RT Handbook
RT Handbook
RT Handbook
INDEX
1. Introduction
1.1 History 3
1.2 Present State 6
1.3 Future Direction 7
2. Physics of Radiography
2.1 Nature of Radiation 11
2.1.1 X-Radiation 12
2.1.2 Bremsstrahlung Radiation 12
2.1.3 K-Shell Emission Radiation 13
2.2 Gamma Radiation 14
2.3 Activity 15
2.4 Decay Rate 15
2.5 Ionization 16
2.6 Inverse Square Law 17
2.7 Interaction of Radiation and Matter 18
2.8 Linear Attenuation Coefficient 19
2.9 Half-Value Layer 20
2.10 Sources of Attenuation 22
2.10.1 Compton Scattering 25
2.11 Geometric Unsharpness 26
2.12 Filters in Radiography 28
2.13 Scatter/Radiation Control 28
2.14 Radiation Safety 30
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8. Standards
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1. INTRODUCTION
He concluded that a new type of ray was being emitted from the tube. This ray was
capable of passing through the heavy paper covering and exciting the phosphorescent
materials in the room. He found that the new ray could pass through most substances
casting shadows of solid objects. Roentgen also discovered that the ray could pass
through the tissue of humans, but not bones and metal objects. One of Roentgen's first
experiments late in 1895 was a film of the hand of his wife, Bertha. It is interesting that
the first use of X-rays were for an industrial (not medical) application, as Roentgen
produced a radiograph of a set of weights in a box to show his colleagues.
Public fancy was caught by this invisible ray with the ability to pass through solid matter,
and, in conjunction with a photographic plate, provide a picture of bones and interior
body parts. Scientific fancy was captured by the demonstration of a wavelength shorter
than light. This generated new possibilities in physics, and for investigating the structure
of matter. Much enthusiasm was generated about potential applications of rays as an aid
in medicine and surgery. Within a month after the announcement of the discovery,
several medical radiographs had been made in Europe and the United States, which were
used by surgeons to guide them in their work. In June 1896, only 6 months after
Roentgen announced his discovery, X-rays were being used by battlefield physicians to
locate bullets in wounded soldiers.
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Prior to 1912, X-rays were used little outside the realms of medicine and dentistry,
though some X-ray pictures of metals were produced. The reason that X-rays were not
used in industrial application before this date was because the X-ray tubes (the source of
the X-rays) broke down under the voltages required to produce rays of satisfactory
penetrating power for industrial purposes. However, that changed in 1913 when the high
vacuum X-ray tubes designed by Coolidge became available. The high vacuum tubes
were an intense and reliable X-ray source, operating at energies up to 100,000 volts.
Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays was discovered. In
1896, French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered natural radioactivity. Many scientists
of the period were working with cathode rays, and other scientists were gathering
evidence on the theory that the atom could be subdivided. Some of the new research
showed that certain types of atoms disintegrate by themselves. It was Henri Becquerel
who discovered this phenomenon while investigating the properties of fluorescent
minerals. Becquerel was researching the principles of fluorescence, wherein certain
minerals glow (fluoresce) when exposed to sunlight. He utilized photographic plates to
record this fluorescence.
One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. On a day when it
was too cloudy to expose his samples to direct sunlight, Becquerel stored some of the
compound in a drawer with his photographic plates. Later when he developed these
plates, he discovered that they were fogged (exhibited exposure to light). Becquerel
questioned what would have caused this fogging. He knew he had wrapped the plates
tightly before using them, so the fogging was not due to stray light. In addition, he
noticed that only the plates that were in the drawer with the uranium compound were
fogged. Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound gave off a type of radiation that
could penetrate heavy paper and expose photographic film. Becquerel continued to test
samples of uranium compounds and determined that the source of radiation was the
element uranium. Bacquerel's discovery was, unlike that of the X-rays, virtually
unnoticed by laymen and scientists alike. Relatively few scientists were interested in
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Becquerel's findings. It was not until the discovery of radium by the Curies two years
later that interest in radioactivity became widespread.
While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist Marie
Curie became very interested in his work. She suspected that a uranium ore known as
pitchblende contained other radioactive elements. Marie and her husband, French
scientist Pierre Curie, started looking for these other elements. In 1898, the Curies
discovered another radioactive element in pitchblende, and named it 'polonium' in honor
of Marie Curie's native homeland. Later that year, the Curies discovered another
radioactive element which they named radium, or shining element. Both polonium and
radium were more radioactive than uranium. Since these discoveries, many other
radioactive elements have been discovered or produced.
Radium became the initial industrial gamma ray source. The material allowed castings up
to 10 to 12 inches thick to be radiographed. During World War II, industrial radiography
grew tremendously as part of the Navy's shipbuilding program. In 1946, man-made
gamma ray sources such as cobalt and iridium became available. These new sources were
far stronger than radium and were much less expensive. The manmade sources rapidly
replaced radium, and use of gamma rays grew quickly in industrial radiography.
Health Concerns
The science of radiation protection, or "health physics" as it is more properly called, grew
out of the parallel discoveries of X-rays and radioactivity in the closing years of the 19th
century. Experimenters, physicians, laymen, and physicists alike set up X-ray generating
apparatuses and proceeded about their labors with a lack of concern regarding potential
dangers. Such a lack of concern is quite understandable, for there was nothing in previous
experience to suggest that X-rays would in any way be hazardous. Indeed, the opposite
was the case, for who would suspect that a ray similar to light but unseen, unfelt, or
otherwise undetectable by the senses would be damaging to a person? More likely, or so
it seemed to some, X-rays could be beneficial for the body.
Inevitably, the widespread and unrestrained use of X-rays led to serious injuries. Often
injuries were not attributed to X-ray exposure, in part because of the slow onset of
symptoms, and because there was simply no reason to suspect X-rays as the cause. Some
early experimenters did tie X-ray exposure and skin burns together. The first warning of
possible adverse effects of X-rays came from Thomas Edison, William J. Morton, and
Nikola Tesla who each reported eye irritations from experimentation with X-rays and
fluorescent substances.
Today, it can be said that radiation ranks among the most thoroughly investigated causes
of disease. Although much still remains to be learned, more is known about the
mechanisms of radiation damage on the molecular, cellular, and organ system than is
known for most other health stressing agents. Indeed, it is precisely this vast
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X-rays and Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of exactly the same nature as light,
but of much shorter wavelength. Wavelength of visible light is on the order of 6000
angstroms while the wavelength of x-rays is in the range of one angstrom and that of
gamma rays is 0.0001 angstrom. This very short wavelength is what gives x-rays and
gamma rays their power to penetrate materials that light cannot. These electromagnetic
waves are of a high energy level and can break chemical bonds in materials they
penetrate. If the irradiated matter is living tissue, the breaking of chemical bonds may
result in altered structure or a change in the function of cells. Early exposures to radiation
resulted in the loss of limbs and even lives. Men and women researchers collected and
documented information on the interaction of radiation and the human body. This early
information helped science understand how electromagnetic radiation interacts with
living tissue. Unfortunately, much of this information was collected at great personal
expense.
In many ways, radiography has changed little from the early days of its use. We still
capture a shadow image on film using similar procedures and processes technicians were
using in the late 1800's. Today, however, we are able to generate images of higher quality
and greater sensitivity through the use of higher quality films with a larger variety of film
grain sizes. Film processing has evolved to an automated state, producing more consistent
film quality by removing manual processing variables. Electronics and computers allow
technicians to now capture images digitally. The use of "filmless radiography" provides a
means of capturing an image, digitally enhancing, sending the image anywhere in the
world, and archiving an image that will not deteriorate with time. Technological advances
have provided industry with smaller, lighter, and very portable equipment that produce
high quality X-rays. The use of linear accelerators provide a means of generating
extremely short wavelength, highly penetrating radiation, a concept dreamed of only a
few short years ago.
While the process has changed little, technology has evolved allowing radiography to be
widely used in numerous areas of inspection. Radiography has seen expanded usage in
industry to inspect not only welds and castings, but to radiographically inspect items such
as airbags and canned food products. Radiography has found use in metallurgical
material identification and security systems at airports and other facilities.
Gamma ray inspection has also changed considerably since the Curies' discovery of
radium. Man-made isotopes of today are far stronger and offer the technician a wide
range of energy levels and half-lives. The technician can select Co-60 which will
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effectively penetrate very thick materials, or select a lower energy isotope, such as Tm-
170, which can be used to inspect plastics and very thin or low density materials. Today
gamma rays find wide application in industries such as petrochemical, casting, welding,
and aerospace.
It was in the Manhattan District of US Army Corps of Engineers that the name "health
physics" was born, and great advances were made in radiation safety. From the onset, the
leaders of the Manhattan District recognized that a new and intense source of radiation
and radioactivity would be created. In the summer of 1942, the leaders asked Ernest O.
Wollan, a cosmic ray physicist at the University of Chicago, to form a group to study and
control radiation hazards. Thus, Wollan was the first to bear the title of health physicist.
He was soon joined by Carl G. Gamertsfelder, recently graduated physics baccalaureate,
and Herbert M. Parker, the noted British-American medical physicist. By mid 1943, six
others had been added. These six include Karl Z. Morgan, James C. Hart, Robert R.
Coveyou, O.G. Landsverk, L.A. Pardue, and John E. Rose.
Within the Manhattan District, the name "health physicist" seems to have been derived in
part from the need for secrecy (and hence a code name for radiation protection activities)
and the fact that it was a group of mostly physicists working on health related problems.
Activities included developing appropriate monitoring instruments, physical controls,
administrative procedures, monitoring radiation areas, personnel monitoring, and
radioactive waste disposal. It was in the Manhattan District that many of the modern
concepts of protection were born, including the rem unit, which took into account the
biological effectiveness of the radiation. It was in the Manhattan District that radiation
protection concepts realized maturity and enforceability.
Although many of the methods and techniques developed over a century ago remain in
use, computers are slowly becoming a part of radiographic inspection. The future of
radiography will likely see many changes. As noted earlier, companies are performing
many inspections without the aid of film.
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part and present a three-dimensional image to the radiographer, helping him or her to
locate the defect within the part.
Inspectors in the future will be able to peal away layer after layer of a part to evaluate the
material in much greater detail. Color images, much like computer generated ultrasonic
C-scans of today, will make interpretation of indications much more reliable and less
time consuming.
Educational techniques and materials will need to be revised and updated to keep pace
with technology and meet the requirements of industry. These needs may well be met
with computers. Computer programs can simulate radiographic inspections using a
computer aided design (CAD) model of a part to produce physically accurate simulated
x-ray radiographic images. Programs allow the operator to select different parts to
inspect, adjust the placement and orientation of the part to obtain the proper
equipment/part relationships, and adjust all the usual x-ray generator settings to arrive at
the desired radiographic film exposure.
