SO3, H2S) Sulphur containing combustion of fuels

e.g. , fossil fuels, coal; paper manufacture;
municipal incineration; metal extraction
processes

Organic compounds (saturated and Burning of fuels, biomass; evaporation

unsaturated, aliphatic and aromatic from gasoline tanks; microbial activity of
hydrocarbons) sewage; some industrial processes ;
solvent evaporation

Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2) Burning of fuels and biomass; fertilizer

manufacturing; industrial processes

Carbon oxides (CO, CO2) Combustion of carbonaceous fuels e.g.,

coal, oil, biomass; solid waste disposal;
microbial activity in oceans;
photosynthesis by plants

Halogen Compounds (fluorides, Aerosol sprays ; refrigeration; foam

chlorofluorocarbons) plastics; volcanic eruptions

SPM – (dust, soil sulphate salts, heavy Fuel; construction; mining; stone
metal salt, fire particles, carbon, liquid crushing; industrial processes; forest fires
sprays, mist)

Indoor Air Pollutants

These are present within the building premises i.e. in close doors. Indoor air can
frequently be much more polluted than outdoor air, even in large industrial cities. A
list of common indoor air pollutants along with their sources is given in Table 9.2.

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Atmosphere Table 9. 2: Sources of indoor air pollutants

Major indoor pollutant Sources

Tabacco smoke Cigarettes, cigars and pipes

Carbon monoxide Malfunctioning of gas appliances, wood and coal

burning

Nitrogen oxides Malfunctioning of gas appliances

Aerosol sprays, solvents, glues, cleaning agents,

Organic chemicals pesticides, paints, moth repellents, air fresheners and
treated water

Formaldehyde Pressed wood products such as plywood and board,

furnishings, wallpaper, fabrics

Respirable partic les Cigarettes, wood stoves, fireplaces, aerosol sprays and
house dust

Biological agents (Bacteria, House dust, pets, bedding, poorly maintained air
Viruses, Fungi, Mites) conditioners, wet or moist structures, furnishings

Asbestos Damaged or deter iorating insulation, fireproofing

Lead Open flame burning of lead paint, house dust

Soil under buildings, some earth derived construction

Radon
materials and groundwater

Global Scale Pollution

Greenhouse effect –the Global air pollution occurs in the upper layers of the atmosphere, notably the
process of heat being stratosphere. The most common form of global scale pollution, which has been a hot
trapped (due to greenhouse topic for debate in the past few years, is the issue of global warming. You read about
gases) in the upper global warming in Un it 7. You would recall that global warming is literally
atmosphere due to air
pollutants, which is turning
“warming” the earth, causing a rise in temperature. The warmer temperatures are
the atmosphere into a better expected to have a severe effect on the routine functions of our environment and
insulator. climate. Greenhouse gases which include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are responsible for this phenomenon.

Consequences of global warming include, “periods of more extreme weather, with

more rain during wet periods, longer droughts, and more powerful storms." It is even
predicted that global warming will contribute to the melting of polar ice caps resulting
in severe flooding of coastal cities.

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SAQ 3 Air Pollutants

Match the pollutants given in column A with the related category in column B in the
following table.

A B

i) Particulate matter i) Primary pollutant

ii) sulphur dioxide ii) Ambient air pollutant
iii) pollutant gases over an industrial area iii) Secondary pollutants
iv) gaseous pollutant from coal burning iv) Mobile sourced pollutant
v) car exhaust gases while driving v) Anthropogenic pollutant
vi) gaseous fumes from a chimney vi) Indoor pollutants
vii) carbon oxides produced by coal vii) Stationary sourced
burning inside house pollutant

SAQ 4
The world famous ‘Taj Mahal’ in Agra, made up of marb le stone or limestone getting
pale and deteriorated over the last few years. What is the main cause of this
deterioration?
…………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

9.4 FFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

The pollutants in air affect human health in a wide variety of ways. The common
effects of air pollution on humans and their causes can be summarised as under.

• irritation in the respiratory tract (due to aerosols, soot, etc.)

• lung damage (due to sulphuric acid produced from SO2 and SO 3)
• brain and kidney damage (caused by lead poisoning due to industrial and
automobile lead emission)
• acute headache, dizziness caused by carbon monoxide when present in
concentration of 100 ppm
• eye and skin irritation (due to nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, acrolein which when
present in concentrations as low as 1 ppm)
• lung cancer (due to carcinogens like benzopyrene etc.)
• asthama and bronchitis (due to various pollutants that restrict the respiratory tract)

Continued atmospheric pollution is leading towards chronic ill health and increased
morbidity. It is possible to detect the presence of many of the gaseous pollutants by Morbidity: state of being
morbid i.e. having a
smell and the person can avoid the exposure to a certain extent, though it may not be
characteristic of a disease.
always possible. For other pollutants it is not possible to detect the presence by smell
and the victim can have acute exposure with severe health effects without even
realis ing it. It is therefore pertinent to avoid these pollutants at the first place.
Threshold limit value: in
The severity of the effects of different pollutants is different. Human beings can general, it is the point or
tolerate the presence of these pollutants in air up to a certain extent. The permissible value above which
level of toxic pollutants in atmosphere to which a healthy person is exposed during an something will take place
eight hour day without any adverse effect is expressed by their threshold limit values. and below which it will not.
Table 9.3 shows the threshold limits of common chemical pollutants.
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Atmosphere Table 9.3: Common air pollutants and their threshold limits
Pollutant Threshold limit Threshold of Acute
smell (ppm) danger
ppm mg/m3 to life

