Video Course on Tribology

Prof. Dr Harish Hirani

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian institute of Technology, Delhi
Model No. # 04
Lecture No. # 12
Boundary lubrication
Welcome to twelfth lecture of video course on Tribology. Today’s topic is boundary lubrication.
As appears from the name itself the boundary is marginal. We can say, it is marginal between dry
lubrication and full film lubrication. Lubricant is present on the surface but not that much which
can reduce friction substantially, wear substantially. There will be reduction in friction; there will
be reduction in wear, but it will be more than what we get from full film lubrication. So, it is not
true lubrication as such but, in many situations under high load, high load, low speed condition and
high temperature condition, this kind of lubrication mechanism will occur.
Sometimes, it occurs at the start when the component is totally new. The surface roughness of the
component is very high, during that time boundary lubrication will occur. End of this lecture we
will cover one case study on that to show that initially wear rate is high and subsequently it comes
down. As in the last lecture, we discuss their two modes of boundary lubrication; one is physical
attraction or physical attachment of lubricant layer on the surface.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:50)

1
And the other one is chemical attachment. Chemical attachment is more like corrosion, what we
use a word a “sacrificial layer”. Well physical adsorption is nothing like a sacrificial layer, it is an
attachment and detachment, because of the molecular attraction the lubricant will get attach to the
surface and under high temperature it will get detach or under sliding condition it will be disturbed
or it will detach from the surface. As a first line says, this is known as a physisorption or attraction
occurs because of the van der waals forces. This figure clearly indicates that the lubricant thickness
is itself about 2 nanometer. It is very, very, thin layer. Many times oxide layer on the surface is
more than this layer. In reality every metal is subjected to boundary lubrication, even in absence of
liquid lubricant or in absence of boundary additive lubricants. That’s a natural phenomena, if
material is open to environment, it will get oxidized or thin layer will be made or the thin layer will
not be having very good chemical affinity towards the other metal. So, it will give at the interface
much lower shear strength interface. Well in this case this sketch shows that this is polar end “O”
shape or circle shape, this is the tail. As in my previous lecture, I mention this tail helps as a carpet.
If you walk on this carpet it will simply bend, it comes back to their original position when you
move away, same thing with the surfaces, if surface comes in contact with this layer this thin
cantilever bends easily elastically and if surface pass away, then it move will come back to the
original shape.
Sometime, we use a word “oiliness additives”, it sticks to the surface. Now, what is the theme
behind; what is the physics behind this. It says that energy will be lowered, whenever molecular;
whenever this additives is adsorbed on the surface, overall energy will come down. That means you
need to provide some energy to remove this layer. That energy may be thermal energy, may be
mechanical energy, but you had to provide to remove this layer and that is why it is advantageous.
It reduces the overall energy, it bring some equilibrium. However, we say many times that,
attachment and detachment is a continuous process that nothing is going to get damage on that, if it
is under normal load and normal speed. You are not talking about severe load and severe speed. In
that situation, it will not create any problem, it will not get damaged, it will only detach from the
surface and after sometime, it will come back and

2
attach. So, it is a continuous process. We need not change lubricant oil frequently, if that is the
situation, if that is the mechanism.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:25)

This slide was shown also on the last lecture, we say that when we want physical attraction then, it
need to have some properties. First thing is that, it should get dissolve in solid. If it is not able to
adjust with the lubricating oil, it is not get able to get mix with the lubricant oil, then, we cannot use
that lubricant additive. Another thing, we say that with attachment and detachment is generally
encouraged by the dilute concentration. Then if concentration is lower than, it will be frequent
phenomena.
However, if the concentration is higher, there are many molecules available for the few sites, than
even though attachment and detachment may be continuous process, but that will not reflect in the
experiments. We will not be able to find much difference in coefficient of friction, much difference
in wear rate. This table indicated, if you do not use any additives, any boundary additives, in this
case we took example of oleic acid, which is one of the boundary additives having oiliness
properties. If tribo surface is operated with pure mineral oil (no additives in that simple base oil)
and coefficient of friction estimated was 0.36. I am using the word estimation because we can never
get exact value of coefficient of friction. It is only estimation, it will having some sort of
probability.