Computer simulation will likely have its greatest impact in the classroom, allowing the
student to see results in almost real-time. Simulators and computers may well become the
primary tool for instructors as well as students in the technical classroom.
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NOTES
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NOTES
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2. PHYSICS OF RADIOGRAPHY
X-rays and gamma rays differ only in their source of origin. X-rays are produced by an
x-ray generator and gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. They are both
part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are waveforms, as are light rays,
microwaves, and radio waves. X-rays and gamma rays cannot been seen, felt, or heard.
They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not influenced by electrical and
magnetic fields and will generally travel in straight lines. However, they can be diffracted
(bent) in a manner similar to light.
Both X-rays and gamma rays can be characterized by frequency, wavelength, and
velocity. However, they act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur as small
"packets" of energy and are referred to as "photons." Due to their short wavelength they
have more energy to pass through matter than do the other forms of energy in the
electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass through matter, they are scattered and absorbed
and the degree of penetration depends on the kind of matter and the energy of the rays.
They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
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2.1.1 X-Radiation
X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They can be produced in
parcels of energy called photons, just like light. There are two different atomic processes
that can produce X-ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung and is a German term
meaning "braking radiation." The other is called K-shell emission. They can both occur in
the heavy atoms of tungsten. Tungsten is often the material chosen for the target or anode
of the x-ray tube.
Both ways of making X-rays involve a change in the state of electrons. However,
Bremsstrahlung is easier to understand using the classical idea that radiation is emitted
when the velocity of the electron shot at the tungsten changes. The negatively charged
electron slows down after swinging around the nucleus of a positively charged tungsten
atom. This energy loss produces X-radiation. Electrons are scattered elastically and
inelastically by the positively charged nucleus. The inelastically scattered electron loses
energy, which appears as Bremsstrahlung. Elastically scattered electrons (which include
backscattered electrons) are generally scattered through larger angles. In the interaction,
many photons of different wavelengths are produced, but none of the photons have more
energy than the electron had to begin with. After emitting the spectrum of X-ray
radiation, the original electron is slowed down or stopped.
The bremsstrahlung photons generated within the target material are attenuated as they
pass through typically 50 microns of target material. The beam is further attenuated by
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the aluminum or beryllium vacuum window. The results are an elimination of the low
energy photons, 1 keV through l5 keV, and a significant reduction in the portion of the
spectrum from 15 keV through 50 keV. The spectrum from an x-ray tube is further
modified by the filtration caused by the selection of filters used in the setup.
The applet below allows the user to visualize an electron accelerating and interacting
with a heavy target material. The graph keeps a record of the bremsstrahlung photons
numbers as a function of energy. After a few events, the "building up" of the graph may
be accomplished by pressing the "automate" button.
Remember that atoms have their electrons arranged in closed "shells" of different
energies. The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom. An incoming electron can
give a K-shell electron enough energy to knock it out of its energy state. About 0.1% of
the electrons produce K-shell vacancies; most produce heat. Then, a tungsten electron of
higher energy (from an outer shell) can fall into the K-shell. The energy lost by the
falling electron shows up in an emitted x-ray photon. Meanwhile, higher energy electrons
fall into the vacated energy state in the outer shell, and so on. K-shell emission produces
higher-intensity x-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and the x-ray photon comes out at a single
wavelength.
When outer-shell electrons drop into inner shells, they emit a quantized photon
"characteristic" of the element. The energies of the characteristic X-rays produced are
only very weakly dependent on the chemical structure in which the atom is bound,
indicating that the non-bonding shells of atoms are the X-ray source. The resulting
characteristic spectrum is superimposed on the continuum as shown in the graphs below.
An atom remains ionized for a very short time (about 10 -14 second) and thus an atom can
be repeatedly ionized by the incident electrons which arrive about every 10-12 second.
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Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. Gamma rays are
electromagnetic radiation, like X-rays. The other two types of natural radioactivity are
alpha and beta radiation, which are in the form of particles. Gamma rays are the most
energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short wavelength of less than
one-tenth of a nanometer.
Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. Depending upon the ratio of
neutrons to protons within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular element may be stable or
unstable. When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus of an atom
together, the atom is said to be unstable. Atoms with unstable nuclei are constantly
changing as a result of the imbalance of energy within the nucleus. Over time, the nuclei
of unstable isotopes spontaneously disintegrate, or transform, in a process known as
radioactive decay. Various types of penetrating radiation may be emitted from the
nucleus and/or its surrounding electrons. Nuclides which undergo radioactive decay are
called radionuclides. Any material which contains measurable amounts of one or more
radionuclides is a radioactive material.
When an atom undergoes radioactive decay, it emits one or more forms of radiation with
sufficient energy to ionize the atoms with which it interacts. Ionizing radiation can
consist of high speed subatomic particles ejected from the nucleus or electromagnetic
radiation (gamma-rays) emitted by either the nucleus or orbital electrons.
Alpha Particles
Certain radionuclides of high atomic mass (Ra226, U238, Pu239) decay by the emission
of alpha particles. These alpha particles are tightly bound units of two neutrons and two
protons each (He4 nucleus) and have a positive charge. Emission of an alpha particle
from the nucleus results in a decrease of two units of atomic number (Z) and four units of
mass number (A). Alpha particles are emitted with discrete energies characteristic of the
particular transformation from which they originate. All alpha particles from a particular
radionuclide transformation will have identical energies.
Beta Particles
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons may decay through the emission
of a high speed electron called a beta particle. This results in a net change of one unit of
atomic number (Z). Beta particles have a negative charge and the beta particles emitted
by a specific radionuclide will range in energy from near zero up to a maximum value,
which is characteristic of the particular transformation.
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Gamma-rays
A nucleus which is in an excited state may emit one or more photons (packets of
electromagnetic radiation) of discrete energies. The emission of gamma rays does not
alter the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect of
moving the nucleus from a higher to a lower energy state (unstable to stable). Gamma ray
emission frequently follows beta decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear decay processes.
The quantity which expresses the degree of radioactivity or the radiation producing
potential of a given amount of radioactive material is activity. The curie was originally
defined as that amount of any radioactive material that disintegrates at the same rate as
one gram of pure radium. The curie has since been defined more precisely as a quantity
of radioactive material in which 3.7 x 10 10 atoms disintegrate per second. The
International System (SI) unit for activity is the Becquerel (Bq), which is that quantity of
radioactive material in which one atom is transformed per second. The radioactivity of a
given amount of radioactive material does not depend upon the mass of material present.
For example, two one-curie sources of Cs-137 might have very different masses
depending upon the relative proportion of non-radioactive atoms present in each source.
Radioactivity is expressed as the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume.
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2.5 Ionization
Because of their double charge and relatively slow velocity, alpha particles have a high
specific ionization and a relatively short range in matter (a few centimeters in air and
only fractions of a millimeter in tissue). Beta particles have a much lower specific
ionization than alpha particles and, generally, a greater range. For example, the relatively
energetic beta particles from P32 have a maximum range of 7 meters in air and 8
millimeters in tissue. The low energy betas from H3, on the other hand, are stopped by
only 6 millimeters of air or 6 micrometers of tissue.
Gamma-rays, x-rays, and neutrons are referred to as indirectly ionizing radiation since,
having no charge, they do not directly apply impulses to orbital electrons as do alpha and
beta particles. Electromagnetic radiation proceeds through matter until there is a chance
of interaction with a particle. If the particle is an electron, it may receive enough energy
to be ionized, whereupon it causes further ionization by direct interactions with other
electrons. As a result, indirectly ionizing radiation (e.g. gamma, x-rays, and neutrons) can
cause the liberation of directly ionizing particles (electrons) deep inside a medium.
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Because these neutral radiations undergo only chance encounters with matter, they do not
have finite ranges, but rather are attenuated in an exponential manner. In other words, a
given gamma ray has a definite probability of passing through any medium of any depth.
Neutrons lose energy in matter by collisions which transfer kinetic energy. This process
is called moderation and is most effective if the matter the neutrons collide with has
about the same mass as the neutron. Once slowed down to the same average energy as the
matter being interacted with (thermal energies), the neutrons have a much greater chance
of interacting with a nucleus. Such interactions can result in material becoming
radioactive or can cause radiation to be given off.
Any point source which spreads its influence equally in all directions without a limit to
its range will obey the inverse square law. This comes from strictly geometrical
considerations. The intensity of the influence at any given radius (r) is the source
strength divided by the area of the sphere. Being strictly geometric in its origin, the
inverse square law applies to diverse phenomena. Point sources of gravitational force,
electric field, light, sound, and radiation obey the inverse square law.
As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, a point radiation source
can be characterized by the diagram above whether you are talking about Roentgens,
rads, or rems. All measures of exposure will drop off by the inverse square law. For
example, if the radiation exposure is 100 mR/hr at 1 inch from a source, the exposure will
be 0.01 mR/hr at 100 inches.
The applet below shows a radioactive source. The distance to the green source is shown
below. You can also drag the little person and his Geiger counter around to a distance of
your choice. When the mouse button is released, a point is plotted on the graph. The
dosage the person receives at the particular distance is shown numerically and
graphically. The graph allows you to confirm Newton's Inverse Square Law.
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If the distance is too small, the dosage will be too high and our brave technician will face
severe medical effects.
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The factor that indicates how much attenuation will take place per cm (10% in this
example) is known as the linear attenuation coefficient, m.
For a narrow beam of mono-energetic photons, the change in x-ray beam intensity at
some distance in a material can be expressed in the form of an equation as:
The number of atoms/cm3 (n) and the proportionality constant (s) are usually combined to
yield the linear attenuation coefficient (m). Therefore the equation becomes:
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The linear attenuation coefficient (m) describes the fraction of a beam of x-rays or
gamma rays that is absorbed or scattered per unit thickness of the absorber. This value
basically accounts for the number of atoms in a cubic cm volume of material and the
probability of a photon being scattered or absorbed from the nucleus or an electron of one
of these atoms. The linear attenuation coefficients for a variety of materials and x-ray
energies are available in various reference books.
Using the transmitted intensity equation above, linear attenuation coefficients can be used
to make a number of calculations. These include:
the intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when the incident x-ray
intensity, the material and the material thickness are known.
the intensity of the incident x-ray energy when the transmitted x-ray intensity,
material, and material thickness are known.
the thickness of the material when the incident and transmitted intensity, and the
material are known.
the material can be determined from the value of m when the incident and
transmitted intensity, and the material thickness are known.