Ammonia (NH3) 5 35 5 500 ppm

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 5,000 9,000 Absent 20% by vol.
Carbon monoxide (CO) 50 55 Absent 0.3% by vol.
Chlorine (Cl2) 1 3 0.02-0.05 900 ppm
Formaldehyde (HCHO) 5 6 - 650 ppm
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) 5 7 - 1000 ppm
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) 10 11 2-5 3000 ppm
Hydrogen fluoride (HF) 3 2 - -
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 10 15 0.1 700 ppm
Lead (Pb) - 0.2 - -
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 5 9 1.3 200 ppm
Ozone (O3) 0.1 0.2 0.015 -
Perchloroethylene (CCl2CCl2) 100 670 50 -
Phenol (C6H5OH) 5 19 0.5 -
Phosgene (COCl2) 0.1 0.4 0.5 50 ppm
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 5 13 3.4 400 ppm
Trichlorotrifluoroethane 1000 7,600 - -
(CFCl2CF 2Cl)
Zinc oxide (ZnO) - 5 - -

Let us take up the significant air pollutants one by one and understand the dangers
(effects) associated with their exposure. This information along with the data in T able
9.3 will be of help in understanding the gravity of the problem of air pollution.

9.4.1 Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide ( CO) combines with haemoglobin in the blood 210 times as
readily as oxygen to form carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb). On the other hand COHb
dissociates less readily than oxygen. It effectively prevents haemoglobin from
transporting oxyhaemoglobin to the cells of the brain and other vital organs.

The amount of COHb formed is dependent upon the CO concentration, the length of
time exposed, and the rate of breathing. The effect of CO is more pronounced at
higher altitudes an d on persons suffering from cardiovascular disease, anaemic
persons and smokers. Smokers have a rather high background level of COHb (about
5%) compared to non-smokers (about 0.5%). Studies have indicated that adverse
health effects can be noted at COHb levels as low as 2.5%. A concentration of 20%
COHb produces headache and other subjective symptoms. A 2.5% COHb level can be
reached during an 8 hour exposure to a 15 ppm concentration of CO. Prolonged
exposure to a 100 ppm concentration of CO can be fatal.

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9.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides Air Pollutants

Under high temperature condition (above 1100°C) such as occurring during

combustion, atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen combine to form mostly NO (nitric
oxide) with a small amount of NO2 (nitrogen dioxide). Nitrogen dioxide acts as an
acute irritant and in equal concentrations is more injurious than NO. However, at
concentrations found in the atmosphere, NO 2 is only potentially irritating and
potentially related to chronic pulmonary fibrosis. Nitrogen dioxide is associated with
acute respir atory diseases at commonly occurring urban concentrations.

Some increase in bronchitis in children (2 or 3 years old) has been observed at

concentrations below 0.01 ppm. In combination with unburnt hydrocarbons, the
nitrogen oxides form smog. The components of photochemical smog which are
detrimental to human health are the photochemical oxidants like, peroxy acetyl nitrate.

9.4.3 Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen. For example,
methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and ethylene (C2H 4). Natural sources of hydrocarbons
are mostly biological in nature accounting for some 3×10 8 tonnes of methane and
4.4 × 10 8 tonnes of volatile terpenes and isoprenes per year in the world.

Non-urban air naturally contains 1.0 to 1.5 ppm methane and less than 0.1 ppm each
of other hydrocarbons. Methane is virtually inert and so it is customary to subtract it
Tar: dark brown, black
from the total hydrocarbon measurement. Studies of the carcinogenicity of certain viscous liquid obtained by
classes of hydrocarbons do indicate that some concerns appear to be caused by destructive distillation of
exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons found in soots and tars. Identifiable airborne organic material
carcinogens are mostly polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Unburned hydrocarbons
in combination with the oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight form
photochemical oxidants, compounds of photochemical smog, that do have adverse
effects on human health such as skin irritation, tearing of eyes etc.

9.4.4 Sulphur Oxides

Sulphur oxides, for the most part are related to irritation of the respiratory system.
Those people most affected are the individuals with chronic pulmonary disease or
cardiac disorders as well as very young or old individuals.

Some patients with obstructive airway diseases (e.g., asthama and bronchitis) react to
inhaled sulphur dioxide by constricting their airways and by coughing at a dose of the
irritants which is expected to have no effect on healthy individuals. In addition, further
narrowing of airways by inhaled irritants in patients who already have constricted
airway may have more serious consequences than it would have in healthy individuals.
These effects are enhanced by a factor of 3 or 4 when particulate matter is present
alongwith SO 2. Thus air quality standards use a value dependent on the product of SO2
and particulate level.

9.4.5 Suspended Part iculate Matter

High concentrations of particulate matter and sulphur dioxide have been implicated in Epidemiological: branch of
very severe air pollution cases/disasters. Epidemiological studies have shown a good medical science dealing
correlation between death rates from the respiratory diseases like asthama, bronchitis with distribution and
control of diseases in a
and emphysema (a condition characterised by air filled expansions of body tissues ),
population.
and average particulate levels in area of residence. Adverse health effects have been
noted when the annual geometric mean level of particulate matter exceeds 80µ g/m3.
Smelting: process of
reduction of metal oxide
Lead is an atmospheric pollutant resulting from industries like secondary lead with carbon during
smelters, coke ovens etc. and to little extent from exhaust emissions of automobiles extraction of metal from
after introduction of lead free gasoline in 2001. Now gasoline contains only 0.013% of ores

59
Atmosphere lead as an impurity (earlier 0.56%). Most of the particles have such small size (0.5 µ
or less) that they are easily distributed to large distances. It adversely affects kidney
function and can cause brain damage particularly in children.