3
When, we add 2% of oleic acid, you can find a substantial change in coefficient of friction from
0.36 to 0.25. That is substantial change. But after that, increasing oleic acid is not going to change
significantly. So, that’s why we require little bit of boundary additives to get favorable results. We
do not require complete oil to be boundary additives because that will be very viscous, difficult to
form, difficult to move, that’s why we do not use hundred percent unless until, it is required from
the situation.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:56)

This figure shows how the coefficient of friction varies for different oil and oil additives. The A
figure, it shows clearly that with the increase in temperature, viscosity decreases, the decrease in
the viscosity coefficient of friction also will decrease.
But it after certain temperature (what we know as a critical temperature) after critical temperature,
it will get unbound, coefficient of friction is going to increase continuously, assuming or treating
that lubricant is completely removed from the surface. Even though lubricant remained there, but it
will not be effective interlock at the interface. That is the A curve, what see, that is paraffin based,
if you use boundary additives, fatty acid is a boundary additives then coefficient of friction is
increasing after certain temperature, and that critical temperature is greater than critical
temperature for paraffin oil.
However, when it reacts with the copper it makes some chemical layer. It is corroding the copper
making some boundary additive layer then, this temperature is increasing substantially

4
from here may be say, it is around 70°, 80° it may reach, 150°, 140°. Similarly, for other oils it can
change different, it can show different behavior, what is happening with the temperature? Why this
kind of phenomena is happening that can be explained, using these two sketches. It shows that
ordered film on the substrate or substrate and substance and it is a below critical temperature.
Almost all the sites are occupied surface is not free from this molecule. However, if the temperature
increases then, thermal forces will be on higher order compared to van der waal forces. So,
molecular attraction will come down or we say that relative molecular attraction will come down or
will force will be lesser compared to thermal forces and we will be getting disordered lubricant film
on the surface. That is the reason why we do not get very good performance at a higher temperature
or temperature above critical temperature. In that situation we need to see, need to think that
lubricating oil should satisfy our requirement. If we know the operating temperature is high than,
we need to choose proper lubricant additive, it will not that you whatever you choose lubricant
additive, it is going to survive, will work. It works only after works below some critical
temperature, it does not work beyond that and its known that this kind of thermal equilibrium can
be estimated or it can be guessed using the Gibb’s free energy.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:59)

As I mention in last lecture that Gibb’s free energy is more like potential energy even require. Some
energy to remove this lubricant layer from the surface, and that Gibb’s

5
energy can be estimated, using this relation. This clearly says, as the temperature increases Gibb’s
energy is going go down. If Gibb’s energy is lesser that means, you need to supply lesser energy to
disturb the lubricant film. If this energy is more then, you require more energy to disturb the film or
it will be more stable compared to stability at the high temperature, that is why we says that in high
temperature, it is getting desorbed, and that is shown again through this figure which we showed in
previous slide.
When is a disturbed than, what will happen surface can easily push, this lubricant or lubricant
molecules from the surface, leave surface without lubricant layer wear rate will increase in this
situation temperature or we say that, it as temperature increases wear rate will increase. When we
are treating or when we are using boundary additives, but that is not hundred percent true, few
lubricants, they work at the high temperature; they do not work at the low temperature; you make it
very high coefficient of friction at the low temperature, but when you go for high temperature,
when you operated those lubricant additives at high temperature coefficient of friction will come
down, that is generally known as a extreme pressure additives or additives, which work with
chemical action or they react with surface, they make some product.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:04)

The cover the surface, they make sacrificial layer, but they protect the surface or reduce the
coefficient of friction compared to dry friction or compare to unstable film. We can

6
studied that, we say that chemisorption is a happening because of the chemical action and as the
first line indicates, physically absorb boundary lubricant or boundary additives, either will get
detach, decompose or melt, any of the situation is possible. It can get detach, because of the very
low molecular attraction compared to their thermal forces. It can decompose also (quite polymers
get detach as well as decompose). Decompose means long molecular arrangement structure gets
broken.
And it may melt also it can change as a strict from solid to semi solid to liquid or completely
disturbed the chemical structure, anything is possible that is why we require chemisorption at the
high temperature, and as I mentioned earlier that it is a form of corrosion. We are doing purposely,
we are introducing corrosion purposely. Say to make this kind of boundary layer, what we require?
We require a chemically active group, something chlorine, sulphide, phosphorus, they are
chemically active. If you leave this chemical along with the metals, they will make some chemical
region on the metal surface, which will be having low coefficient of friction and low wear rate
compared to metal surface itself.
So, this is chemical active group, in addition, we require reactive surface of material. All the metals
have reactive surface by and large ceramics. They do not have that much or polymers; they do not
have that much reactive. So, chemical additives will be useful only for the metals, and large, for the
metals not be very effective for ceramics; not very effective for the polymers. Another word,
chemical composition required for the metals will be different. The chemical composition which is
required for the ceramic materials, for polymer materials.
And, there is another one guideline given over here, we say that try to use both the process physical
absorption as well as chemical absorption, both are possible, if I choose a surface, which is
chemically as well as physically acting with the lubricant additives as, I can get good results at a
low temperature physical attachment; at a high temperature chemical attachment same lubricant
additives can be used. That is why we can show with the diagram, we say the physical adsorption
below one critical temperature.
This blue color line I am showing as a temperature line or from left to right. I am trying to show,
this temperature is going to increase. At the low temperature, physical absorption is sufficient at the
high temperature chemical absorption is sufficient, and