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If x is the HVL then m times HVL must equal 0.693 (since the number 0.693 is the
exponent value that gives a value of 0.5).
Approximate HVL for Various Materials when Radiation is from a Gamma Source
Approximate Half-Value Layer for Various Materials when Radiation is from an X-ray
Source
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Note: The values presented on this page are intended for educational purposes. Other
sources of information should be consulted when designing shielding for radiation
sources.
The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating radiation and
matter is not a simple process. A single interaction event between a primary x-ray photon
and a particle of matter does not usually result in the photon changing to some other form
of energy and effectively disappearing. Several interaction events are usually involved
and the total attenuation is the sum of the attenuation due to different types of
interactions. These interactions include the photoelectric effect, scattering, and pair
production. The figure below shows an approximation of the total absorption coefficient,
(µ), in red, for iron plotted as a function of radiation energy. The four radiation-matter
interactions that contribute to the total absorption are shown in black. The four types of
interactions are: photoelectric (PE), Compton scattering (C), pair production (PP), and
Thomson or Rayleigh scattering (R). Since most industrial radiography is done in the 0.1
to 1.5 MeV range, it can be seen from the plot that photoelectric and Compton scattering
account for the majority of attenuation encountered.
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The energy shift depends on the angle of scattering and not on the nature of the scattering
medium.
Below are other interaction phenomenon that can occur. Under special circumstances
these may need to be considered, but are generally negligible.
Absorption characteristics will increase or decrease as the energy of the x-ray is increased
or decreased. Since attenuation characteristics of materials are important in the
development of contrast in a radiograph, an understanding of the relationship between
material thickness, absorption properties, and photon energy is fundamental to producing
a quality radiograph. A radiograph with higher contrast will provide greater probability of
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Compton effect was first observed by Arthur Compton in 1923 and this discovery led to
his award of the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics. The discovery is important because it
demonstrates that light cannot be explained purely as a wave phenomenon. Compton's
work convinced the scientific community that light can behave as a stream of particles
(photons) whose energy is proportional to the frequency.
The applet below demonstrates Compton scattering as calculated with the Klein-Nishina
formula, which provides an accurate prediction of the angular distribution of x-rays and
gamma-rays that are incident upon a single electron. Before this formula was derived,
the electron cross section had been classically derived by the British physicist and
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Geometric unsharpness refers to the loss of definition that is the result of geometric
factors of the radiographic equipment and setup. It occurs because the radiation does not
originate from a single point but rather over an area. Consider the images below which
show two sources of different sizes, the paths of the radiation from each edge of the
source to each edge of the feature of the sample, the locations where this radiation will
expose the film and the density profile across the film. In the first image, the radiation
originates at a very small source. Since all of the radiation originates from basically the
same point, very little geometric unsharpness is produced in the image. In the second
image, the source size is larger and the different paths that the rays of radiation can take
from their point of origin in the source causes the edges of the notch to be less defined.
The three factors controlling unsharpness are source size, source to object distance, and
object to detector distance. The source size is obtained by referencing manufacturers
specifications for a given X-ray or gamma ray source. Industrial x-ray tubes often have
focal spot sizes of 1.5 mm squared but microfocus systems have spot sizes in the 30
micron range. As the source size decreases, the geometric unsharpness also decreases.
For a given size source, the unsharpness can also be decreased by increasing the source to
object distance, but this comes with a reduction in radiation intensity.
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The object to detector distance is usually kept as small as possible to help minimize
unsharpness. However, there are situations, such as when using geometric enlargement,
when the object is separated from the detector, which will reduce the definition.
Codes and standards used in industrial radiography require that geometric unsharpness be
limited. In general, the allowable amount is 1/100 of the material thickness up to a
maximum of 0.040 inch. These values refer to the degree of penumbra shadow in a
radiographic image. Since the penumbra is not nearly as well defined as shown in the
image to the right, it is difficult to measure it in a radiograph. Therefore it is typically
calculated. The source size must be obtained from the equipment manufacturer or
measured. Then the unsharpness can be calculated using measurements made of the
setup.
For the case, such as that shown to the right, where a sample of significant thickness is
placed adjacent to the detector, the following formula is used to calculate the maximum
amount of unsharpness due to specimen thickness:
Ug = f * b/a
Ug = f* b/a
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At x-ray energies, filters consist of material placed in the useful beam to absorb,
preferentially, radiation based on energy level or to modify the spatial distribution of the
beam. Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy x-ray photons emitted by the tube
before they reach the target. The use of filters produce a cleaner image by absorbing the
lower energy x-ray photons that tend to scatter more.
The total filtration of the beam includes the inherent filtration (composed of part of the x-
ray tube and tube housing) and the added filtration (thin sheets of a metal inserted in the
x-ray beam). Filters are typically placed at or near the x-ray port in the direct path of the
x-ray beam. Placing a thin sheet of copper between the part and the film cassette has also
proven an effective method of filtration.
For industrial radiography, the filters added to the x-ray beam are most often constructed
of high atomic number materials such as lead, copper, or brass. Filters for medical
radiography are usually made of aluminum (Al). The amount of both the inherent and the
added filtration are stated in mm of Al or mm of Al equivalent. The amount of filtration
of the x-ray beam is specified by and based on the voltage potential (keV) used to
produce the beam. The thickness of filter materials is dependent on atomic numbers,
kilovoltage settings, and the desired filtration factor.
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Undercut
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For most situations, the types and maximum quantities of radioactive materials
possessed, the manner in which they may be used, and the individuals authorized to use
radioactive materials are stipulated in the form of a "specific" license from the
appropriate regulatory authority. In Iowa, this authority is the Iowa Department of Public
Health. However, for certain institutions which routinely use large quantities of numerous
types of radioactive materials, the exact quantities of materials and details of use may not
be specified in the license. Instead, the license grants the institution the authority and
responsibility for setting the specific requirements for radioactive material use within its
facilities. These licensees are termed "broadscope" and require a Radiation Safety
Committee and usually a full-time Radiation Safety Officer.
NOTES
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NOTES
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The high-voltage between the cathode and the anode affects the speed at which the
electrons travel and strike the anode. The higher the kilo voltage, the more speed and,
therefore, energy the electrons have when they strike the anode. Electrons striking with
more energy results in X-rays with more penetrating power. The high-voltage potential is
measured in kilovolts, and this is controlled with the voltage or kilovoltage control on the
control console. An increase in the kilovoltage will also result in an increase in the
intensity of the radiation.
A focusing cup is used to concentrate the stream of electrons to a small area of the target
called the focal spot. The focal spot size is an important factor in the system's ability to
produce a sharp image. See the information on image resolution and geometric
unsharpness for more information on the effect of the focal spot size. Much of the energy
applied to the tube is transformed into heat at the focal spot of the anode. As mentioned
above, the anode target is commonly made from tungsten, which has a high melting point
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in addition to a high atomic number. However, cooling of the anode by active or passive
means is necessary. Water or oil recirculating systems are often used to cool tubes. Some
low power tubes are cooled simply with the use of thermally conductive materials and
heat radiating fins.
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microfocus system. Conventional units have focal-spots larger than about 0.5 mm,
minifocus units have focal-spots ranging from 50 microns to 500 microns (.050 mm to .5
mm), and microfocus systems have focal-spots smaller than 50 microns. Smaller spot
sizes are especially advantageous in instances where the magnification of an object or
region of an object is necessary. The cost of a system typically increases as the spot size
decreases and some microfocus tubes exceed $100,000. Some manufacturers combine
two filaments of different sizes to make a dual-focus tube. This usually involves a
conventional and a minifocus spot-size and adds flexibility to the system.
AC and Constant Potential Systems - AC X-ray systems supply the tube with
sinusoidal varying alternating current. They produce X-rays only during one half of the
1/60th second cycle. This produces bursts of radiation rather than a constant stream.
Additionally, the voltage changes over the cycle and the X-ray energy varies as the
voltage ramps up and then back down. Only a portion of the radiation is useable and low
energy radiation must usually be filtered out. Constant potential generators rectify the AC
wall current and supply the tube with DC current. This results in a constant stream of
relatively consistent radiation. Most newer systems now use constant potential
generators.
Flash X-ray generators produce short, intense bursts of radiation. These systems are
useful when examining objects in rapid motion or when studying transient events such as
the tripping of an electrical breaker. In these type of situations, high-speed video is used
to rapidly capture images from an image intensifier or other real-time detector. Since the
exposure time for each image is very short, a high level of radiation intensity is needed in
order to get a usable output from the detector. To prevent the imaging system from
becoming saturated from a continuous exposure high intensity radiation, the generator
supplies microsecond bursts of radiation. The tubes of these X-ray generators do not have
a heated filament but instead electrons are pulled from the cathode by the strong electrical
potential between the cathode and the anode. This process is known as field emission or
cold emission and it is capable of producing electron currents in the thousands of
amperes.
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thick materials with a relatively short exposure time. This and the fact that sources are
very portable are the main reasons that gamma sources are widely used for field
radiography. Of course, the disadvantage of a radioactive source is that it can never be
turned off and safely managing the source is a constant responsibility.
Physical size of isotope materials varies between manufacturers, but generally an isotope
material is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending on the level of activity
desired, a pellet or pellets are loaded into a stainless steel capsule and sealed by welding.
The capsule is attached to short flexible cable called a pigtail.
The source capsule and the pigtail is housed in a shielding device referred to as a
exposure device or camera. Depleted uranium is often used as a shielding material for
sources. The exposure device for iridium-192 and cobalt-60 sources will contain 45
pounds and 500 pounds of shielding materials, respectively. Cobalt cameras are often
fixed to a trailer and transported to and from inspection sites. When the source is not
being used to make an exposure, it is locked inside the exposure device.
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When x-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of the sensitive silver halide in the
emulsion, some of the Br- ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+ ions. This change is
of such a small nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods and is
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called a "latent (hidden) image." However, the exposed grains are now more sensitive to
the reduction process when exposed to a chemical solution (developer), and the reaction
results in the formation of black, metallic silver. It is this silver, suspended in the gelatin
on both sides of the base, that creates an image. See the page on film processing for
additional information.
Film Selection
Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique usually
involves arriving at a balance between a number of opposing factors. For example, if high
resolution and contrast sensitivity is of overall importance, a slower and finer grained
film should be used in place of a faster film.
Film Packaging
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Industrial x-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is enclosed in a
light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from either side without removing it from
the protective packaging. A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in the darkroom for
processing. This form of packaging has the advantage of eliminating the process of
loading the film holders in the darkroom. The film is completely protected from finger
marks and dirt until the time the film is removed from the envelope for processing.