Some materials like silica have no serious acute effects on inhalation, but they are
deposited in lung tissue and remain there. After long exposures the silica particles
stimulate a reaction of the lung tissue and cause injury. Such recurrent injuries to lung
tissue may result in the production of scar tissue. The scarring of lung tissues
interferes with gas exchange and proper functioning of lung.

Many studies have shown a higher than expected incidence of bronchial cancer among
people whose occupations expose them to asbestos particles. In addition, asbestos has
been identified as a significant factor in the development of cancers of the membranes
lining the chest and abdomen.

Beryllium can also prove dangerous to health, producing both acute and chronic lethal
inhalation effects as well as causing damage to the skin and eyes. Most of the cases
studied concern occupational exposure.

Exposure to metallic mercury vapours may cause injury to the central nervous system
and kidneys. Further, mercury can even accumulate in the body system which may
eventually cause brain damage.

SAQ 5
A person sleeping in a closed room with burning coal left for heating the room may
encounter asphyxiation leading to death at times. Explain.
…………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

9.5 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON ANIMALS

The mechanism of action of air pollutants on animals is different from that by which
human beings are affected. In case of human beings working in contaminated
atmosphere in industrial plants, the concern is for the pollutants that are directly
inhaled. On the other hand, in the case of farm animals there is a two step process –
the accumulation of the airborne contaminant in vegetation and forage and the
subsequent poisoning of the animals when they eat the contaminated vegetation For
example, 3 ppm of fluoride in the air is maximum permissible tolerance for men
working in confined spaces for a period of 8 hr whereas, the concentrations of fluoride
in the air in areas where cattle poisoning may develop is of the order of a few parts
per billion or fractions there of. In the case of cattle, the hazard obviously is not the
result of inhaling the polluted air rather the ingestion of forage which has become
contaminated with fluoride from the air.

The three pollutants responsible for most livestock damage are arsenic, fluoride and
lead. Let us learn about the effects of these pollutants one by one.

9.5.1 Arsenic
Arsenic occurs as an impurity in many ores, coal and in sprays applied to crops.
Arsenic is used in some insecticides, in the form of arsenic trioxide and lead arsenate.

60
The use of dusts or sprays of such materials on plants can lead to poisoning of cattle, Air Pollutants
even acute poisoning, although the affected area from a single source is usually
localised.

Arsenic can be absorbed through the unbroken skin, the gastrointestinal tract or the
lungs. In acute intoxication cases, the first signs, muscle twitching, tremors, ataxia, Ataxia: an inability to
and diarrhoea, may be observed a few hours to several days after exposure. If coordinate voluntary
exposure has occurred through the skin, there may be severe local irritation with muscular movements
relating to some central
depilation (removal of hair, bristles etc. by chemical or mechanical methods) and nervous system disorder
drying.

Arsenic appears to have a depressing effect upon the central nervous system, but in the
early stages there may be some evidence of hyperirritability. The animal will
eventually become dull and exhibit a lack of appetite, with a resulting loss in weight.
There may be a chronic eczema (skin infection), thickening of the skin, anaemia, and
abortion or sterility. Chronic poisoning can result in eventual paralysis and death.

9.5.2 Fluo ride

Fluoride occurs in traces to substantial amounts in most ores, coals, clays and soils.
Various processes such as the manufacture of aluminium, clay bricks, phosphate
chemicals and fertilizers and steel emit fluorides to the atmosphere. Fluorides may
also be emitted from ordinary combustion operations, and measurable amounts of
fluoride may be found in the air over any large coal burning city during the winter.

A particularly widespread veterinary problem attributable to air pollution is chronic

fluoride poisoning or fluorosis. Of all farm animals, cattle and sheep are the most
susceptible to fluoride toxicosis. Horses appear to be quite resistant to fluoride
poisoning, and authenticated cases of fluorosis of horses are rare. Poultry are probably
the most resistant to fluorine and present no problem so far as fluorosis is concerned.

9.5.3 Lead
Lead containing ores are smelted to recover metallic lead, along with other metals.
Lead is also an impurity in some coals to the extent of as much as 54 ppm. In addition
to possible industrial sources of lead contamination such as smelters, coke ovens, and
other coal combustion processes, lead is also used as lead arsenate in dusts and sprays.
Other lead compounds of importance in toxicology are lead oxide, white lead and lead
acetate. An imals affected with acute lead poisoning become depressed, walk in circles, Bellow: a loud deep sound
grind their teeth, and sometimes bellow. characteristic of a bull

Lead is a cumulative poison. As a result, the continuous ingestion of very small daily
doses will ultimately be as effective as one toxic dose. Depending on the amount of
lead that will be deposited from dusts or spray, poisoning and death can take many
months if slightly contaminated hay is fed or it can occur within 24 hrs in animals
feeding in or near orchards which have just been heavily sprayed.