7
there is always gap between. We generally, they do not over lap reason being, if there is a physical
absorption, if there is a lubricant layer already, there then chemical absorption will not happen
unless it is clean completely. If there is a something already on the surface, it will not be reactive
towards the chemical active group.
So, there is need to be some gap and that gap is known as a temperature distress gap. You should
never operate the equipment in that gap, either this lower side and higher side. We need to design or
otherwise, this temperature distress gap need to be minimum or we should not use one metal or one
additive, we may use composition. Active group for a physical absorption at the low temperature,
another group at high temperature. So two different groups are used in that case quite possible, they
will not be temperature distress gap. It can be without that gap.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:12)

Now, some mechanism is specified as I mention on this slide, we say during each contact, the
contact layer is rubbed off, it is nothing like that wear is stopped completely. It is getting rubbed of
that is why we are using the word boundary lubrication.
And after rubbing off it get exposed to another corrosive media or we say corrosive liquid or
corrosive substance in that case next layer will come immediately. So, it is again a dynamic process
rubbing off of lubricant layer and reformation of the lubricant layer on the surface. But in that
process, what is going to happen? Slowly, slowly chemical additives is going to deplete, it already
reacted with the surface, and it will get depleted.

8
So, it is not as good as physical absorption, what we say in physical absorption, there is no change
it can be reabsorbed again on the surface without much problem.
However in the chemical case, it does reacted made oxide layer, it is removed. Now, we required a
new percentage or some additional percentage for the next reaction. So, what we can say whenever
we are thinking about the chemisorptions lubricant additives depletion, need to be accounted. It
will get depleted with time; it is nothing like that once you add lubricant additive, it will survive
forever. It has certain duration after that duration lubricant additive will be depleted, you need to
refurnish that.
And that is, this point says clearly, they need to have good balance, good trade off. They should be
active enough to protect the surface, but it should not be active too much active so that increase a
corrosion rated high eliminate. Now, if I compare if I compare dry lubrication, I compare boundary
lubrication by physical absorption or we compare chemical absorption. So, we can compare on
wear and sliding distance chart, we studied wear rate. We know that as a sliding distance increases
total wear volume will increase wear rate we are not talking; we are talking of the total wear from
this surface ; how much wear as occur.
If I plot this first, this line is clearly showing Archard’s law. In dry condition, they are in
proposition sliding distance and wear volume will be having by and large linear profile, linear
variation by and large. Now, when you come to the mixed lubrication, we come to the
chemisorption or chemical layer than, there is also loss of chemical, loss of the metal surface,
because of the additive is reacting with metal. When it is acting with reacting with metal, that is
means fraction of the metal is also getting removed from the surface. How fast and how slow, that
will depend on the chemical composition of the additives and the material. That can be decided, but
generally that is a non-linear, it is not as linear as Archard’s law states; it states can see here. That
wear rate is lesser wear volume is lesser compare to the dry case, when comparing it.
But it has a non-linear profile, this gap may increase; may decrease depend on how fast the distance
“L” has been travel. If it is very fast there is a possibility, it goes down, it goes up also and this is
shows as physical absorption. We know the physical absorption case most of the time the wear of
the lubricant layer is happening detachment of the lubricant; layer is happening, it is not reacting
with the substance, it is not reacting with