Packaged film is also available in rolls, which allows the radiographer to cut the film to
any length. The ends of the packaging are sealed with electrical tape in the darkroom. In
applications such as the radiography of circumferential welds and the examination of
long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths of film offer great economic advantage.
The film is wrapped around the outside of a structure and the radiation source is
positioned on axis inside, allowing for examination of a large area with a single exposure.
Envelope packaged film can be purchased with the film sandwiched between two lead
oxide screens. The screens function to reduce scatter radiation at energy levels below
150keV and as intensification screens above 150 keV.
Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as pressure,
creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible holders and
external clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be sure pressure is uniform. If
a film holder bears against a few high spots, such as on an un-ground weld, the pressure
may be great enough to produce desensitized areas in the radiograph. This precaution is
particularly important when using envelope-packed films.
Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or contaminated with processing
chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are always grasped by the
edges and allowed to hang free. A supply of clean towels should be kept close at hand as
an incentive to dry the hands often and well. Use of envelope-packed films avoids many
of these problems until the envelope is opened for processing.
Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly from cartons, exposure
holders, or cassettes. Such care will help to eliminate circular or treelike black markings
in the radiograph that sometimes result due to static electric discharges.
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Exposure vaults and cabinets allow personnel to work safely in the area while exposures
are taking place. Exposure vaults tend to be larger walk in rooms with shielding provided
by high-density concrete block and lead.
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NOTES
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NOTES
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The usual objective in radiography is to produce an image showing the highest amount of
detail possible. This requires careful control of a number of different variables that can
affect image quality. Radiographic sensitivity is a measure of the quality of an image in
terms of the smallest detail or discontinuity that may be detected. Radiographic
sensitivity is dependant on the combined effects of two independent sets of variables.
One set of variables affects the contrast and the other set of variables affects the
definition of the image.
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Since radiographic contrast and definition are not dependent upon the same set of factors,
it is possible to produce radiographs with the following qualities:
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Subject Contrast
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An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Company Radiography Testing
In thick parts with a large range of thicknesses, multiple radiographs will likely be
necessary to get the necessary density levels in all areas.
Film Contrast
Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to 0.015 inch typically reduce scatter
radiation at energy levels below 150,000 volts. Above this point they will emit electrons
to provide more exposure of the film to ionizing radiation, thus increasing the density and
contrast of the radiograph. Fluorescent screens produce visible light when exposed to
radiation and this light further exposes the film and increases contrast.
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4.3 Definition
Geometric Factors
The effect of source size, source-to-film distance and the specimen-to-detector distance
were covered in detail on the geometric unsharpness page. But briefly, to produce the
highest level of definition, the focal-spot or source size should be as close to a point
source as possible, the source-to-detector distance should be a great as practical, and the
specimen-to-detector distance should be a small as practical. This is shown graphically
in the images below.
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Lastly, any movement of the specimen, source or detector during the exposure will
reduce definition. Similar to photography, any movement will result in blurring of the
image. Vibration from nearby equipment may be an issue in some inspection situations.
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The last set of factors concern the film and the use of fluorescent screens. A fine grain
film is capable of producing an image with a higher level of definition than is a coarse
grain film. Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the
wavelength shortens and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film will
increase. Also, increased development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of
the radiograph.
The use of fluorescent screens also results in lower definition. This occurs for a couple of
different reasons. The reason that fluorescent screens are sometimes used is because
incident radiation causes them to give off light that helps to expose the film. However,
the light they produce spreads in all directions, exposing the film in adjacent areas, as
well as in the areas which are in direct contact with the incident radiation. Fluorescent
screens also produce screen mottle on radiographs. Screen mottle is associated with the
statistical variation in the numbers of photons that interact with the screen from one area
to the next.
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Similar to the decibel, using the log of the ratio allows ratios of various sizes to be
described using easy to work with numbers. The following table shows the relationship
between the amount of transmitted light and the calculated film density.
Film
Transmit Percent Densi
tance Transmit ty
(I0/It) tance Log(I0
/It)
1.0 100% 0
0.1 10% 1
0.01 1% 2
0.001 0.1% 3
0.0001 0.01% 4
0.00001 0.001% 5
0.000001 0.0001% 6
0.000000
0.00001% 7
1
From this table, it can be seen that a density reading of 2.0 is the result of only one
percent of the incident light making it through the film. At a density of 4.0 only 0.01% of
transmitted light reaches the far side of the film. Industrial codes and standards typically
require a radiograph to have a density between 2.0 and 4.0 for acceptable viewing with
common film viewers. Above 4.0, extremely bright viewing lights are necessary for
evaluation. Contrast within a film increases with increasing density, so in general the
higher the density the better. When radiographs will be digitized, densities above 4.0 are
often used since digitization systems can capture and redisplay for easy viewing
information from densities up to 6.0.
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placed between the light source and the sensor and a density reading is produced by the
instrument.
In film radiography, the number of photons reaching the film determines how dense the
film will become when other factors such as the developing time are held constant. The
number of photons reaching the film is a function of the intensity of the radiation and the
time that the film is exposed to the radiation. The term used to describe the control of the
number of photons reaching the film is “exposure.”
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From the graph, first determine the difference between the relative exposures of the
actual and the desired densities. A target density of 2.5 is used to ensure that the exposure
produces a density above the 2.0 minimum requirement. The log relative exposure of a
density of 1.0 is 1.62 and the log of the relative exposure when the density of the film is
2.5 is 2.12. The difference between the two values is 0.5. Take the anti-log of this value
to change it from log relative exposure to simply the relative exposure and this value is
3.16. Therefore, the exposure used to produce the initial radiograph with a 1.0 density
needs to be multiplied by 3.16 to produce a radiograph with the desired density of 2.5.
The exposure of the original x-ray was 10 mAs, so the new exposure must be 10 mAs x
3.16 or 31.6 mAs at 140 keV.
Another use of film characteristic curves is to adjust the exposure when switching types
of film. The location of the characteristic curves of different films along the x-axis relates
to the film speed of the films. The farther to the right that a curve is on the chart, the
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slower the film speed. It must be noted that the two curves being used must have been
produced with the same radiation energy. The shape of the characteristic curve is largely
independent of the wavelength of the x-ray or gamma radiation, but the location of the
curve along the x-axis, with respect to the curve of another film, does depend on radiation
quality.
Properly exposing a radiograph is often a trial and error process, as there are many
variables that affect the final radiograph. Some of the variables that affect the density of
the radiograph include:
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An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Company Radiography Testing
A number of radiographic modeling program are available that make this calculation.
These programs can provide a fair representation of the radiograph that will be produce
with a specific setup and parameters. The applet below is a very simple radiographic
density calculator. The applet allows the density of a radiograph to be estimated based on
material, thickness, geometry, energy (voltage), current, and time. The effect of the
energy and the physical setup are shown by looking at the film density after exposure.
Since the calculation uses a generic (and fixed characteristic) x-ray source, fixed film
type and development, the applet results will differ considerably from industrial x-ray
configurations. The applet is design simply to demonstrate the affects of the variable on
the resulting film density.
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use of image
quality indicators (IQIs). IQIs, which are also referred to as penetrameters, provide a
means of visually informing the film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and definition
of the radiograph. The IQI indicates that a specified amount of change in material
thickness will be detectable in the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a certain level
of definition so that the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness. Without such a
reference point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and defects could go
undetected.
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
standards that invoke their use. In the United States, two IQI styles are prevalent: the
placard, or hole-type and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material types so that
one with radiation absorption characteristics similar to the material being radiographed
can be used.
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Hole-Type IQIs
Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part expression such as 2-2T.
The first term refers to the IQI thickness expressed as a percentage of the region of
interest of the part being inspected. The second term in the expression refers to the
diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is expressed as a multiple of the IQI
thickness. Therefore, a 2-2T call-out would mean that the shim thickness should be two
percent of the material thickness and that a hole that is twice the IQI thickness must be
detectable on the radiograph. This presentation of a 2-2T IQI in the radiograph verifies
that the radiographic technique is capable of showing a material loss of 2% in the area of
interest.
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radiographic technique and not intended to be used as a measure of the size of a cavity
that can be located on the radiograph.
Wire IQIs
ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using wire IQIs
to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of six wires arranged in order of
increasing diameter and encapsulated between two sheets of clear plastic. E747 specifies
four wire IQI sets, which control the wire diameters. The set letter (A, B, C or D) is
shown in the lower right corner of the IQI. The number in the lower left corner indicates
the material group. The same image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 2-2T) used for
hole-type IQIs are typically also used for wire IQIs. The wire sizes that correspond to
various hole-type quality levels can be found in a table in E747 or can be calculated using
the following formula.
Where:
F = 0.79 (constant form factor for wire)
d = wire diameter (mm or inch)
l = 7.6 mm or 0.3 inch (effective length of wire)
T = Hole-type IQI thickness (mm or inch)
H = Hole-type IQI hole diameter (mm or inch)
Placement of IQIs
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a material
thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the IQI may be placed
on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of interest. When a block is
used, the IQI should be the same distance from the film as it would be if placed directly
on the part in the region of interest. The IQI should also be placed slightly away from the
edge of the part so that at least three of its edges are visible in the radiograph.
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When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemicals solutions for
controlled periods of time. Processing film basically involves the following five steps.
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Manual processing begins with the darkroom. The darkroom should be located in a
central location, adjacent to the reading room and a reasonable distance from the
exposure area. For portability, darkrooms are often mounted on pickups or trailers.
Film should be located in a light, tight compartment, which is most often a metal bin that
is used to store and protect the film. An area next to the film bin that is dry and free of
dust and dirt should be used to load and unload the film. Another area, the wet side,
should be used to process the film. This method protects the film from any water or
chemicals that may be located on the surface of the wet side.
Each of step in the film processing must be excited properly to develop the image, wash
out residual processing chemicals, and to provide adequate shelf life of the radiograph.
The objective of processing is two fold: first, to produce a radiograph adequate for
viewing, and second, to prepare the radiograph for archival storage. Radiographs are
often stored for 20 years or more as a record of the inspection.
The automatic processor is the essential piece of equipment in every x-ray department.
The automatic processor will reduce film processing time when compared to manual
development by a factor of four. To monitor the performance of a processor, apart from
optimum temperature and mechanical checks, chemical and sensitometric checks should
be performed for developer and fixer. Chemical checks involve measuring the pH values
of the developer and fixer as well as both replenishers. Also, the specific gravity and fixer
silver levels must be measured. Ideally, pH should be measured daily and it is important
to record these measurements, as regular logging provides very useful information. The
daily measurements of pH values for the developer and fixer can then be plotted to
observe the trend of variations in these values compared to the normal pH operating
levels to identify problems.
