Theory of Automata

Context Free Grammars

Dr Waseem Shehzad, Mr Hafiz Tayyeb Javed &
Mehreen Alam
Week 10
 Contents
• Simplification of CFGs
– Killing Λ-Productions
– Killing unit-productions
– Removing Useless Variables
• Symbols & Productions
– Augmented Grammar
– Removal of Left Recursion

Theory of Automata 2
 Killing Λ-Productions
Λ-Productions:
In a given CFG, we call a non-terminal N nullable
• if there is a production N  Λ, or
• there is a derivation that starts at N and lead to a Λ.
N  ………  Λ
• Λ-Productions are undesirable.
• We can replace Λ-production with appropriate non-Λ
productions.

Theory of Automata 3
 Theorem 23
If L is CFL generated by a CFG having Λ-productions, then there is a different
CFG that has no Λ-production and still generates either the whole language L (if
L does not include Λ) or else generate the language of all the words in L other
than Λ.

Replacement Rule.
1.Delete all Λ-Productions.
2.Add the following productions:
For every production of the X  old string
Add new production(s) of the form X  .., where right
side will account for every modification of the old
string that can be formed by deleting all possible
subsets of null-able Non-Terminals, except that we do
not allow X  Λ, to be formed if all the character in old
string are null-able

Theory of Automata 4
 Example
Consider the CFG
S  a | Xb | aYa
X is nullable
XY|Λ
Y is nullable
Yb|X
Old nullable New So the new CFG is
Production Production
XY nothing S  a | Xb | aa | aYa |b
XΛ nothing XY
YX nothing Yb|X
S  Xb Sb
S  aYa S  aa

Theory of Automata 5
 Example
Consider the CFG
S  Xa
X  aX | bX | Λ
X is nullable

Old nullable New So the new CFG is

Production Production
S  Xa Sa S  a | Xa
X  aX | bX | a | b
X  aX Xa

X  bX Xb

Theory of Automata 6
 Example

S  XY
X  Zb
Y  bW • Null-able Non-terminals are?

Z  AB • A, B, Z and W
WZ
A  aA | bA | Λ
B  Ba | Bb | Λ

Theory of Automata 7
 S  XY
Example Contd. X  Zb
Y  bW
Z  AB
WZ
A  aA | bA | Λ
B  Ba | Bb | Λ

Old nullable New So the new CFG is

Production Production
X  Zb Xb
S  XY
Y  bW Yb X  Zb | b
Z  AB Z  A and Z  B Y  bW | b
WZ Nothing new
Z  AB | A | B
A  aA Aa
A  bA Ab WZ
B  Ba B a A  aA | bA | a | b
B  Bb Bb
B  Ba | Ba | a | b
Theory of Automata 8
Remove Nulls

Theory of Automata 9
Theory of Automata 10
 Killing unit-productions

• Definition: A production of the form

– non-terminal  one non-terminal
is called a unit production.
• The following theorem allows us to get rid of unit
productions:
Theorem 24:
If there is a CFG for the language L that has no Λ-productions,
then there is also a CFG for L with no Λ-productions and no
unit productions.

Theory of Automata 11
 Proof of Theorem 24

• This is another proof by constructive algorithm.

• Algorithm: For every pair of non-terminals A and B, if the
CFG has a unit production A  B, or if there is a chain
A  X1  X2  …  B
where X1, X2, ... are non-terminals, create new productions as
follows:
• If the non-unit productions from B are
B  s1 | s2| …
where s1, s2, ... are strings, we create the productions
A  s1| s2| …

Theory of Automata 12
 Example

• Consider the CFG

S  A| bb
AB|b
BS|a
• The non-unit productions are
S  bb Ab Ba
• And unit productions are
SA
AB
BS

Theory of Automata 13
 Example contd.
• Let’s list all unit productions and their sequences and create new productions:
SA gives Sb Consider the CFG
SAB gives Sa S  A| bb
AB|b
AB gives Aa BS|a
ABS gives A  bb
BS gives B  bb
BSA gives Bb
• Eliminating all unit productions, the new CFG is
S  bb | b | a
A  b | a | bb
B  a | bb | b
• This CFG generates a finite language since there are no non-terminals in any
strings produced from S.