9
component; it is not reacting with material, naturally, wear rate increase case of the physical
absorption will be lower than chemisorptions. May be, whatever be the situation in that case, if I
treat without considering the temperature or without accounting the temperature in that case I will
be getting always this curve.
However, if I think from other side say that physical absorption will not work when temperature is
high then in that case physical absorption in case. Whatever, the coating we have it will turn out to
be red line or you say that these two will not occur simultaneously that is why, they should not be
compared. Temperature will be always there temperature factor always, need to be accounted. So,
whenever physical absorption happens; chemical absorption should not happen; whenever
chemical absorption happen physical absorption should not happen they need to be having two
separate situations. If I compare I may get wrong results or wrong conclusion.
That is why we use this kind of curve; we say this is mineral oil without any additives. It shows the
better performance compared to the dry lubrication, because there is lubricating oil and it cools the
surface, distribute the stresses equally, well coming to physical absorption, it is fatty acids can see
clearly, there is a transition temperature Tm beyond that temperature fatty acid coefficient of
friction is increasing substantially. Now, if I neglect or if I use some sort of lubricant additives,
where the temperature gap is not there, it is acting instantaneously wherever, the fatty acid is failing
EP additives or EP lubricant or we say that extreme pressure lubricant is acting immediately.
And that is why I can see that, coefficient of friction is constant. It is not changing or we say that EP
additives are ineffective at that temperature. At low temperature they do not have any chemical
reaction with the surface, but as a temperature increase. This, they are going to react with surface,
that is why I mention, you know in my last slide also whenever, we make lubricant. We generally
add chemical related to physical absorption, chemical related to chemisorption and e p additive is
another form of chemisorptions. We say that, it is happening under the high temperature and
extreme pressure. If pressure is very high, temperature will also increase there, so they are related
or chemisorptions phenomena can be said as extreme pressure phenomena.
So, overall if I want to make lubricant good, lubricant package I will be using mineral oil or carrier
fluid with fatty acid plus EP additives. So, overall package gives satisfactory

10
performance to us, because of low coefficient of friction compared to pure base oil, compared to EP
additives and base oil compared to fatty acid and base oil. Overall package need to have all
together.
So, whatever the transient case, if the temperature is going very high EP additives can react,
however they will remain silent they will not work. Even though the cost is increasing by delta, but
overall we need good results and there are always uncertainties in machines, if the local
temperature is going beyond certain temperature, then EP additives should work.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:45)

Now, we say that whatever the desirable properties from boundary lubricant, I am talking boundary
lubricant from the both the point of view is, physical absorption as well as chemical absorption. We
say that need to have dissolvability in lubricating oil, if they are not able to get dissolved in the
lubricating oil, they do not have any use, if they are not totally getting mixed than there is no use. If
we are able to see additive separate lubricating oil separate than, it does not have much utility.
And it should be able to resist the penetration of the surface asperities, when one surface asperity is
approaching to other surface, these asperities should be covered with lubricant additives, so that it
is not getting touched or it is not coming in direct contact with the surface as far as possible. In that
case wear will be in mild region, if there

11
are asperities are able to penetrate in other surface and then wear volume will increase; wear rate
will increased.
So, that is why we prefer to use long chain alcohols for physical absorption, amines or fatty acids, is
oil react for the physical absorption. Chlorine, phosphorus, sulphur offer the chemical composition.
Well the as we discuss in friction chapter or friction lectures, that we need to have low shear
strength of the interface. If interface does not have low shear strength, well tribology comes to the
zero. It does not have any use then, we need to make interface having low shear strength and that is
a necessary condition for using any lubricant. If they are these kind of boundary additives are not
able to give us low shear strength of the interface then, they does not have much use.
So that is why, we need to have low shear strength, either directly getting attach to the surface or
when chemically attaching in the surface. In addition, what we can demand that at high melting
point, they should not get disturb as the temperature increases. So, if physical adhesion or physical
absorption is able to sustain up to 250°, 300°C that will be preferable choice, in that case, we are
not going ahead with chemical absorption, because we know chemical absorption is going to
corrode the surface and the lubricant additives will get depleted and we need to refund the lubricant
and is a finally, says that it need to suit the metal, which, we are using here, the word you and I am
using the metal, because mostly this kind of additives are effective with metals. They have are less
effective with polymers and the ceramics.
This is an example, which shows the stearic acid which is boundary additives, it has a melting point
around 69° degree centigrade, when we are talking about the absolute, without any reaction.
However, when it reacts with a copper surface, copper stearate, it melts at 120°C, which is the
relatively higher compared to 69°C. Similarly, if there is a chloride or chlorine available as a
chemical additives, which goes higher with chemisorption than iron chloride, which as a solid form
as a sacrificial layer temperature is very high is a 649°, that means this can sustain above 500
degree centigrade temperature without failure.
However, if you want to further go the higher side, then sulphur should act or we say the iron
sulphide, which will melt at the 1170°, because it is very high temperature, they can be using the
high temperature additives. They are giving good