Sensitometric checks may be carried out to evaluate if the performance of films in the
automatic processors is being maximized. These checks involve measurement of basic
fog level, speed and average gradient made at 1° C intervals of temperature. The range of
temperature measurement depends on the type of chemistry in use, whether cold or hot
developer. These three measurements: fog level, speed, and average gradient, should then
be plotted against temperature and compared with the manufacturer's supplied figures.
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Viewing Radiographs
Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition. There are four groups of
film viewers. These include strip viewers, area viewers, spot viewers, and a combination
of spot and area viewers. Film viewers should provide a source of defused, adjustable,
and relativity cool light as heat from viewers can cause distortion of the radiograph. A
film having a measured density of 2.0 will allow only 1% of the incident light to pass. A
film containing a density of 4.0 will allow only 0.01% of the incident light to pass. With
such low levels of light passing through the radiograph, the delivery of a good light
source is important.
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Once a radiograph passes these initial checks, it is ready for interpretation. Radiographic
film interpretation is an acquired skill combining visual acuity with knowledge of
materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated discontinuities. If the component
is inspected while in service, an understanding of applied loads and history of the
component is helpful. A process for viewing radiographs (e.g. left to right, top to bottom,
etc.) is helpful and will prevent overlooking an area on the radiograph. This process is
often developed over time and individualized. One part of the interpretation process,
sometimes overlooked, is rest. The mind as well as the eyes need to occasionally rest
when interpreting radiographs.
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small light
source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or changing the intensity
of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant indications. Magnifying
tools should also be used when appropriate to help identify and evaluate indications.
Viewing the actual component being inspected is very often helpful in developing an
understanding of the details seen in a radiograph.
Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. By using the
proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, the interpreter will
increase his or her probability of detecting defects.
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In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also be skilled in
radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps:
(1) detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation. All of these steps make use of the
radiographer's visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an
image. The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in radiography is also affected
by the lighting condition in the place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing
various features in the image. The following material was developed to help students
develop an understanding of the types of defects found in weldments and how they
appear in a radiograph.
Discontinuities
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base
metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the
base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into the base
material without bonding.
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Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many
shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks
appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may
appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the metal is still
in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and
it will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture.
The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the
welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in the radiograph but
the indications will be grouped close together.
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Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld
and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or
along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal
fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack
of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The
appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows
the land or root face down the center of the weldment.
Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with
the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented
in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining area.
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Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has contracted as it
cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to
a lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the
center of the weld image.
Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In
the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of the
weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow a
ground edge.
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An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Company Radiography Testing
External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the
weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the
weld area.
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being
welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a noticeable
difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the
difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by the failure of the
weld metal to fuse with the land area.
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Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by
radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in the
area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the image density of the
surrounding base material.
Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of
that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph is a
localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily determine if the weld
reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering requirements.
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Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction that
produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as
jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on
inclusions or porosity.
The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These
discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process, including aluminum and
stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld which
when radiographed is easily interpreted.
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the
electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used,
tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than
aluminum or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the
radiograph.
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Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially
aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding material and, therefore,
appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph.
Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom surface of
the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as light, "wire like"
indications.
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate the
weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a thick globular condition
on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph,
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burn-through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by light globular areas
(icicles).
The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of defects that
adversely affect the strength of the product. Castings are a product form that often receive
radiographic inspection since many of the defects produced by the casting process are
volumetric in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with this method. These
discontinuities of course, are related to casting process deficiencies, which, if properly
understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject decisions as well as to suitable corrective
measures. Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of the
performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to identify the
type and size of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been
produced to help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found in
components. The castings used to produce the standard radiographs have been
destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities present. The
following is a brief description of the most common discontinuity types included in
existing reference radiograph documents (in graded types or as single illustrations).
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systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in larger runs of a casting type,
explicit improvements in the casting technique will be required.
Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable dimensions with
a definite smooth outline. They are mostly random in occurrence and not readily
eliminated by specific remedial actions in the process.
Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from defective
conditions or in joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons of casting repair
that these descriptions of the more common weld defects are provided here. The terms
appear as indication types in ASTM E390. For additional information, see the
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, Section 9 on the "Radiographic Control of
Welds."
Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld material and
base metal. Radiographically, slag may appear in various shapes, from long narrow
indications to short wide indications, and in various densities, from gray to very dark.
Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is generally
cylindrical or elliptical in shape.
Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left unfilled by
weld metal. It represents a stress concentration that often must be corrected, and appears
as a dark indication at the toe of a weld.
Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration through the
thickness of the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). It is located at the
center of a weld and is a wide, linear indication.
Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a weld
joint with adjacent metal (either base or previously deposited weld metal). On a
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radiograph, this appears as a long, sharp linear indication, occurring at the centerline of
the weld joint or at the fusion line.
Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing ring, strip,
fused root or adjacent base metal) resulting from the complete melting of a localized
region but without the development of a void or open hole. On a radiograph, melt-
through generally appears as a round or elliptical indication.
Burn-through is a void or open hole in a backing ring, strip, fused root or adjacent base
metal.
Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are expelled during
welding. These particles do not form part of the actual weld. Weld spatter appears as
many small, light cylindrical indications on a radiograph.
Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, resulting in oxide
formation on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of purge of the weld atmosphere.
The condition is also called sugaring.
Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring or into
the clearance between the backing ring or strip and the base metal. It appears in
radiographs as a sharply defined film density transition.
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NOTES
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NOTES
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There are four measures of radiation that radiographers will commonly encounter. These
are: Activity, Exposure, Absorbed Dose, and Dose Equivalent. A short summary of these
measures and their units will be followed by more in depth information.
Activity: The activity of a radioactive source is defined as the rate at which the
isotope decays. Radioactivity may be thought of as the volume of radiation
produced in a given amount of time. The International System (SI) unit for
activity is the becquerel (Bq) and the curie (Ci) is also commonly used.
Absorbed Dose: Absorbed dose is the amount of energy that ionizing radiation
imparts to a given mass of matter. The SI unit for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy),
but the “rad” (Radiation Absorbed Dose) is commonly used. 1 rad is equivalent to
0.01 Gy. Different materials that receive the same exposure may not absorb the
same amount of energy. In human tissue, one Roentgen of gamma radiation
exposure results in about one rad of absorbed dose.
Dose Equivalent: The dose equivalent relates the absorbed dose to the biological
effect of that dose. The absorbed dose of specific types of radiation is multiplied
by a "quality factor" to arrive at the dose equivalent. The SI unit is the sievert
(SV), but the rem is commonly used. Rem is an acronym for "roentgen equivalent
in man." One rem is equivalent to 0.01 SV. When exposed to X- or Gamma
radiation, the quality factor is 1.
Since for human tissue one Roentgen equals one rad and the quality factor for x- and
gamma rays is one, radiographers can consider the Roentgen, rad, and rem to be equal
in value.
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Activity
The strength of a radioactive source is called
its activity, which is defined as the rate at
which the isotope decays. Radioactivity may
be thought of as the volume of radiation
produced in a given amount of time. It is
similar to the current control on a X-ray tube.
The International System (SI) unit for activity
is the becquerel (Bq), which is that quantity
of radioactive material in which one atom
transforms per second. The becquerel is a
small unit. In practical situations,
radioactivity is often quantified in
kilobecqerels (kBq) or megabecquerels
(MBq). The curie (Ci) is also commonly used
as the unit for activity of a particular source
material. The curie is a quantity of radioactive material in which 3.7 x 10 10 atoms
disintegrate per second. This is approximately the amount of radioactivity emitted by one
gram (1 g) of Radium 226. One curie equals approximately 37,037 MBq. New sources of
cobalt will have an activity of 20 to over 100 curies, and new sources of iridium will have
an activity of similar amounts.
The activity of a given amount of radioactive material does not depend upon the mass of
material present. For example, two one-curie sources of Cs-137 might have very different
masses depending upon the relative proportion of non-radioactive atoms present in each
source. The concentration of radioactivity, or the relationship between the mass of
radioactive material and the activity, is called the specific activity. Specific activity is
expressed as the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume. The higher the
specific activity of a material, the smaller the physical size of the source is likely to be.
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Exposure
Exposure is a measure of the
strength of a radiation field at some
point. It is a measure of the
ionization of the molecules in a
mass of air. It is usually defined as the
amount of charge (i.e. the sum of all
ions of the same sign) produced in a
unit mass of air when the interacting
photons are completely absorbed in
that mass. The most commonly used
unit of exposure is the Roentgen
(R). Specifically, a Roentgen is the
amount of photon energy required to
produce 1.610 x 1012 ion pairs in one
cubic centimeter of dry air at 0°C. A
radiation field of one Roentgen will
deposit 2.58 x 10-4 coulombs of
charge in one kilogram of dry air. The main advantage of this unit is that it is easy to
directly measure with a survey meter. The main limitation is that it is only valid for
deposition in air.
Absorbed Dose
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activity of the source will determine the dose, rate which can be expressed in rad/hr,
mr/hr, mGy/sec, etc.
Dose Equivalent
The quality factor (Q) is a factor used in radiation protection to weigh the absorbed dose
with regard to its presumed biological effectiveness. Radiation with higher Q factors will
cause greater damage to tissue. The rem is a term used to describe a special unit of dose
equivalent. Rem is an abbreviation for roentgen equivalent in man. The SI unit is the
sievert (SV); one rem is equivalent to 0.01 SV. Doses of radiation received by workers
are recorded in rems, however, sieverts are being required as the industry transitions to
the SI unit system.
The table below presents the Q factors for several types of radiation.
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Type of radiation involved. All kinds of ionizing radiation can produce health
effects. The main difference in the ability of alpha and beta particles and Gamma
and X-rays to cause health effects is the amount of energy they have. Their energy
determines how far they can penetrate into tissue and how much energy they are
able to transmit directly or indirectly to tissues.
Size of dose received. The higher the dose of radiation received, the higher the
likelihood of health effects.
Rate the dose is received. Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period of
time. If the dosage occurs over a number of days or weeks, the results are often
not as serious if a similar dose was received in a matter of minutes.
Part of the body exposed. Extremities such as the hands or feet are able to
receive a greater amount of radiation with less resulting damage than blood
forming organs housed in the torso.
The age of the individual. As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is
less sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. Once cell division has slowed,
the effects of radiation are somewhat less damaging than when cells were rapidly
dividing.
