COURSE FILE

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

IV B.Tech. - I Semester

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

GAYATRI VIDYA PARISHAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

www.gvpcew.ac.in(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to JNTUK)Estd. – 2008
Gandhi Nagar, Madhurawada, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530048.
Course Objectives & Outcomes

Course Objectives:--

 Comprehensive knowledge of computer system including the analysis and design of

components of the system
 Understanding RTL, Micro operations, ALU, Organization of stored program computer,
types of instructions and design of basic components of the system
 Illustration of data paths and control flow for sequencing in CPUs, Microprogramming of
control unit of CPU
 Illustration of algorithms for basic arithmetic operations using binary and decimal
representation
 Description of different parameters of a memory system, organization and mapping of
various types of memories
 Describes the means of interaction devices with CPU, their characteristics, modes and
introduction multiprocessors.

Course Outcomes:--

After completing this Course, the student should be able to:

Understand the architecture of a modern computer with its various processing units. Also the
performance measurement of the computer system. In addition to this the management system of
computer.

Students have a thorough understanding of the basic structure and operation of a digital
computer.

 Able to discuss in detail the operation of the arithmetic unit including the algorithms &
implementation of fixed-point and floating-point addition, subtraction, multiplication &
division.
 Able to discuss in detail the operation of the arithmetic unit including the algorithms &
implementation of fixed-point and floating-point addition, subtraction, multiplication &
division.
 Students have a thorough understanding of Micro Program Control
 Students can calculate the effective address of an operand by addressing modes
 Understanding of how a computer performs arithmetic operation of positive and negative
numbers.
 Explain the function of each element of a memory hierarchy, Cache memory and its
importance.
 Students can understand how cache mapping occurs in computer and can solve various
problems related to this.
 Study the hierarchical memory system including cache memories and virtual memory.
 Able to identify and compare different methods for computer I/O
 Able to discuss about advantages of parallel processing, multiprocessors.
 1. Syllabus

UNIT-I
BASIC STRUCTURE OF COMPUTERS: Computer Types, Functional units, Basic
operational concepts, Bus structures, Software, Performance, multiprocessors and multi
computers. Data types, Complements, Data Representation. Fixed Point Representation.
Floating – Point Representation.
Error Detection codes.
COMPUTER ARITHMETIC: Addition and subtraction, multiplication algorithms,
Division Algorithms, Floating point Arithmetic operations. Decimal Arithmetic unit,
Decimal Arithmetic operations.
UNIT-II
REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE AND MICRO-OPERATIONS:
Register Transfer language. Register Transfer, Bus and memory transfer, Arithmetic Micro-
operations, logic micro operations, shift micro-operations, Arithmetic logic shift unit.
Instruction codes. Computer Registers Computer instructions – Instruction cycle. Memory
Reference Instructions. Input Outputand Interrupt.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT - Stack organization. Instruction formats. Addressing
modes. DATA Transfer and manipulation. Program control. Reduced Instruction set
computer
UNIT-III
MICRO PROGRAMMED CONTROL: Control memory, Address sequencing, micro
program example, Design of control unit-Hard wired control. Micro programmed control.
UNIT-IV
THE MEMORY SYSTEM: Memory Hierarchy, Main memory, Auxiliary memory,
Associative memory, Cache memory, Virtual memory, Memory management hardware
UNIT-V
INPUT-OUTPUT ORGANIZATION : Peripheral Devices, Input-Output Interface,
Asynchronous data transfer Modes of Transfer, Priority Interrupt, Direct memory Access,
Input –Output Processor (IOP), SerialCommunication;
UNIT-VI
PIPELINE AND VECTOR PROCESSING: Parallel Processing, Pipelining, Arithmetic
Pipeline, Instruction Pipeline, RISC Pipeline Vector Processing, Array Processors. Multi
processors: Characteristics of Multiprocessors, Interconnection Structures, Inter processor
Arbitration. Inter processor Communication and Synchronization, Cache Coherence.
Text Books:

1. M. Moris Mano (2006), Computer System Architecture, 3rd edition, Pearson/PHI, India.
2. Carl Hamacher, ZvonksVranesic, SafeaZaky (2002), Computer Organization, 5th edition,
McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India.

Reference Books:
 1. Computer Organization Architecture- William Stallings (2006), 7th edition,
PHI/PEARSON.
2. Computer Architecture and Organization-John P.Hayes ,McGraw Hill, International
editions,2002.

Lecture Plan

Lecture Unit Topic

no. Number
1. I Introduction to Computer architecture and Organization

2. I Computer Types, functional Units and Basic Operational Concepts, Bus

structure, software, performance multi processor and multi computer

3. I Data Types ,Number systems, octal and hexadecimal nos, decimal and
alphanumeric representation

4. I Complments-10’s and 9’s Complements; 2’s ans 1’s Complements;

Subtraction of unsigned Nos; fixed point representation and Integer
representation;

5. I Addition of two numbers in signed magnitude system; 2’s complement

addition, subtraction; overflow and overflow detection and decimal fixed
point representation

6. I Floating point representation& Error detection codes

7. I Introduction to computer Arithmetic, addition and subtraction algorithm

for signed magnitude numbers and hardware implementation; addition
and subtraction for signed 2’s complement data

8. I Multiplication algorithm: Hardware implementation for signed

magnitude data, hardware & algorithm;

9. I Booth multiplication algorithm; Array multiplier

10. I Division Algorithm: Hardware implementation for signed magnitude

data, hardware algorithm and other algorithm.