12
results at high temperature. However, we know very well the pollution is an additional
consideration, whenever pollution comes or we had to think about pollution, we need to discard
chloride; we need discard sulphides. So, overall we can say the physical absorption should give a
future or will be better for future compared to chemical absorptions right.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:05)

Now, this slide shows, because there I found some disturbances and books, people or a researcher
have written boundary lubrications separately, extreme pressure lubrication separately. I am just
trying to compare over here, we say that boundary lubrication as per them is restricted to system.
Where, there is a thermodynamic reversibility, that means attachment and detachment is
thermodynamically reversible at high temperatures lubricant will detach. So, this is what they have
quoted that boundary lubrication should be named, if, there is a thermodynamic reversibility, if
there is no thermodynamic reversibility, which mostly happen in chemisorptions in that case we
should not be calling that the boundary lubrication, they should be call as extreme pressure
lubrication, because this kind of mechanism acts under high temperature and generally high
temperature occurs, because of the high pressure.
So, what we say in this case we are other examples, chlorine, sulphur and phosphorus. They act
with the surface and there are known as EP additives, EP lubricant. They are ineffective or these all
3 are ineffective

13
at the low temperature case, low load and low temperature case. It is a interesting point, should be
noted for here, that people say this is a low optimization wherever I need lubricant film EP
additives are able to form it where as at high temperature, we require lubrication effective
lubrication which can be sustain there for sometime and EP additives are able to make it.
So, that is going to give us or this kind of additives are giving us optimum performance as per the
requirement, wherever it is requires it gives it does not make lubricant film everywhere, if the gear
pair is coming in contact, wherever, the contact point comes lubricant film is made at that point
there, because of the high temperature, high pressure and corrosion occurs for some fraction of
second, there itself. However is that clearly mentioned clear over here, that they have good
properties, they are nice, they are probable from commercial point of view, but some society point
of view they are not encouraged; they are carcinogenic nature; they are harmful; they are polluting
environment, that is why there is a problem. Interesting story about this is that in a common petrol
sulfur will be there and sulfur acts as a chemical absorption agent. It can react with the surface, it
can make lubricant film and that is going to give us protective layer that is useful, but because of the
pollution. Now, it has been emphasize the petrol should be free of sulfur or it should be below
certain limit or sulfur percentage should be minimum to this percentage; it is a costly in two fronts.
First you require process to separate the sulfur from the petrol first thing; second you require some
lubricant additives to be mixed with the lubricating oil. So, that surfaces can be prevented from the
wear. Because of the pollution picture or pollution consideration, cost is going to increase that is,
why we have always problem, whenever, we use this chemical absorption technique than it may
survive for 5 years 10 years and after that environmental issue will come again, we have to remove
one thing something else.

14
(Refer Slide Time: 32:54)

There is a comparative study with between these three kind of lubrication mechanism, which dry 0
lubrication or maybe say, whatever the naturally form layer on the surface. Second boundary
lubricated, which we are studying in this lecture and third which will be discussing may be in next
lecture, that is the boundary; that is fluid film lubrication. Surface is completely separated by the
fluid film, if we plot curves for this three condition 1 for dry; second for boundary; third for fluid
film lubrication; then, what kind of cause we get for the wear rate. If I plot wear rate with time as
the time increases, this is clearly showing about the trend wear rate decreases, it remains stationary
and then goes up after certain duration. Well in boundary case anything is possible.
You say wear rate in decreasing initially is reaches to 1 point after that, it can go and merge with 1
or can merge with 3 that means, if the surface roughness has decreased substantially, boundary
lubrication, may turn out to be full film lubrication mechanism or if the surface is disturbed,
irregularities have increased it can go and merge with dry case or boundary lubricant will not be
effective in that case.
So, both the possibilities that is, why we say many times. Whenever, we are buying any new car or
new automobile, we need to operate vehicle at the lowest speed, this boundary case is over or
second comes and matches with 3, then after that only, we should operate with high speed. Now,
there are 2 other curves also, we say that wear rate verses load. As the load is increasing, even
though fluid film lubrication will can