In addition to these three main pollutants the insecticides and pesticides in air also
cause harmful effects on animals.

9.5.4 Insecticides and Pesticides

Birds and small mammals have been occasionally poisoned by airplane sprays
of aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor, and texaphone, applied for the control
of insects and pests. Pesticides in general, by their nature and form of Insecticides: insect killers
distribution can specifically contaminate the food sources of wildlife. Birds are Pesticides: pest killers
attracted to dying insects poisoned by pesticides.

61
Atmosphere The fallout from heavy applications of DDT concentrated in earthworms, produce
poisoning in birds feeding on those worms. If a carrion eating species then feeds on a
Carrion: dead and rotten
sufficient number of such birds, the poison chain may be carried even further.
flesh

Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are general stimulants of the central nervous

Belligerent: inclined to system and produce a great variety of signs, most of which are neuro muscular
hostility. manifestations.. Occasionally, an affected animal becomes belligerent and attacks
other animals or moving objects.

9.6 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON VEGETATION

A large number of food, forage, and ornamental crops have been shown to be
damaged by air pollutants. Leaf damage, stunting of growth, decreased size and
yield of fruits and destruction of flowers result from such pollution. Some plant
species are so sensitive to specific pollutants that these can be used in
monitoring air quality.

Damage to plants from air pollution usually occurs in the leaf structure. It is because a
leaf contains the building mechanism for entire plant. Leaves have openings in th eir
epidermis (outer protective layer) called stomata leading to mesophyll. Mesophyll is
the central section of leaf which contains two layers of cells called palisade and
spongy parenchyma. Gases and vapours pass in and out of leaf structure through
stomata. The structure of leaf showing its anatomy is given is Fig. 9.1.

Fig. 9.1: Structure of leaf showing its anatomy

Air pollutants cause a number of distinctive effects on foliage. Four general foliar
markings that indicate the possible presence of air pollutants are:

1. Necrosis (dead areas on leaf structure) and bleaching of intercostal area or leaf
margins.
2. Glaxing or silvering of leaf surface
3. Chlorosis, or loss of chlorophyll
4. Stippling or flecking (explained in 9.6.2) on upper leaf surface

Among the most frequently encountered gases toxic to vegetation are sulphur dioxide,
ozone, nitrogen dioxide, peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN), fluorides and ethylene. Let us
learn about their effects one by one.

9.6.1 Sulphur Dioxide

The effect on leaves of exc essive sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere appears first as a
cellular injury to the spongy parenchymal area in the mesophyll, followed by damage
to the palisade region.

62
Chronic exposure to sulphur dioxide may result in chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll) Air Pollutants
between the veins of the leaf resulting in a general light yellow appearance. Chronic
markings do not necessarily occur during or immediately after a fumigation but are the
result of exposures of relatively long duration. Appearance of symptoms, therefore, Fumigation: destruction of
bacteria, insects and other
may be delayed for many days. pests by exposure to
poisonous gas or smoke
Apparently there is a threshold value below which the leaf is capable of consuming the
gas without injury. One threshold value cited is 0.3 ppm (785 µ g/m3) on sustained
exposure for 8 hr. Concentrations of 0.3 to 0.5 ppm for several days lead to chronic
injury to sensitive plants. Spinach, lettuce, and other leafy vegetables are most
sensitive, as are cotton and alfalfa. Pine needles are also affected with either the needle
tip or the whole needle becoming brown and brittle.

9.6.2 Ozone
Four types of ozon e induced markings can be distinguished on leaves of exposed
plants: stipple, fleck, necrotic patches and chlorosis.

Stipple consists of dark punctuate markings on the upper surface of the leaf caused by
thickening and pigmentation in the walls of groups of palisade cells.

Flecking consists of light colo ured lesions scattered over the upper leaf surface and
larger than those described as stipple. This symptom is caused by collapse and
bleaching of palisade cells in the affected area and is characteristic of ozone injury in
tobacco, sugar beet, smartweed, and sometimes in peanut.

Necrotic patches vary upwards in size from I mm in diameter and may include the
entire leaf blade, although the patches are usually interveinal. Necrotic patches have
been observed on alfalfa, potato, spinach, tobacco, tomato, and geranium.
Senescence: rate of
Chlorosis and premature senescence of older leaves have been reported for tomato, growing old
and sweet potato etc.

9.6.3 Nitrogen Dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide can cause injury to the mesophyll cells, if present in concentrations
in excess of those normally found in the ambient atmosphere.

Acute exposures to NO2 result in initial collapse of tissue at the apex and along the
margins of the leaf in bean and tomato. The areas subsequently become necrotic and
bleached, often resembling the acute markings caused by sulphur dioxide and ozone.

Very sensitive vegetation may be affected by concentration in the 2 to 10 ppm range.

The threshold level is estimated at 2.5 ppm (4700 µ g/m3) for a 4 hr exposure. There
is some evidence that nitrogen dioxide at a level of 0.5 ppm over a long time period
may depress the growth rate. Injury seems to appear as irregular white or brown
lesions.

9.6.4 Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate

Peroxy acetyl nitrate attacks the spongy parenchyma cells surrounding the air space
into which the stomata open. The principal visible effect is the silvering or bronzing of
the lower leaf area. The threshold concentration for injury is estimated at 0.01 ppm for
a 6 hr exposure although petunias have been affected at 0.005 ppm for an 8 hr
exposure. The youngest leaves in terms of maturity are most sensitive.