11. I Floating point Arithmetic operations: Basic considerations, register

configurations, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division

12. I Decimal Arithmetic Unit: BCD Adder and BCD Subtraction

13. I Hardware and algorithm for Decimal Arithmetic Operations: Addition

 and subtraction.

14. I Hardware and algorithm for Decimal Arithmetic Operations:

multiplication and division, floating point operations

15. II Register transfer Language, Register Transfer, Bus and Memory Transfer

16. II Arithmetic Micro operations; Logic Micro operations

17. II Shift micro operations, Arithmetic logic shift unit

18. II Instruction Codes, Computer register

19. II Computer Instruction and format, Instruction Cycle

20. II Memory Reference Instructions, Input-Output and Interrupt

21. II Stack Organization, register Stack, memory stack, Reverse polish

notation, Conversion to RPN, Evaluation of arithmetic expression

22. II Instruction Formats, 3-types of CPU organization, 3,2,1,0 address

instruction formats, RISC Instructions

23. II Addressing modes; Data Transfer and manipulation instructions

24. II Program Control Instructions, Subroutine call and return instructions,

Program interrupts and types of interrupts

25. II RISC Vs CISC; Overlapping Register windows; Berkeley RISCI

26. III Control memory

27. III Address Sequencing

28. III Micro Program Example: computer configuration, instruction format and
symbolic microinstructions; The fetch routine, symbolic microprogram
and binary microprogram

29. III Design of Control Unit: Hard wired

control.and Micro programmed control

30. IV Memory Hierarchy, Main memory: RAM and ROM chips, memory
address map, memory connection to CPU; Auxiliary memory: Magnetic
Disks and Magnetic Tapes
31. IV Associative Memory: Hardware Organization, Match Logic, read
operation and write operation

32. IV Direct mapping, Set-Associative Mapping, Writing into cache and cache
initialization

33. IV Virtual memory: Address Space and Memory Space, Address Mapping
using pages; Associative memory page table, Page replacement

34. IV Memory management hardware: Segmented page mapping, Numerical

example, Memory Protection
35. V Peripheral Devices, I/O Interface: I/O bus and interface modules; I/O vs
Memory Bus, Isolated vs memory mapped I/O, Examples of I/O
Interface

36. V Asynchronous Data Transfer: Strobe Control, handshaking,

asynchronous serial transfer; Asynchronous Commn Interface, First-in-
first out buffer

37. V Modes of Transfer: Examples of Programmed I/O, Interrupt initiated I/O

software considerations; Priority Interrupt: Daisy Chaining Priority,
parallel priority Interrupt, priority encoder,

38. V Interrupt cycle, software routines and initial and final operations,
Direct Memory Access: DMA Controller and DMA Transfer
39. V Input Output Processor(IOP): CPU –IOP Communication,

40. V IBM 370 I/o channel, Intel 8089 IOP

41. V Serial Communication: Character oriented protocol,

42. V Transmission example, Data transparency and Bit-oriented protocol

43. VI Parallel Processing

44. VI Pipelining, general considerations

45. VI Arithmetic Pipeline, Instruction Pipeline

46. VI RISC Pipeline; Vector Processing: vector operations, matrix

multiplication, memory interleaving,

47. VI superscalar processors and super computers

48. VI Array Processors: Attached Array Processor, SIMD Array Processor

49. VI Characteristics of multi processors

50. VI Interconnection Structure: Timeshared Common Bus, Multiport

Memory, Crossbar Switch, Multistage switching network, Hypercube
Interconnection

51. VI Inter processor arbitration: serial arbitration procedure, parallel

arbitration logic and dynamic arbitration algorithms

52. VI Inter processor communication and synchronization, cache coherence

 Unit – I
Basic structure of computers and
Computer arithmetic
1.1.1. Unit Objectives:

After reading this Unit, the reader should be able to understand:

- The definition of computer architecture, organization and computer

hardware.
- The design aspects of computer hardware and software.
- Functions provided by a digital computer and functional units of a digital
computer.
- Processes involved in executing a task, instruction types, connections
between memory and processor and data transfer mechanism between
memory and processor.
- Processor registers and their functions interrupt and interrupt service
routines.
- Bus, single bus, buffer registers, functions of system software and
multiprogramming, processor performance and performance parameters.
- Multi Processors and multi computers.
- Data types and their representation, number system and their representation.
- Using complements for subtraction
- Fixed point and floating point representation of signed numbers
- Error generation , error detection and error correction codes

1.1.2. Unit Outcomes:

 - Student is able to differentiate the various computer types, hardware Vs
software, RISC Vs CISC.
- Student is able to give an outline of functional parts of the computer.

- Student is able to explain basic operational concept of a computer, bus structure

& software.

- Student is able to bring out the various performance parameters of a computer

- Student is able to give representation of various data types in Binary Coded

format.