Theory of Automata 14
 Useless Symbols
• A symbol that is not useful is useless
• Let a CFG G. A symbol x ε (V U ∑) is useful if there is a derivation
* *
S UxV  w
G G
Where U and V ε (V U ∑) and w ε ∑*.
• A terminal is useful if it occurs in a string of the language of G.
• A variable is useful if it occurs in a derivation that begins from S and generates a
terminal string

For a variable to be useful two conditions must be satisfied.

1. The variable must occur in a sentential form of the grammar

2. There must be a derivation of a terminal string from the variable.
• A variable that occurs in a sentential form is said to be reachable from S.
• A two part procedure is presented to eliminate useless symbols.

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 Useless Productions
S  aSb
S 
SA
A  aA Useless Production

Some derivations never terminate...

Theory of Automata 18
Another grammar:
SA
A  aA
A
B  bA Useless Production
Not reachable from S

Theory of Automata 19
In general:
if S    xAy    w
and w contains only terminals
w L(G )

then variable A is useful

otherwise, variable A is useless

Theory of Automata 20
A production A  x is useless
if any of its variables is useless

S  aSb
S  Productions
Variables SA useless
useless A  aA useless
useless BC useless

useless CD useless

Theory of Automata 21
 Removing Useless Productions
Example Grammar:

S  aS | A | C
Aa
B  aa
C  aCb

Theory of Automata 22
 First: find all variables that can produce
strings with only terminals

S  aS | A | C Round 1: { A, B}
Aa SA
B  aa
C  aCb Round 2: { A, B, S}

Theory of Automata 23
 Keep only the variables
that produce terminal symbols: { A, B, S}
(the rest variables are useless)

S  aS | A | C
Aa S  aS | A
B  aa Aa
C  aCb B  aa
Remove useless productions
Theory of Automata 24
Second: Find all variables
reachable from S

Use a Dependency Graph

S  aS | A
Aa S A B
B  aa not
reachable
Theory of Automata 25
 Keep only the variables
reachable from S
(the rest variables are useless)
Final Grammar
S  aS | A
S  aS | A
Aa
Aa
B  aa

Remove useless productions

Theory of Automata 26
 Set of variables that Derive terminal symbols

• Input = CFG (V, ∑, P , S)

• TERM = { A | there is a rule Aw ε P with w ε ∑*

• repeat
– PREV = TERM
– For each variable in A ε V do
• If there is a rule A  w and w ε (PREV U ∑)* then
TERM = TERM U {A}
• Until PREV = TERM

Theory of Automata 27
 Example

• Consider following CFG

G: S  AC | BS | B
A  aA | aF
B  CF | b
C cC | D
D aD | BD | C
E  aA | BSA
F  bB | b

Theory of Automata 28
 Construction of set of reachable Variables

• Input = CFG (V, ∑, P , S)

• REACH = {S}
1. PREV = null
2. repeat
i. NEW = REACH – PREV
ii. PREV = REACH
iii. For each variable A in NEW do
i. For each rule A  w do add all variables in w to
REACH
3. Until REACH = PREV

Theory of Automata 29
GT:
S BS | B G’T:
A  aA | aF S BS | B
Bb Bb
E  aA | BSA
F  bB | b

Iteration REACH PREV NEW

0 {S} {} {}
1 {S, B} {S} {S}
2 {S, B} {S, B} {B}
3 {S, B} {S, B} {}

Theory of Automata 30
 Removing All

• Step 1: Remove Nullable Variables

• Step 2: Remove Unit-Productions

• Step 3: Remove Useless Variables

Theory of Automata 31
 Another Linear Grammar
G SA
Grammar : A  aB | 
B  Ab

L(G)  {a b : n  0}
n n

Prof. Busch - LSU 32

 Right-Linear Grammars
A  xB
All productions have form: or
A x

S  abS string of
terminals
Example: S a

Prof. Busch - LSU 33

 Left-Linear Grammars
A  Bx
All productions have form: or
A x

S  Aab string of
Example: A  Aab | B terminals

Ba
Prof. Busch - LSU 34
Regular Grammars

Prof. Busch - LSU 35

Regular Grammars
Generate
Regular Languages

Prof. Busch - LSU 36

 Theorem
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars  Regular
Languages