15
sustain up to certain limit beyond that, it is going to be a boundary lubrication and the further the
load is increased further, then it may merge with the dry lubrication or in other words as a load I is
continuously increasing lubricant may not be retained at the surfaces at the interface. It will be
simple squezzed out from the surfaces.
And if there is no dynamic load; if there is no reversible position change, then lubricant will not be
suck back, it will be simple moved out whenever lubricant comes; it will be simple moved out of
the interface and will be getting very high wear rate or we say, that every lubricant need to be
designed, as per the load, for high load will be, we will be designing the different kind of lubricant
for low load condition, we will be designing different kind of lubricants. Coming to the
temperature, which as a more or less same factor or same effective as load. As a temperature
increases, we know that, detachment from the surface will increase even for chemisorption case the
temperature suppose is very high than, rate of the wear will increase, because of the more and more
reaction with the surface. So, that fluid film lubrication is merging with an increase temperature,
the boundary lubrication and beyond certain temperature is merging with the dry lubrication case.
So, this comparative study indicates clearly, whenever we design a system we should keep in a
mind for how long we want to operate it. If for the longer duration, we want we should operate
under some condition which gives favorable surface condition to the equipment, and then it should
be operate to the other condition. Same thing, if we want we know surely, what kind of load are
going to come and how much load is going to come, and then we should design boundary additives
or boundary lubricant or fluid film lubrication mechanism accordingly.

16
(Refer Slide Time: 36:50)

So, I will just covered one experimental study, which we did in our lab and results are related to our
boundary lubrication mechanism. You can see this figure has Eddy current dynamometer, which
applies a load and net load applied in this case is from 0 to 75 neuton meters. There is a Torque
sensor, which can measure how much torque has been applied and what is this is a gearbox, which
is a test box with the gears are going to get tested. There is a motor to drive the gearbox, we are
using both the things. We are using motor to drive; we are using dynamometer to stop or apply the
load; we are using the both the combination.
And Torque Sensor to measure how much Torque is been applied, and then is a display unit over
here, which will give display of the Torque. What we are talking the gearbox is 2 to 1 ratio or we
say that pinion nine gear as 22 teeth well gear, teeth gear. Now, number of teeth on the gear are
44.So, this at 44 divided by 2 in 22. It gives 2 to 1 ratio and there are standard involute profile
having pressure angle 20° and module is define as 2.5.

17
(Refer Slide Time: 38:09)

We to find out online, ahead with online measurement, we use sensor unit what we know as a
online sensor instrument can see, there is a oil condition sensor. What is the meaning of that oil will
get disturb oil, will can change quality continuously.
If it is getting more and more acidic then tan numbers will decrease on that, tan numbers will
increase. Similarly, there is a possibility of corrosive wear, so there is a moisture sensor clearly,
indicate if the related humidity is very high, than we should not conduct experiments, because the
major governing factor will be corrosion and there is a mechanical action. So, there will be
corrosive wear however, if you want to do corrosive studies or we want to do study on corrosive
wear, than we should be able to use with some moisture environment with higher Moisture
environment. Above all, there is one unit what say as a total ferrous wear debris sensor. It is
generally, finds iron particle, how many iron particles are getting circulated through the lubricating
oil.
So, it gives us an indication of wear rate higher the number of particle; higher the wear rate that is,
why this unit is useful. When it get attached with this stress set of we can see, there are number of
tubing is going on from this and this tubing one connected to this unit. You can see the tubing is
over here in previous slide here tubing are going and the unit is place somewhere here. So it gives
overall reading to us.

18
(Refer Slide Time: 39:51)

Let us start with some maximum the readings, we say that we bought a new gearbox and we know
whenever the gearbox is new it should not be loaded completely. So, what we selected almost 0
load and 500 rpm speed and is given in rpm that is a 500 and we are not using units over here,
because rpm is common unit and torque as 0.35N.m. We did not have applied any torque from the
dynamometer but we know during the assembly there will be always some sort of misalignment
there will be some resistance from assembly.
And that is given as a 0.35N.m as a torque, we have not done anything purposefully but it is
coming, because of assembly and this gives iron percentage or iron concentration, in ppm. Number
of experiments and this experiment was done in lubricating oil, what say, the 80W90 is a motor oil
and it has a good EP additive package. This kind experiment happen and whatever the experimental
result what we got is that is show the relative humidity, where ending from 45% to 55% that means,
it is not going beyond certain limit. We can conduct this kind of experiment without much problem.