Biological differences. Some individuals are more sensitive to the effects of
radiation than others. Studies have not been able to conclusively determine the
differences.
The effects of ionizing radiation upon humans are often broadly classified as being either
stochastic or nonstochastic. These two terms are discussed more in the next few pages.
Stochastic effects are those that occur by chance and consist primarily of cancer and
genetic effects. Stochastic effects often show up years after exposure. As the dose to an
individual increases, the probability that cancer or a genetic effect will occur also
increases. However, at no time, even for high doses, is it certain that cancer or genetic
damage will result. Similarly, for stochastic effects, there is no threshold dose below
which it is relatively certain that an adverse effect cannot occur. In addition, because
stochastic effects can occur in individuals that have not been exposed to radiation above
background levels, it can never be determined for certain that an occurrence of cancer or
genetic damage was due to a specific exposure.
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Radiation-induced hereditary effects have not been observed in human populations, yet
they have been demonstrated in animals. If the germ cells that are present in the ovaries
and testes and are responsible for reproduction were modified by radiation, hereditary
effects could occur in the progeny of the individual. Exposure of the embryo or fetus to
ionizing radiation could increase the risk of leukemia in infants and, during certain
periods in early pregnancy, may lead to mental retardation and congenital malformations
if the amount of radiation is sufficiently high.
5.3.1 Cancer
Cancer is any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell
division. Cancer may spread to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system or
the blood stream. The carcinogenic effects of doses of 100 rads (1 Gy)
or more of gamma radiation delivered at high dose rates are well
documented, consistent and definitive.
Carcinoma of the skin was the first type of malignancy that was associated with exposure
to x-rays. Early x-ray workers, including physicists and physicians, had a much higher
incidence of skin cancer than could be expected from random occurrences of this disease.
Well over 100 cases of radiation induced skin cancer are documented in the literature. As
early as 1900, a physician who had been using x-rays in his practice described the
irritating effects of x-rays. He recorded that erythema and itching progressed to hyper-
pigmentation, ulceration, neoplasia, and finally death from metastatic carcinoma. The
entire disease process spanned a period of 9 years. Cancer of the fingers was an
occupational disease common among dentists before the carcinogenic properties of x-rays
were well understood. Dentists would hold the dental x-ray film in the mouths of patients
while x-raying their teeth.
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5.3.2 Leukemia
Leukemia is a cancer of the early blood-forming cells. Usually, the leukemia is a cancer
of the white blood cells, but leukemia can involve other blood cell types as well.
Leukemia starts in the bone marrow and then spreads
to the blood. From there it can go to the lymph nodes,
spleen, liver, central nervous system (the brain and
spinal cord), testes (testicles), or other organs.
Leukemia is among the most likely forms of
malignancy resulting from overexposure to total body
radiation. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia does not
appear to be related to radiation exposure.
Among the survivors of the nuclear bombings of Japan, there was a significantly greater
incidence of leukemia among those who had been within 1500 meters of the hypocenter
than among those who had been more than 1500 meters from ground zero at the time of
the bombing. An increase in leukemia among the survivors was first seen about three
years after the bombings, and the leukemia rate continued to increase until it peaked
about four years later. Since this time, the rate has been steadily decreasing.
The questions regarding the leukemogenicity of low radiation doses and of the existence
of a non-zero threshold dose for leukemia induction remain unanswered, and are the
subject of controversy. On the basis of a few limited studies, it was inferred that as little
as 1-5 rads (10-50 mGy) of x-rays could lead to leukemia. Other studies imply that a
threshold dose for radiogenic leukemia is significantly higher. However, it is reasonable
to infer that low level radiation at doses associated with most diagnostic x-ray
procedures, with occupational exposure within the recommended limits, and with natural
radiation is a very weak leukemogen, and that the attributive risk of leukemia from low
level radiation is probably very small.
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Genetic information necessary for the production and functioning of a new organism is
contained in the chromosomes of the germ cells - the sperm and the ovum. The normal
human somatic cell contains 46 of these chromosomes; mature
sperm and ovum each carry 23 chromosomes. When an ovum is
fertilized by a sperm, the resulting cell, called a zygote, contains a
full complement of 46 chromosomes. During the 9-month
gestation period, the fertilized egg, by successive cellular
division and differentiation, develops into a new individual. In
the course of the cellular divisions, the chromosomes are exactly
duplicated, so that cells in the body contain the same genetic
information. The units of information in the chromosomes are
called genes. Each gene is an enormously complex
macromolecule called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), in which
the genetic information is coded according to the sequence of
certain molecular and sub-assemblies called bases. The DNA molecule consists of two
long chains in a spiral double helix. The two long intertwined strands are held together by
the bases, which form cross-links between the long strands in the same manner as the
treads in a step-ladder.
The genetic information can be altered by many different chemical and physical agents
called mutagens, which disrupt the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule. If this
information content of a somatic cell is scrambled, then its descendants may show some
sort of an abnormality. If the information that is jumbled is in a germ cell that
subsequently is fertilized, then the new individual may carry a genetic defect, or a
mutation. Such a mutation is often called a point mutation, since it results from damage
to one point on a gene. Most geneticists believe that the majority of such mutations in
man are undesirable or harmful.
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Studies suggest that the existence of a threshold dose for the genetic effects of radiation is
unlikely. However, they also show that the genetic effects of radiation are inversely
dependent on dose rate over the range of 800 mrad/min (8 mGy/min) to 90 rads/min (0.9
Gy/min). The dose rate dependence clearly implies a repair mechanism that is
overwhelmed at the high dose rate. Geneticists estimate that there are 320 chances per
million of a "spontaneous" mutation in a dominant gene trait of a person. The radiation
dose that would eventually lead to a doubling of the mutation rate is estimated to be in
the range of 50-250 rads (0.5-2.5 Gy).
5.3.4 Cataracts
The cataractogenic dose to the lens is on the order of 500 rad of beta or gamma radiation.
No radiogenic cataracts resulting from occupational exposure to x-rays have been
reported. From patients who suffered irradiation of the eye in the course of x-ray therapy
and developed cataracts as a consequence, the cataractogenic threshold is estimated at
about 200 rad. In cases either of occupationally or therapeutically induced radiation
cataracts, a long latent period, on the order of several years, usually elapsed between the
exposure and the appearance of the lens opacity. The cataractogenic dose has been found,
in laboratory experiments with animals, to be a function of age; young animals are more
sensitive than old animals.
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dose and the time over which the dose was received cause the effect (i.e. acute vs.
chronic exposure).
There are a number of cases of radiation burns occurring to the hands or fingers. These
cases occurred when a radiographer touched or came in close contact with a high
intensity radiation emitter. Intensity on the surface of an 85 curie Ir-192 source capsule is
approximately 1,768 R/s. Contact with the source for two seconds would expose the hand
of an individual to 3,536 rems, and this does not consider any additional whole body
dosage received when approaching the source.
Hemopoietic Syndrome
The hemopoietic syndrome encompasses the medical conditions that affect the blood.
Hemopoietic syndrome conditions appear after a gamma dose of about 200 rads (2 Gy).
This disease is characterized by depression or ablation of the bone marrow, and the
physiological consequences of this damage. The onset of the disease is rather sudden, and
is heralded by nausea and vomiting within several hours after the overexposure occurred.
Malaise and fatigue are felt by the victim, but the degree of malaise does not seem to be
correlated with the size of the dose. Loss of hair (epilation), which is almost always seen,
appears between the second and third week after the exposure. Death may occur within
one to two months after exposure. The chief effects to be noted, of course, are in the bone
marrow and in the blood. Marrow depression is seen at 200 rads and at about 400 to 600
rads (4 to 6 Gy) complete ablation of the marrow occurs. In this case, however,
spontaneous regrowth of the marrow is possible if the victim survives the physiological
effects of the denuding of the marrow. An exposure of about 700 rads (7 Gy) or greater
leads to irreversible ablation of the bone marrow.
Gastrointestinal Syndrome
The gastrointestinal syndrome encompasses the medical conditions that affect the
stomach and the intestines. This medical condition follows a total body gamma dose of
about 1000 rads (10 Gy) or greater, and is a consequence of the desquamation of the
intestinal epithelium. All the signs and symptoms of hemopoietic syndrome are seen,
with the addition of severe nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea which begin very soon after
exposure. Death within one to two weeks after exposure is the most likely outcome.
A total body gamma dose in excess of about 2000 rads (20 Gy) damages the central
nervous system, as well as all the other organ systems in the body. Unconsciousness
follows within minutes after exposure and death can result in a matter of hours to several
days. The rapidity of the onset of unconsciousness is directly related to the dose received.
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In one instance in which a 200 msec burst of mixed neutrons and gamma rays delivered a
mean total body dose of about 4400 rads (44 Gy), the victim was ataxic and disoriented
within 30 seconds. In 10 minutes, he was unconscious and in shock. Vigorous
symptomatic treatment kept the patient alive for 34 hours after the accident.
Several other immediate effects of acute overexposure should be noted. Because of its
physical location, the skin is subject to more radiation exposure, especially in the case of
low energy x-rays and beta rays, than most other tissues. An exposure of about 300 R (77
mC/kg) of low energy (in the diagnostic range) x-rays results in erythema. Higher doses
may cause changes in pigmentation, loss of hair, blistering, cell death, and ulceration.
Radiation dermatitis of the hands and face was a relatively common occupational disease
among radiologists who practiced during the early years of the twentieth century.
The reproductive organs are particularly radiosensitive. A single dose of only 30 rads
(300 mGy) to the testes results in temporary sterility among men. For women, a 300 rad
(3 Gy) dose to the ovaries produces temporary sterility. Higher doses increase the period
of temporary sterility. In women, temporary sterility is evidenced by a cessation of
menstruation for a period of one month or more, depending on the dose. Irregularities in
the menstrual cycle, which suggest functional changes in the reproductive organs, may
result from local irradiation of the ovaries with doses smaller than that required for
temporary sterilization.
The eyes too, are relatively radiosensitive. A local dose of several hundred rads can result
in acute conjunctivitis.
Listed below are some of the probable prompt and delayed effects of certain doses of
radiation when the doses are received by an individual within a twenty-four hour period.
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Example dosages and resulting symptoms when an individual receives an exposure to the
whole body within a twenty-four hour period.