Prof. Busch - LSU 37

 Theorem - Part 1

Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
 Regular
Languages

Any regular grammar generates

a regular language

Prof. Busch - LSU 38

 Theorem - Part 2

Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
 Regular
Languages

Any regular language is generated

by a regular grammar

Prof. Busch - LSU 39

 Proof – Part 1
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
 Regular
Languages

The language L(G ) generated by

any regular grammar G is regular

Prof. Busch - LSU 40

The case of Right-Linear Grammars
G
Let be a right-linear grammar
L(G )
We will prove: is regular

M
L( M ) NFA
Proof idea: We will construct L(G )
with Prof. Busch - LSU 41
 G
Grammar is right-linear
Example:

S  aA | B
A  aa B
Bb B|a

Prof. Busch - LSU 42

Construct NFA
Msuch that
every state is a grammar variable:
A
special
S VF final state
B
S  aA | B
A  aa B
Bb B|a Prof. Busch - LSU 43
Add edges for each production:
a A
S VF
B

S  aA
Prof. Busch - LSU 44
 a A
S VF

B

S  aA | B
Prof. Busch - LSU 45
 A
a a

S a VF

B
S  aA | B
A  aa B
Prof. Busch - LSU 46
 A
a a

S a VF

B
S  aA | B
b
A  aa B
B  bB Prof. Busch - LSU 47
 A
a a

S a VF
 a
B
S  aA | B
b
A  aa B
B  bB | a Prof. Busch - LSU 48
 A
a a

S a VF
 a
B
b

S  aA  aaaB  aaabB  aaaba

Prof. Busch - LSU 49
 NFA M Grammar
A G
a
S  aA | B
a
A  aa B
S a
B  bB | a
 VF
a
B
L( M )  L(G ) 
b
aaab * a  b * a
Prof. Busch - LSU 50
 M
We construct the NFA such that:
Vi
each variable corresponds to a node:
V1 V3
V0
VF
V2 V4 special
final state
Prof. Busch - LSU 51
 Vi  a1a2 amV j
For each production:

we add transitions and intermediate nodes

Vi a1 a2 ………
am V
j

Prof. Busch - LSU 52

 G
Left
Construct right-linear
A  Ba1a2 ak
grammar
G
linear
A → Bv

Right
G A  ak a2a1B
linear
Av B R
Prof. Busch - LSU 53
 L(G)  L(G) R

It is easy to see that:

G
Since is right-linear, we have:

L(G) L(G) R L(G )

Regular Regular Regular
Language Language Language

Prof. Busch - LSU 54

 Proof - Part 2
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
 Regular
Languages

Any regular language L is generated

by some regular grammar G

Prof. Busch - LSU 55

Any regular language L is generated
by some regular grammar G

Proof idea:
Let M be the NFA with L  L(M ).
Construct from M a regular grammar G
such that
L( M )  L(G )
Prof. Busch - LSU 56
 L
Since is regularM L  L(M )
there is an NFA such that b
Example:
M a
a
q0 q1 q2

 b
L  ab * ab(b * ab) * q3
L  L(M ) Prof. Busch - LSU 57
 M
b
Convert to a right-linear grammar
M a
a
q0 q1 q2

q0  aq1  b
q3

Prof. Busch - LSU 58

 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1
 b
q1  bq1 q3
q1  aq2

Prof. Busch - LSU 59

 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1
q1  bq1  b

q1  aq2 q3

q2  bq3

Prof. Busch - LSU 60

 L(G )  L( M )  L
G b

q0  aq1 M
a a
q0 q1 q2
q1  bq1
q1  aq2  b

q2  bq3 q3

q3  q1
q3  
Prof. Busch - LSU 61
 In General
a
For any transition: q p

Add production: q  ap

variable terminal variable

Prof. Busch - LSU 62
For any final state: qf

Add production: qf 

Prof. Busch - LSU 63

 What if the terminals are on right
side of non-terminals in the
Grammar
A regular grammar is any
right-linear or left-linear grammar

Examples:G1 G2
S  abS S  Aab
S a A  Aab | B
Ba
Prof. Busch - LSU 64
 What if the terminals are on right
side of non-terminals in the
Grammar
Regular grammars generate regular languages
G2
Examples:
G1 S  Aab
S  abS A  Aab | B
S a Ba

L(G1)  (ab) * a L(G2 )  aab(ab) *

Prof. Busch - LSU 65
We will discuss Left Recursion and
Discussed CFG’s above in next
week

Theory of Automata 66