Just after doing experiments just starting the experiment, we took the reading and we found there is
74 ppm as an iron percentage or concentration, after 2 hours operation, this percentage increased to
84 after that it remains almost a series 77, 73, 69, 65. Interesting thing is that, when we do this kind
of thing. It is always in a mind after that if I want to

19
operate, this percentage should come down, because bath-tub curve says, clearly initially wear rate
will be high subsequently it will come down, but it did not happen to others we increase the speed
from 500 to 1000. You can see the minimum weight, this is in sequence after operating of the 10
hours, we 11th hours was with this speed they are in sequence all this experiments are in sequence.
This is a 11th this shows the 65 well, this shows 66% increase of course; there will be always some
inner accuracy, so, we cannot differentiate between 65 and 66, but as we are increasing more and
more number of operating hours, we are finding more and more particle percentage coming in.
Either there is not filter system, or is not working well or something else is problem or another
possibility is that at the high temperature, high speed means high temperature and high speed, there
is a some plus temperature is happening and chemical additives or we say EP additives are reacting
with surface. They are corroding the surface and then they are removing the top asperities that’s
why the percentage is increasing. To confirm that, we increase speed also, you say from 1000 rpm
to 1500 rpm keeping almost the same load no change in the load aspects. This is happening because
of the misalignment or some inner accuracy in the surface.
Now, what we are getting over here, this percent percentage is continuously increasing this means,
more and more corrosion happens with the surface or even, we know the gear lubrication
mechanism other this lubricant additives is known to you one of the very good gear lubricant and
still that we are getting this kind of wear particles that means gears will never work in
hydrodynamic domain. It will never work in fluid film lubrication mechanism now, working in mix
lubrication or boundary lubrication, that is why we are getting wear particles and the particle
percentage is increasing with increasing speed if the mixed lubrication case percentage will not
increase, will come down. So, that is why we feel that this kind of experiments is showing the
results related to the boundary lubrication mechanism.

20
(Refer Slide Time: 44:00)

Let us see other results, second set of results after changing the oil, we have changed the lubricating
oil here that oil with old particles, whatever were getting dumped in the lubricating oil have been
removed. Fresh oil, fresh oil, we are getting good readings at the 500 rpm you can see 43, 66 or
another word, you can say it has reach to steady state condition or running in period is over for 500
rpm , but it should continue for the 1000 rpm also, 2000 rp m also, but what we got and when we are
operating at 2000 rpm. We are getting different environment, we were getting different results you
can see 89 from 36 it jumps to 89.
After operating for the 7 hours, when you are operating that equipment for the 8 th hour, we are
getting 89 ppm that is much higher almost 3 folds compare to 36 and this percentage is increasing
to a certain limit and after that its decreasing. To get a confirmed result, we operate at one higher
speed further and we can find there is a unbound lubrication, unbound ppm level from 219 to 658
that means, a more and more temperature is getting induced to the surface or some sort of load is
coming on the surface which is creating higher wear, number of particles.
However, this Torque sensor clearly indicates that misalignment was not that dominant, it is only
the speed which is changing the phenomena and it is giving higher wear rate. Now I can think in
different way, I can say that when the speed is increasing, vibration level is increasing and load
level is almost 0. Additional vibration phenomena is

21
happening and that is going to increase the fatigue failure or is fatigue wear is going to increase
with increase in speed. To confirm that what we did, we applied at load that the vibration
phenomena can be reduce the vibration operated can be reduced, even for high speed it should not
vibrate that much.
So, of course, before that we say that conclusion from this slide the changing operating condition
changes the dynamics of boundary lubrication layer. It is continuously changing it is not
stationary at 500 r p m, it showing the steady state condition, but we are stretching to 2000 rpm it
showing high wear rate. As I mention one possible reason is as vibration continues as a periodical
loading and that is going to induce fatigue failure in a surface or at least top asperities are chopped
off, so we need to confirm that with a load.
(Refer Slide Time: 46:48)

If I increase the load what is going to happen and of course, before that we try to find out particle
size, what is the range of particle size. To diagnose with particle size, minus size or under the mild
wear domain the severe wear domain and interestingly we find too many particles for the size
between 5 to 15 micron. Interestingly, this number of particles are continuously decreasing with
time that is means is it is going for the betterment. It is going for the convergence continuously,
number of particles are decreasing. Coming to 15 to 25 micron again the number of particles are
continuously decreasing. So, that is favorable situation, we can say starting case may be severe
wear, but it is still controllable case it is moving to the mild domain or mild wear side.