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NOTES
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NOTES
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6. 1 The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Code of Federal Regulations
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) is the system used by the US Federal
Government to organize the rules published in the Federal Register by the executive
departments and agencies. The CFR is divided into 50 titles that represent broad areas
subject to Federal regulation. Title 10 of the code applies to energy and parts 0 through
50 of Title 10 apply to NRC rules. Part 19, Notices, instructions and reports to workers:
inspection and investigations; Part 20, Standards for protection against radiation; and Part
34, Licenses for industrial radiography and radiation safety requirements for industrial
radiographic operations, are areas of the Code that are of primary interest when
addressing radiation safety in industrial radiography.
More than half of the states in the U.S. have entered into "agreement" with the NRC to
assume regulatory control of radioactive material use within their borders. As part of the
agreement process, the states must adopt and enforce regulations comparable to those
found in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Some of the requirement of the
Code, such as exposure limits, responsibilities and procedures will be discussed in the
following pages.
6. 2 Exposure Limits
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exposure have had two principle objectives: 1) to prevent acute exposure; and 2) to limit
chronic exposure to "acceptable" levels.
Current guidelines are based on the conservative assumption that there is no safe level of
exposure. In other words, even the smallest exposure has some probability of causing a
stochastic effect, such as cancer. This assumption has led to the general philosophy of not
only keeping exposures below recommended levels or regulation limits but also
maintaining all exposure "as low as reasonable achievable" (ALARA). ALARA is a
basic requirement of current radiation safety practices. It means that every reasonable
effort must be made to keep the dose to workers and the public as far below the required
limits as possible.
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The shallow-dose equivalent is the external dose to the skin of the whole-body or
extremities from an external source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose
equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.007 cm averaged over and area of 10 cm 2.
The lens dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the lens of the eye from an external
source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.3 cm.
The deep-dose equivalent is the whole-body dose from an external source of ionizing
radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 1 cm.
The total effective dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the whole-body.
Because of the increased health risks to the rapidly developing embryo and fetus,
pregnant women can receive no more than 0.5 rem during the entire gestation period.
This is 10% of the dose limit that normally applies to radiation workers. Persons under
the age of 18 years are also limited to 0.5rem/year.
The dose limit to non-radiation workers and members of the public are two percent of the
annual occupational dose limit. Therefore, a non-radiation worker can receive a whole
body dose of no more that 0.1 rem/year from industrial ionizing radiation. This exposure
would be in addition to the 0.3 rem/year from natural background radiation and the 0.05
rem/year from man-made sources such as medical x-rays.
When working with radiation, there is a concern for two types of exposure: acute and
chronic. An acute exposure is a single accidental exposure to a high dose of radiation
during a short period of time. An acute exposure has the potential for producing both
nonstochastic and stochastic effects. Chronic exposure, which is also sometimes called
"continuous exposure," is long-term, low level overexposure. Chronic exposure may
result in stochastic health effects and is likely to be the result of improper or inadequate
protective measures.
The three basic ways of controlling exposure to harmful radiation are: 1) limiting the time
spent near a source of radiation, 2) increasing the distance away from the source, 3) and
using shielding to stop or reduce the level of radiation.
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The radiation dose is directly proportional to the time spent in the radiation. Therefore, a
person should not stay near a source of radiation any longer than necessary. If a survey
meter reads 4 mR/h at a particular location, a total dose of 4mr will be received if a
person remains at that location for one hour. In a two hour span of time, a dose of 8 mR
would be received. The following equation can be used to make a simple calculation to
determine the dose that will be or has been received in a radiation area.
When using a gamma camera, it is important to get the source from the shielded camera
to the collimator as quickly as possible to limit the time of exposure to the unshielded
source. Devices that shield radiation in some directions but allow it pass in one or more
other directions are known as collimators. This is illustrated in the images at the bottom
of this page.
Increasing distance from the source of radiation will reduce the amount of radiation
received. As radiation travels from the source, it spreads out becoming less intense. This
is analogous to standing near a fire. The closer a person stands to the fire, the more
intense the heat feels from the fire. This phenomenon can be expressed by an equation
known as the inverse square law, which states that as the radiation travels out from the
source, the dosage decreases inversely with the square of the distance.
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Shielding
The third way to reduce exposure to radiation is to place something between the
radiographer and the source of radiation. In general, the denser the material the more
shielding it will provide. The most effective shielding is provided by depleted uranium
metal. It is used primarily in gamma ray cameras like the one shown below. The circle of
dark material in the plastic see-through camera (below right) would actually be a sphere
of depleted uranium in a real gamma ray camera. Depleted uranium and other heavy
metals, like tungsten, are very effective in shielding radiation because their tightly packed
atoms make it hard for radiation to move through the material without interacting with
the atoms. Lead and concrete are the most commonly used radiation shielding materials
primarily because they are easy to work with and are readily available materials.
Concrete is commonly used in the construction of radiation vaults. Some vaults will also
be lined with lead sheeting to help reduce the radiation to acceptable levels on the
outside.
Example Calculations 1
A technician is in an area for 10 minutes and the reading on the survey meter is 5mR/h.
What dose of radiation does the technician receive?
Example Calculations 2
A technician wants to receive no more than a 1.0 mR dose knowing the above conditions.
What is the maximum time the technician can stay in the area?
The calculated dosages would be approximations. The actual dosages may vary due to
scattering and other considerations. The TLD or Film Badge should be used to determine
dosage received by an individual.
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Where:
I1 = Intensity 1 at D1
I2 = Intensity 2 at D2
D1 = Distance 1 from source
D2 = Distance 2 from source
Example Calculation 1
The intensity of radiation is 530 R/h at 5 feet away from a source. What is the intensity of
the radiation at 10 feet?
Solve for I 2
I2 = 132.5 R/h
In this instance the distance has been doubled and the intensity at that point has decreased
by a factor of four.
Example Calculation 2
A source is producing an intensity of 456 R/h at one foot from the source. What would be
the distance in feet to the 100, 5, and 2 mR/h boundaries.
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Using this equation the 100mR/h boundary would be at 68 feet, the 5mR/h boundary
would be at 301.99 feet, and the 2mR/h boundary would be at 477.5 feet. Sources are
seldom operated for an entire hour, and collimators are often used which reduce these
distances considerably.
As was discussed in the radiation theory section, the depth of penetration for a given
photon energy is dependent upon the material density (atomic structure). The more
subatomic particles in a material (higher Z number), the greater the likelihood that
interactions will occur and the radiation will lose its energy. Therefore, the denser a
material is the smaller the depth of radiation penetration will be. Materials such as
depleted uranium, tungsten and lead have high Z numbers, and are therefore very
effective in shielding radiation. Concrete is not as effective in shielding radiation but it is
a very common building material and so it is commonly used in the construction of
radiation vaults.
Each material has its own specific HVL thickness. Not only is the HVL material
dependent, but it is also radiation energy dependent. This means that for a given material,
if the radiation energy changes, the point at which the intensity decreases to half its
original value will also change. Below are some HVL values for various materials
commonly used in industrial radiography. As can be seen from reviewing the values, as
the energy of the radiation increases the HVL value also increases.
Approximate HVL for Various Materials when Radiation is from a Gamma Source
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Approximate Half-Value Layer for Various Materials when Radiation is from an X-ray
Source
Lead Concrete
Peak Voltage (kVp)
50 0.06 (0.002) 4.32 (0.170)
100 0.27 (0.010) 15.10 (0.595)
150 0.30 (0.012) 22.32 (0.879)
200 0.52 (0.021) 25.0 (0.984)
250 0.88 (0.035) 28.0 (1.102)
300 1.47 (0.055) 31.21 (1.229)
400 2.5 (0.098) 33.0 (1.299)
1000 7.9 (0.311) 44.45 (1.75)
Note: The values presented on this page are intended for educational purposes. Other
sources of information should be consulted when designing shielding for radiation
sources.
6. 5 Safety Controls
Engineered Controls
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When portable radiography is performed, it is most often not practical to place alarms or
warning lights in the exposure area. Ropes and signs are used to block the entrance to
radiation areas and to alert the public to the presence of radiation. Occasionally,
radiographers will use battery operated flashing lights to alert the public to the presence
of radiation. Portable or temporary shielding devices may be fabricated from materials or
equipment located in the area of the inspection. Sheets of steel, steel beams, or other
equipment may be used for temporary shielding. It is the responsibility of the
radiographer to know and understand the absorption value of various materials. More
information on absorption values and material properties can be found in the radiography
section of this site.
Administrative Controls
6. 6 Responsibilities
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Ensuring that all individuals using radiation equipment are appropriately trained
and supervised.
Ensuring that all individuals using the equipment have been formally authorized
to use the equipment.
Ensuring that all rules, regulations, and procedures for the safe use of radioactive
sources and X-ray systems are observed.
Ensuring that proper operating, emergency, and ALARA procedures have been
developed and are available to all system users.
Ensuring that accurate records of the use of the sources and equipment are
maintained.
Ensuring that required radiation surveys and leak tests are performed and
documented.
Ensuring that systems and equipment are protected from unauthorized access or
removal.
The minimum qualifications, training, and experience for RSOs for industrial
radiography are as follows: (1) Completion of the training and testing requirements of
Sec. 34.43(a) of Part 10 of the Federal Code of Regulations, (2) 2000 hours of hands-on
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Some organizations may have a Radiation Safety Committee (RSC) to assist the RSO.
The RSC often provides oversight of the policies, procedures and responsibilities of an
organizations radiation safety program.
System Users
The individuals authorized to use the X-ray producing system or gamma sources are
responsible for ensuring that:
All rules, regulations, and procedures for the safe use of the X-ray system are
followed.
An accurate record of the use of the system is maintained.
All safety problems with the system are reported to the RSO and corrected before
further use.
The system is protected from unauthorized access or removal.
6. 7 Procedures
Written operating procedures must be developed and made available to anyone that will
be working with radiation sources or X-ray producing equipment. These procedures must
be specific to the equipment and its use in a particular application. Simply making the
equipment manufacturers operating instructions available to workers does not satisfy this
requirement. The operating procedure must be followed at all times unless written
permission to deviate is received from the Radiation Safety Officer.
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Emergency Procedures
Procedures must also be developed that guide workers in the event of an emergency. A
few of the items that could be covered include:
The majority of over exposures in industrial radiography are the result of the
radiographer not knowing the location of a
gamma emitter and failing to conduct a
proper radiation survey. Exposure vaults are
equipped with warning lights and safety
interlock switches which provide a margin of
safety for workers. A survey must be
performed occasionally to verify that vaults
are not "leaking" radiation and that the safety
devices are performing properly. However,
when conducting radiography with gamma
emitters in the field, the radiographer must
rely heavily on measurements with a survey
meter since other safety devices are
uncommon. A series of surveys must be taken and some of the results from these surveys
must be documented when transporting and working with gamma emitters in the field.