63
Atmosphere 9.6.5 Fluorides
Gaseous fluorides as hydrogen fluoride (HF) or silicon tetrafluoride (SiF 4) are
probably the most toxic of all pollutants affecting vegetation and agriculture. Gaseous
fluorides are readily absorbed by leaves through the stomata and possibly through the
cuticle (outer covering), as well. Soluble fluoride salts are also readily absorbed when
adequate moisture is present.

Fluorides act as cumulative poisons to plants. Even when exposed to extremely low
concentration, plants will eventually accumulate enough to injure the leaf tissue. The
earliest effect is tip and margin burn. Apparently the fluoride enters through the
stomata and is carried towards the tip and margin by normal water flow. Eventually
internal cells collapse. Upon collapse and drying out of the cells, the injured area turns
deep brown to tan. A narrow red-brown line of dead tissue distinctly separates the
necrotic region from the healthy area.

Uptake of atmospheric fluoride by roots, stems, or fruits is relatively low compar ed

with leaves therefore, large accumulations in non-foliar organs would suggest
relatively high levels of soluble fluorides in the soil or surface contamination. It has
been foun d that peaches, grapes and gladioli are quite sensitive to fluorides.

Plant species may exhibit great differences in susceptibility to atmospheric fluoride

and this differential response is often evident among varieties of the same species.
Cotton leaves may accumulate 5,000 ppm without injury, while gladiolus may develop
lesions with considerable less than 50 ppm fluoride in the tissue.

Susceptibility of plants to fluoride is also related to other factors such as the age of the
tissue, nutritional status, temperature, availability of water, and other physiological
and environmental factors.

9.6.6 Ethylene
Ethylene is produced by the combustion of organic fuels and natural gas or from
chemical manufacturing and is also a metabolic product of plants. It is highly
phytotoxic gas especially to flower crops, and sepals of orchid flowers may be
damaged by an atmospheric concentration as low as 5 ppb (parts per billion).
Concentrations of ethylene from 0.001 to 0.5 ppm cause damage to some sensitive
plants.
Epinasty: bending of a part
of plant outward and The general effects of ethylene at higher concentrations are retardation of growth,
downward epinasty of shoots and leaves, abscission of leaves and flower petals, and in some
plants, development of intumescences. Tomato, narsisus, tulip, snapdragon, carnation,
sunflower, buckwheat, and sweet pea show varying degrees of suspectibility.
Intumescences: swollen
and enlarged part of a plant
or animal
The effects of ethylene also include flower droppings and failure of the leaf to open
properly. Injury to orchids and to cotton has been established. A general threshold
value of 0.05 ppm for 6 hr exposure has been reported as a guideline.

SAQ 6
Which pollutant has got a cumulative effect in
a) animals

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

b) plants

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

64
 Air Pollutants
9.7 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON MATERIALS
Air pollutants can cause damage to structural metals, building stones, surface coatings,
fabrics, leather goods and other materials of commerce. These are chiefly attributable
to acid mists, oxidants of various kinds, hydrogen sulphide and particulate products of
combustion and industrial processing. Secondary pollutants also contribute
substantially. For example, ozone is known to cause rapid and extensive damage to all
kinds of rubber goods and textiles.

Air pollutants damage materials by five mechanisms

• Abrasion – solid particles of sufficient size travelling at high velocities can cause
destructive abrasion. Large, sharp-edged particles embedded in fabrics can
accelerate wear and tear.
• Deposition and removal – solid and liquid particles deposited on a surface may
not damage or change the material itself except, perhaps, to spoil its appearance.
However, the removal of these particles may cause some deterioration.
• Direct chemical attack – some air pollutants react irreversibly directly with
materials to cause deterioration; for example, the tarnishing of silver by hydrogen
sulphide.
• Indirect chemical attack – certain materials absorb pollutants and are damaged
when the pollutants undergo chemical changes. Sulphur dioxide absorbed by
leat her, for instance, is converted to sulphuric acid, which deteriorates the leather.
• Electrochemical corrosion – much of the atmospheric deterioration of ferrous
metal is by an electrochemical process.

Let us learn about the effects of air pollutants on different types of materials.

9.7.1 Ferrous Metals

The important factors that influence the attack rate of damaging pollutants on the
ferrous metals are moisture, temperature, sunlight and air movement (i.e. wind speed).

Moisture: If the metal is clean and dry (without moisture) there would be little, if any,
atmospheric corrosion even in the most severely polluted environments. For several
metals, there seems to be a critical atmospheric humidity, which when exceeded,
produces a sharp rise in the rate of corrosion. However, if water is present, even as a
single molecular layer on a surface that appears to be dry, electrochemical corrosion
commences. If water happens to be contaminated with air pollutants, it is very likely
to have high electrical conductivity, and corrosion will proceed faster.

Air polluted with sulphur dioxide and particulate matter produces a much more rapid
corrosion rate than air polluted with sulphur dioxide alone. The action of particulate
matter is primarily physical in that they increase the concentration of sulphur dioxide
by absorption.

Temperature: Low surface temperature may increase the chance for damage of
material.. If their surface temperature falls below the dew point, the surface becomes
moist, and the presence of corrosive pollutants whose concentrations are increasing
under the stable influence of the temperature inversion is conducive to certain types of
damage to materials.