22
And interesting thing is that, we found couple of particles having size more than 100 micron and
when we studied that mild wear and severe wear, you say that about 20 micron particles it is a
severe wear, so most of the domain case. In this case, it will be the server wear, but they are not
uncontrollable, they are controlled they are moving to the right direction that means, you do not
have to worry too much and we know there is a running in time is bending in time wear particles
will be larger initially. This is for the 500 rpm same thing must done for the 2000 rpm also what we
find again the same thing that number of particle are decreasing except over this case, number of
particles are decreasing which are in range from 5 to 15 micron and there is no particles size, no
particle, which has a size greater than 100 micron, that is a favorable case. In all other cases also,
we find that particles are decreasing in numbers, so these are the favorable situation their bedding
in time is a many add. If you want to reduce wear rate or reduce, this kind of particles then we
should applied load.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:53)

And that is why we did experiment with load also. Say rpm 200, torque applied load is 5 N.m, wear
rate or number of particles, ppm level is continuously decreasing.
So, 152 and 154 is coming to the 107 of course, 2, 3 ppm I am assuming that is inaccuracy or it is
not giving that much reliable results. Now, if I increase load what’s going to happen same
increasing the load from 107 it is coming down to 100 and continuously decreasing to 69 that
means load is working.

23
Whatever we are thinking vibration is creating some problem, is fatigue value or related failure of
the related wear, because of that it is happening over here. Now, if we increases the speed and the
torque, again we are getting lesser number of ppm or lesser ppm in this case same thing or same
results for the 800 also 800 and load is higher side 20 N.m, it comes to result 32 N.m that is
indicating, that is showing,; that bedding-in time is coming to the closer or almost negligible level.

After that we could not find any further improvement. This clearly shows the number of particles
ppm level is reaching almost 30 ppm and beyond that we are not able to improve whatever load
condition whatever the speed we are applying not remains on the situation. Or in other words, if the
load is applied results are good. Now, here we have removed the load also, we have brought the
torque almost is 0 level occurs, I am not using the word 0.3 N.m because all the torques are very
high compare to 0.3, 0.4 N.mn that is we put value as 0. And this is 0 Torque and 1000 rpm, still we
are getting good results.
Now, that is complete bedding-in completely in running in time or we say that running in behavior.
Now, what is happening why vibration does not happen at 1000 rpm, now, we can say there is a
number of asperities which were earlier there, they have completely got flattened or turn away or
removed from the surface and there is somehow marginal lubrication keep coming or we say that
there is a fluid film lubrication with some boundary lubrication. Some percentage is of boundary
lubrication and major percent is of full film lubrication that is why the gear rate, gear wear rate is
low in this situation.
That is a favorable situation for us or we say that when we study there is a boundary lubrication
mechanism we are able to understand the mechanism in a different manner, we say that even
though we know bedding-in time or bedding in behavior the wear rate should be very high,
initially it should reach to steady condition and after that it should increase while in this case
bedding in time it shows that even though running in behavior it is changing with, it is speed and
changing with load condition. That is why we need to understand system completely. If there is a
possibility of light load that is introducing vibration we should not introduce.
And that is a typical example for a rolling element bearing. We say whatever the dynamic load
capacity of the rolling element bearing we should never apply load lesser

24
than 3% of that, reason being that there will be more clearance on less load, less deformation of
surface that will cause a more vibration less load carrying capacity and pitting in that case will be
much, much, faster compared to with load. In other words, what we say from the Archard’s law as
the load increases wear rate will go down, but when comes to the lubricated case particularly the
the boundary lubrication, we are saying, it is not the case quite possible increase in a load may
decrease the wear rate. It is not in that proportion itself.
With this I complete a boundary lubrication mechanism when next lecture will be discussing about
the mixed lubrication mechanism, where are we been thinking about some portion of the surface
undergoing boundary lubrication and remaining portion is undergoing hydrodynamic or
Elasto-hydrodynamic or some other lubrication mechanism or when talking about some other
mechanism it may be squeeze lubrication mechanism also. Thank you for your attention.

25