A technician should be thoroughly familiar with the operation of a survey meter since
proper use of the device is essential. Before removing the exposure device (camera) from
storage, the calibration of the survey meter must be verified and the battery level must be
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checked. When approaching the exposure device to remove it from the storage location,
the survey meter should be in hand and operational. The survey meter should be placed
next to the exposure device to verify that the source is contained inside the projector, and
to verify that the survey meter is working properly. Survey meter readings should be
compared to previous readings and recorded.
When transporting the exposure device, it must be stowed securely in the vehicle. A
lockable metal box is often bolted in the rear of the vehicle. A survey of the over pack,
the outside of the vehicle, and the drivers compartment is then conducted and
documented.
Once on the job site, the exposure area will be assessed, distance calculations made for
restricted area boundaries, and ropes and signs placed appropriately. Once this is
complete, the radiographer is ready to remove the exposure device from its storage
compartment in the vehicle. The survey meter should be monitored as the storage
compartment is approached and when removing the exposure device from the
compartment. Daily safety checks should then be made. Once these checks are
completed, the radiographer and assistant may then move the exposure device to the
exposure location. As the cranks and guide tubes are attached in preparation for the first
exposure, the survey meter should be monitored. Before the source is exposed, the
assistant should check the area for persons who may have crossed into the restricted area,
and then move outside the rope boundary.
Making an Exposure
The radiographer should be at the maximum distance from the exposure device that the
guide tube will allow as he or she quickly cracks the source out of the exposure device
and into place. As the source moves out of the exposure device, the survey meter will
increase to a very high level and then reduce once the source is inside the collimator.
During the exposure, the assistant will survey the established boundary to determine the
levels of radiation present. If the survey meter indicates levels are higher than calculated,
the boundary must be extended.
On retraction of the source, the radiographers will see a rise in readings as the source
moves from the collimator and is retracted into the projector. When the source is inside
the exposure device, the radiographer should approach it while monitoring the survey
meter. If the source is properly retracted, no increase in the survey meter reading should
be seen when approaching the exposure device. The exposure device should be surveyed
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on all sides, paying special attention to the front of the device. The entire length of the
guide tube must then be surveyed.
This process is repeated for each exposure. The survey results must be documented when
the exposure device is returned to the vehicle for transportation, and when it is placed
back into its storage location.
NOTES
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NOTES
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Instruments used for radiation measurement fall into two broad categories:
- rate measuring instruments and
- personal dose measuring instruments.
7. 2 Survey Meters
Gas filled detectors consists of consists of a gas filled cylinder with two electrodes.
Sometimes, the cylinder itself acts as one electrode, and a needle or thin taut wire along
the axis of the cylinder acts as the other electrode. A voltage is applied to the device so
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that the central needle or wire become an anode (+ charge) and the other electrode or
cylinder wall becomes the cathode (- charge). The gas becomes ionized whenever the
counter is brought near radioactive substances. The electric field created by the potential
difference between the anode and cathode causes the electrons of each ion pair to move
to the anode while the positively charged gas atom is drawn to the cathode. This results in
an electrical signal that is amplified, correlated to exposure and displayed as a value.
Depending on the voltage applied between the anode and the cathode, the detector may
be considered an ion chamber, a proportional counter, or a Geiger-Müller (GM) detector.
Each of these types of detectors have their advantages and disadvantages. A brief
summary of each of these detectors follows.
Ion chambers have a relatively low voltage between the anode and cathode, which results
in a collection of only the charges produced in the initial ionization event. This type of
detector produces a weak output signal that corresponds to the number of ionization
events. Higher energies and intensities of radiation will produce more ionization, which
will result in a stronger output voltage.
Collection of only primary ions provides information on true radiation exposure (energy
and intensity). However, the meters require sensitive electronics to amplify the signal,
which makes them fairly expensive and delicate. The additional expense and required
care is justified when it is necessary to make accurate radiation exposure measurements
over a range of radiation energies. This might be necessary when measuring the
Bremsstrahlung radiation produced by an X-ray generator. An ion chamber survey meter
is sometimes used in the field when performing gamma radiography because it will
provide accurate exposure measurements regardless of the radioactive isotope being used.
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Proportional Counter
Proportional counter detectors use a slightly higher voltage between the anode and
cathode. Due to the strong electrical field, the charges produced in the initial ionization
are accelerated fast enough to ionize other electrons in the gas. The electrons produced in
these secondary ion pairs, along with the primary electrons, continue to gain energy as
they move towards the anode, and as they do, they produce more and more ionizations.
The result is that each electron from a primary ion pair produces a cascade of ion pairs.
This effect is known as gas multiplication or amplification. In this voltage regime, the
number of particles liberated by secondary interactions is proportional to the number of
ions produced by the passing ionizing particle. Hence, these gas ionization detectors are
called proportional counters.
Because they can display individual ionizing events, GM counters are generally more
sensitive to low levels of radiation than ion chamber instruments. By means of
calibration, the count rate can be displayed as the exposure rate over a specified energy
range. When used for gamma radiography, GM meters are typically calibrated for the
energy of the gamma radiation being used. Most often, gamma radiation from Cs-137 at
0.662 MeV provides the calibration. Only small errors occur when the radiographer uses
Ir-192 (average energy about 0.34 MeV) or Co-60 (average energy about 1.25 MeV).
Since the Geiger-Müller counter produces many more electrons than a ion chamber
counter or a proportional counter, it does not require the same level of electronic
sophistication as other survey meters. This results in a meter that is relatively low cost
and rugged. The disadvantages of GM survey meters are the lack of ability to account for
different amounts of ionization caused by different energy photons and noncontinuous
measurement (need to discharge).
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Pocket dosimeters are used to provide the wearer with an immediate reading of his or her
exposure to x-rays and gamma rays. As the name implies, they are commonly worn in the
pocket. The two types commonly used in industrial radiography are the Direct Read
Pocket Dosimeter and the Digital Electronic Dosimeter.
A direct reading pocket ionization dosimeter is generally of the size and shape of a
fountain pen. The dosimeter contains a small ionization chamber with a volume of
approximately two milliliters. Inside the ionization chamber is a central wire anode, and
attached to this wire anode is a metal coated quartz fiber. When the anode is charged to a
positive potential, the charge is distributed between the wire anode and quartz fiber.
Electrostatic repulsion deflects the quartz fiber, and the greater the charge, the greater the
deflection of the quartz fiber. Radiation incident on the chamber produces ionization
inside the active volume of the chamber. The electrons produced by ionization are
attracted to, and collected by, the positively charged central anode. This collection of
electrons reduces the net positive charge and allows the quartz fiber to return in the
direction of the original position. The amount of movement is directly proportional to the
amount of ionization which occurs.
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By pointing the instrument at a light source, the position of the fiber may be observed
through a system of built-in lenses. The fiber is viewed on a translucent scale which is
graduated in units of exposure. Typical industrial radiography pocket dosimeters have a
full scale reading of 200 milliroentgens but there are designs that will record higher
amounts. During the shift, the dosimeter reading should be checked frequently. The
measured exposure should be recorded at the end of each shift.
The principal advantage of a pocket dosimeter is its ability to provide the wearer an
immediate reading of his or her radiation exposure. It also has the advantage of being
reusable. The limited range, inability to provide a permanent record, and the potential for
discharging and reading loss due to dropping or bumping are a few of the main
disadvantages of a pocket dosimeter. The dosimeters must be recharged and recorded at
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the start of each working shift. Charge leakage, or drift, can also affect the reading of a
dosimeter. Leakage should be no greater than 2 percent of full scale in a 24 hour period.
Audible alarms are devices that emit a short "beep" or "chirp" when a
predetermined exposure has been received. It is required that these
electronic devices be worn by an individual working with gamma
emitters. These devices reduce the likelihood of accidental exposures
in industrial radiography by alerting the radiographer to dosages of
radiation above a preset amount. Typical alarm rate meters will begin
sounding in areas of 450-500 mR/h. It is important to note that audible
alarms are not intended to be and should not be used as replacements
for survey meters.
Most audible alarms use a Geiger-Müller detector. The output of the detector is collected,
and when a predetermined exposure has been reached, this collected charge is discharged
through a speaker. Hence, an audible "chirp" is emitted. Consequently, the frequency or
chirp rate of the alarm is proportional to the radiation intensity. The chirp rate varies
among different alarms from one chirp per milliroentgen to more than 100 chirps per
milliroentgen.
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7. 5 Film Badges
Film badges need to be worn correctly so that the dose they receive accurately represents
the dose the wearer receives. Whole body badges are worn on the body between the neck
and the waist, often on the belt or a shirt pocket. The clip-on badge is worn most often
when performing X-ray or gamma radiography. The film badge may also be worn when
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working around a low curie source. Ring badges are worn on a finger of the hand most
likely to be exposed to ionizing radiation. A LIXI system with its culminated and
directional beam would be one example where monitoring the hands would be more
important than the whole body.
Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) are often used instead of the film badge. Like a
film badge, it is worn for a period of time (usually 3 months or less) and then must be
processed to determine the dose received, if any. Thermoluminescent dosimeters can
measure doses as low as 1 millirem, but under routine
conditions their low-dose capability is approximately the
same as for film badges. TLDs have a precision of
approximately 15% for low doses. This precision improves to
approximately 3% for high doses. The advantages of a TLD
over other personnel monitors is its linearity of response to
dose, its relative energy independence, and its sensitivity to
low doses. It is also reusable, which is an advantage over film
badges. However, no permanent record or re-readability is
provided and an immediate, on the job readout is not
possible.
How it works
A TLD is a phosphor, such as lithium fluoride (LiF) or calcium fluoride (CaF), in a solid
crystal structure. When a TLD is exposed to ionizing radiation at ambient temperatures,
the radiation interacts with the phosphor crystal and deposits all or part of the incident
energy in that material. Some of the atoms in the material that absorb that energy become
ionized, producing free electrons and areas lacking one or more electrons, called holes.
Imperfections in the crystal lattice structure act as sites where free electrons can become
trapped and locked into place.
Heating the crystal causes the crystal lattice to vibrate, releasing the trapped electrons in
the process. Released electrons return to the original ground state, releasing the captured
energy from ionization as light, hence the name thermo luminescent. Released light is
counted using photomultiplier tubes and the number of photons counted is proportional to
the quantity of radiation striking the phosphor.
Instead of reading the optical density (blackness) of a film, as is done with film badges,
the amount of light released versus the heating of the individual pieces of thermo
luminescent material is measured. The "glow curve" produced by this process is then
related to the radiation exposure. The process can be repeated many times.
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NOTES
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NOTES
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