Sunlight: Sunlight can cause direct deterioration of certain materials. In case of

cracking of rubber or fading of certain dyes, direct sunlight damage cannot always be
distinguished from that caused by ozone.

65
Atmosphere Wind speed: Wind speed is significant in determining whether solid and liquid agents
impact on vertical surfaces settle on horizont al surfaces or produce abrasion. Where
deterioration is caused by pollutants released nearby, wind direction is a very
important variable. Air movement where leather bound books are stored is a critical
factor when the air is contaminated with sulphur dioxide. The air movement
continuously supplies sulphur dioxide – contaminated air to the leather surface of the
books.

9.7.2 Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys

At low relative humidities, gaseous pollutants like sulphur dioxide do not influence the
atmospheric corrosion of aluminium and there is no apparent visual change to the
metal surface. However, at higher humidities (72% to 85%) aluminium corrodes much
faster and a white powdery deposit of aluminium sulphate deposits on the surface.
Aluminium alloys have much better resistance to corrosion than ferrous materials due
to the gradual build up of a stable, tenacious protective film on the surface.

9.7.3 Copper and Silver

Copper and silver alloys in moist atmospheres develop a thin, stable surface film,
which inhibits further corrosion. In itial atmospheric corrosion is a brown tarnish of
Patina: green, black or mostly copper oxides and sulphides which can thicken to a black film. In a few years
brown layer that forms on time the familiar green patina forms. This is either basic copper sulphate or in marine
the surface of some metals atmosphere, basic copper chloride, both of which are extremely resistant to further
atmospheric attack. However desirable this effect may be from the standpoint of
Tarnishing: making the
aesthetics and further attack, the same reaction products are unwanted when they form
metallic lustre dry and dull on electrical contacts made of copper and thereby change the electrical resistance of
the contacts.

In presence of hydrogen sulphide, copper and silver tarnish rapidly. Copper that has
first been exposed to unpolluted air for a significant period resists the effects of
hydrogen sulphide. In the case of silver, both moisture and oxygen must be present for
hydrogen sulphide to cause tarnishing. The sulphide coating formed on open copper
and silver electrical contacts can increase greatly the resistance across contacts when
they are closed and may also result in welding the contacts together in the closed
position.

9.7.4 Building Materials

Building materials are corroded and disfigured by air pollution in a number of ways in
addition to normal weathering process. Smoke and tarry, sticky aerosols adhere to
stone, brick, and other building surfaces to produce unsightly coatings.

Under conditions of high wind speed, larger particulates can be re-entrained in the
wind stream and actually produce a slow erosion of building surfaces similar to sand
Sand blast: a stream of blasting. This is a much more subtle damage than that caused by reactive chemical
sand projected by pollutants.
compressed air.
Acid gases such as sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide in the presence of moisture
can react with limestone forming CaSO4 and gypsum (CaSO4 .2H2O); both of which
are rather soluble in water. Carbon dioxide in the presence of moisture produces
carbonic acid; the acid converts the limestone in to water soluble bicarbonate, which is
then leached away.

Stones such as granite and certain sandstones in which the grains are cemented
together with materials containing no carbonate are relatively unaffected by sulphur
dioxide in the atmosphere.

66
9.7.5 Leather Air Pollutants

Sulphur dioxide causes leather to lose much of its strength and ultimately to
disintegrate. The rotting of leather upholstery on chairs is the direct result of sulphur
compounds in the air. The storage of leather bound books in libraries can pose a
serious problem. The binding of books stored in the open in rooms with polluted air
are found to deteriorate much more rapidly than those stored in confined spaces or
inside glass cases.

Chemical decay of book bindings can be observed initially by the cracking that takes
place on the top inside hinges of the book. The cracks gradually spread apart, and as
further material is exposed, the leather loses its resiliency and disintegrates to a
reddish brown powder. After some time, the entire back may become detached.

9.7.6 Paper
Apparently, small amounts of metallic impurities in modern paper accelerate the
conversion, of absorbed sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid in the presence of moisture.
Sulphuric acid content of some papers has been found to be as high as 1% which
makes the paper extremely brittle. Exposure of books and writing paper to sulphur
dioxide in concentration of 2-9 ppm for 10 days cause embrittlement and decrease
their folding resistance.

Relative humidity does not significantly affect the long term pick up of atmospheric
sulphur dioxide by paper. Relative humidity only affects the quantity of sulphur
dioxide taken up for about the first 28 hours. Afterward, the rate remains essentially
constant for prolonged exposures and appears to be proportional to the square root of
the gas phase sulphur dioxide concentration.

9.7.7 Textiles
Sulphur oxides are capable of causing deterioration of natural and some synthetic
textile fibres. Cotton is a cellulose fiber and like paper, is weakened by sulphur
dioxide. When acid aerosols are deposited on exposed fabrics, they attack and weaken
the cellulose chain at the glucosidic linkages (between two glucose molecules). It has
been found that extremely small atmospheric particles containing absorbed sulphur
dioxide or tiny droplets of sulphuric acid, which have formed around particles become
attached to the very thin nylon fibres such as used in nylon hose, being under some
tension cause deterioration of the fibres.

Nylon fabrics used in clothing such as shirts and dresses are woven from fibres of
much larger diameter than those of nylon hose and further more are not under the
same tension; hence, they are damaged only at much higher concentrations of sulphur
oxides. Nylon polymers are also subject to oxidation by nitrogen oxides and other
oxidants. If oxidation occurs, nylon fibers would have less affinity for certain types of
dyes. Nylon yarns should not be exposed for prolonged periods to factory
environments in which trucks emit exhaust fumes.

Cellulose fibers such as linen, hemp, cotton and rayon are especially susceptible to
acid damage. Sulphuric acid reacts with cellulose fibers to produc e a water soluble
product that has very little tensile strength.

Curtains suffer badly in polluted areas because they hang at open windows and to
some extent serve as filters for dust, soot and acid droplets. Curtains thus weakened,
often split in a characteristic manner, in parallel lines matching the folds in the
Impinging: to strike with a
hanging fabric. The stress in these folds is accentuated, since the fabric structure is sharp collision
relatively more open at these points, and greater opportunity is afforded for impinged
acidic materials to reach the inner fibers.

67
Atmosphere Animal fibers of wool, fur, and hair are more resistant than synthetic fibres to
atmospheric pollutants since they already contain nitrogenous and sulphur compounds
and apparently are more resistant to acid aerosols.

9.8 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON VISIBILITY

Historically the earliest noted and currently the most easily observed effect of air
pollution is the reduction of visibility which frequently accompanies polluted air. In
the previous unit (subsection 8.4.2) you studied visibility as one of the secondary
meteorological parameters affecting dissipation of pollutants in atmosphere. Visibility
limitation is not only aesthetically unpleasing but also may lead to safety hazards. The
prevailing visibility is defined at the greatest distance in a given direction at which it is
just possible to see and identify

• a prominent dark object in the daytime and

• an unfocussed, moderately intense light source at night.

Visibility is reduced by absorption and scattering of light by gas molecules and

particles in air. Absorption of certain wavelengths of light by gas molecules and
particles is sometimes responsible for atmospheric colorations. However, light
scattering is the more important phenomenon responsible for impairment of visibility.
Light scattering refers to the deflection of the direction of travel of light by airborne
materials. Visibility is reduced when there is significant scattering because particles in
the atmosphere between the observer and the object scatter light from the sun and
other parts of the sky through the line of sight of the observer. This light decreases the
contrast between the object and the background sky, thereby reducing visibility.

The degree of light obstruction is related to particle size, aerosol density, thickness of
the affected air mass and certain more subtle physical factors. Particulates responsible
for the phenomenon may be either primary pollutants, e.g., coal smoke, or secondary,
e.g., photochemical smog. At times cities in America, UK and Asia have been so
seriously affected by reduction in visibility due to air pollution as to cause severe
curtailment of transport and other municipal activities. During severe winter months
smoke, haze and fog combine to cause serious visibility impairment leading to
dislocation of road and air transportation and traffic and some times to serious
accidents.

SAQ 7
Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate air pollutants for the effects given below.

i) pulmonary disease e.g. bronchitis in human bein gs …………………………….

ii) carcinogenic in nature …………………………….
iii) poor visibility in the atmosphere ..………………………….
iv) kidney problems ..………………………….
v) fluorosis in animals ..………………………….
vi) chlorosis in plants ..………………………….
vii) colic problem in animals ..………………………….
viii) copper and silver tarnish ..………………………….

68
 Air Pollutants
9.9 SUMMARY
Air pollution has become a phenomenon of global concern today. It is because of
increasing adverse effect of air pollutants on all living and non-living matter.

There are a number of forms of air pollutants which exist in all common states of
matter i.e. solid, liquid and gas. They are very closely associated in nature and are
generally differentiated on the basis of their constituents and size. Some very common
forms are gases, fumes, clouds, mist, fog, smog, haze, smaze, dust, aer osols, smoke
etc. It is difficult to categorise all the air pollutants on the basis of one feature. They
are categorised on the basis of their origin, physical state, production, source type and
area of influence. Depending upon these categories air pollutants are classified as
natural/anthropogenic, primary/secondary, particulates /gases, ambient air/indoor air/
global, station ary/mobile etc.

Air pollution results due to increased concentration of air pollutants beyond a certain
limit. These concentrations are measured in the form of their threshold values which
are different for different pollutants. Beyond these values the pollutants may prove
very fatal to human beings. The most common problems are created in the respiratory
tract due to inhalation of toxic pollutants. In extreme cases bronchitis and other
diseases occur. Some of them are bad for eyes, skin an d may become cause of cancer
also. Air pollutants like arsenic, lead, fluoride, insecticides and pesticides affect
animals with the same severity as it is for human beings.

Similarly all types of plants and crops get affected by SO 2, O3, NO2, PAN, fluorides
and ethylene. In case of plants leaves are most significant in catching the effect of
these pollutants due to the presence of stomata in them.

Non-living matter is also not spared from the effects of air pollutants. Among the
general metals and matter, the ones affected are, ferrous, aluminium, copper , silver,
building materials, leather, paper and textile.

The most apparent effect of air pollution which can be ph ysically observed is
visibility. Visibility gets highly affected due to the presence of a mixture of all
pollutants in atmosphere. The consequences of the effect of air pollutants show its
severity and even now, if not checked this may continue aggravating the problem.

9.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are the various basis of categorising air pollutants?
2. Differentiate mist, smoke, fumes and dust from one another.
3. How does air pollution affect animals differently as compared to human beings?
4. What is photochemical smog? How does it get generated?
5. Why is the rain after prolonged dryness generally considered to be harmful?
6. What is the mechanism by which plants get affected by air pollution?

9.11 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions

1. ii)

2. a) combustion of oil, coal, gas in both automobiles and industry; bacterial action
in soil; forest fires; volcanic action; lightning

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Atmosphere
b) evaporation of solvents; evaporation of fuels; incomplete combustion of fossil
fuels

c) formed from photolysis of NO2; sometimes results from stratospheric ozone

intrusions.

d) formed by the reaction of NO2 with VOCs (can be formed naturally in some
environments)

3. i) – iii)
ii) – i)
iii) – ii)
iv) – v)
v) – iv)
vi) – vii)
vii) – vi)

4. Acid producing gases e.g., SO2, CO2 form H2SO4 and H 2CO3 react with limestone
(CaCO3) forming CaSO4 and bicarbonate, thus causing leaching of the material
leading to paling.

5. Coal burning leads to formation of CO, a poisonous gas which combines with
hemoglobin present in blood thus not allowing oxygen to combine with it. In
absence of any outlet in the room the situation may aggravate leading to fatal
consequences.

6. a) lead b) fluoride

7. i) nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide

ii) aromatic hydrocarbons
iii) particulate matter
iv) lead in particulate matter
v) fluoride poisoning
vi) sulphur dioxide
vii) arsenic
viii) hydrogen sulphide

Terminal Questions
1. Air pollutants are categorised on the basis of origin, production, physical state,
source and area of influence of the pollutant. Depending upon the basis they are
grouped as primary/ secondary, natural/anthropogenic, ambient air/indoor air,
stationary/mobile, and particulate/gaseous.

2. Mist is due to the condensation of gaseous pollutants to liquid and remain

suspended in air.
Smoke is caused by burning of organic material and consists of soot or ash
particles .
Fumes are formed by condensation of gaseous matter of molten metals into solid
particles .
Dust consists of solid particles generated by crushing of organic and inorganic
compounds.

3. Human beings get affected by air pollution through inhalation of the pollutants
while animals get affected indirectly, they feed on the plant material which has
been affected by air pollutants.

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4. Photochemical smog is a mixture of nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, acrolein and Air Pollutants
PAN. It is generated when nitrogen gets oxidised to NO in presence of O2 and
then to NO2. NO2 formed releases atomic oxygen which combines with O2 to from
ozone. Ozone and NO2 being highly oxidising react with hydrocarbons in air to
produce formaldehyde, acrolein and PAN.

5. Oxides of S and N keep getting accumulated in the atmosphere and with the
moisture present in air react to form sulphuric and nitric acid. These acids come
down with rain an d lower the pH of rain water which is quite harmful to living
matter and other materials.

6. Leaves in plants are the most important parts to get affected by air pollutants. This
is because of the presence of small openings called stomata on leaves which allow
all gases and other pollutants to pass through and enter into the plant sys tem.

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Atmosphere
APPENDIX

AIR POLLUTION EPISODES

There have been several major air pollution disasters, called episodes, in recent history
which point out the dangers associated with very high levels of pollution. Deaths from
these episodes are measured by comparing the number of deaths normally associated
with the area and period in question with those that occur during the episode. The
difference is referred to as “excess deaths”.

The worst disaster ever recorded occurred in December of 1952 in London where
some 4000 excess deaths were attributed to the smog (SO× and particulates). Cardiac
and respiratory diseses accounted for 84% of the increase in mortality. Deaths due to
bronchitis increased nearly ten-fold in the smaller area of the country of London, from
74 in the week before to 704 in the week of the smog. The increased mortality seems
to have had the greatest effect on people who were already suffering from chronic
respiratory or cardiac diseases.

The table given below summarises history of some air pollution episodes from all over
the world.

Table 9.3: Some Air Pollution Episodes

Year Period Location Pollution levels: 24 Excess
hours average deaths
1880 Jan 26-29 London 1,176

1892 Dec 20-30 London 779

1948 Oct 27-31 Donora, Trapped by temperature 20

Pennsylvania inversion
1948 Nov 26-Dec 1 London SPM* : 2800 µ g /m 3 700-800
SO2 : 0.75 ppm
1952 Dec 5-9 London SPM : 4500 µ g /m3 4,000
SO2 : 1.34 ppm 5-day
temperature inversion
1956 Jan 3-6 London SPM : 2400 µ g /m3 1,000
SO2 : 0.55 ppm
1962 Dec 5-10 London SO2 : 1.98 ppm 700
( 1 hour average)
1963 Jan 29-Feb 12 New York temperature inversion 200-400

1984 Dec 3 Bhopal, India Leakage of methyl >2,500

isocyanate gas
1986 April 28 Chernobyl, Nuclear explosion 2,000
former
USSR

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The following list summarizes some of the major characteristics of air pollution Air Pollutants
episodes (Environment Protection Agency 1971).

1. Stagnant air produced by low wind speed and temperature inversion.

2. As concentrations of smoke, SO2, particulates, and other pollutants increase-
coughing, eye irritation and sickness increase.
3. Deaths increase as pollutant levels reach peaks.
4. Excess deaths increase with increasing age.
5. Dealths and illness occur in all age groups.
6. Deaths are generally caused by respiratory or heart problems.
7. The various impacts on health are rapid and are due to a combination of several
pollutants.
8. The episode lasts 2-7 days.

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