- Student is able to do arithmetic operations on signed, fixed point & floating

point numbers using complements.

- Student is able to develop algorithms for arithmetic operations in fixed point &

floating point and decimal numbers and design hardware circuits for them.

- Student is able to make error detection codes and build error detection circuits.
Lectures for the concerned Unit:

Lecture1

lecture-1.docx

Lecture-2

lecture-2.pptx

Lecture-3

lecture-3'.pptx

Lecture-4

lecture-4.pptx

Lecture-5

Characteristics of floating point numbers:

The characteristics are 1. Precision 2. Gap 3. Range

Precision:

It characterizes how precise a floating point value can be. It is defined as the number of bits
in the significand. The greater the number of bits in the significand, the greater is the CPU’s
precision and the more precise is it’s value. Many CPUs have 2 representations for floating
point numbers. They are called single precision and double precision here double precision has
twice the number of bits.
Gap:

The gap is the difference between two adjacent values. It’s value depends on the value of the
exponent.

Take the number: X = .10111010 * 23 .

It’s adjacent values are : .10111001 * 23 and .10111011* 23 .

Each number produce a gap of .00000001* 23 .

In general the gap for floating point value X can be expressed as 2( Xe-precision)

Range:

The range of a floating point representation is bounded by it’s smallest and largest possible
values.

Overflow and underflow;

Overflow occurs when an operation produces a result that can not be stored in computers’s
floating point registers. Underflow occurs when an operation produces a result between zero
and either the positive or negative smallest possible value.

IEEE 754 Floating point standard:

This standard specifies 2 precision for floating point numbers which are called single precision
and double precision floating point representations.

Single Precision Format:

This format has 32 bits. 1 bit for sign; 8 bits for the exponent; 23 for the significand. The
significand also includes an implied 1 to the left of its radix point( except for special values and
denormalized numbers).

Floating point
representation.docx

Error Detecting
codes.docx
Error Detection codes:

Information is stored as binary codes and are transmitted by serial or parallel communication.
During transmission noise is added to the signal and it may change binary bits in the code from 1
to 0, and vice versa. An error detection code is a binary code that detects digital errors during
transmission. The detected errors can not be corrected but their presence is indicated.

Parity bit:

The most common error detection code used is the parity bit. A parity bit is an extra bit included
with a binary message to make the total number of 1’s either odd or even. If the message consists
of n bits , then the error detection code consists of n+1 bits. If the bit added to the message makes
the sum of 1’s odd in the error detection code, then the scheme is called odd-parity. If the sum of
bits is even , the scheme is called even parity scheme.

Message P(odd) P(even) Error detection Error detection

xyz code, odd parity code, even parity

000 1 0 0001 0000

0 1 0010 0011
001

010 0 1 0100 0101

011 1 0 0111 0110

100 0 1 1000 1001

101 1 0 1011 1011

110 1 0 1101 1101

111 0 1 1110 1111

Parity Generator and Parity Checker:

odd Parity out

Parity Checker:

Parity out from generator

Error
 Indication

The circuit arrangement checks the occurrence of error any odd number of times. An even
number of errors is not detected.

We note that P(even) function is the exclusive –OR x,y,z because it is equal to 1 when either one
or all 3 of the variables are equal to 1. The P(odd) function is the complement of the P(even)
function.

Assume at the sending end the message bits and odd parity bit is generated. The EX-OR gates
generate P(even ) function and to generate P(odd), the complement of P(even) is used.

The 4 bits transmitted has an odd number of I’s. If an error occurs during transmission, then the
number of 1’s become even. Hence parity checker checks for even parity.

Lecture-6

COMPUTER ARITHMETIC:

Addition, subtraction, multiplication are the four basic arithmetic operations. Using these
operations other arithmetic functions can be formulated and scientific problems can be solved by
numerical analysis methods.

Arithmetic Processor:

It is the part of a processor unit that executes arithmetic operations. The arithmetic instructions
definitions specify the data type that should be present in the registers used . The arithmetic
instruction may specify binary or decimal data and in each case the data may be in fixed-point or
floating point form.

Fixed point numbers may represent integers or fractions. The negative numbers may be in
signed-magnitude or signed- complement representation. The arithmetic processor is very simple
if only a binary fixed point add instruction is included. It would be more complicated if it
includes all four arithmetic operations for binary and decimal data in fixed and floating point
representations.

Algorithm:

Algorithm can be defined as a finite number of well defined procedural steps to solve a problem.
Usually, an algorithm will contain a number of procedural steps which are dependent on results
of previous steps. A convenient method for presenting an algorithm is a flowchart which consists
of rectangular and diamond –shaped boxes. The computational steps are specified in the
rectangular boxes and the decision steps are indicated inside diamond-shaped boxes from which
2 or more alternate path emerge.

Addition and Subtraction:

3 ways of representing negative fixed point binary numbers:

1. Signed-magnitude representation---- used for the representation of mantissa for floating

point operations by most computers.
2. Signed-1’s complement
3. Signed -2’s complement—Most computers use this form for performing arithmetic
operation with integers

Addition and subtraction algorithm for signed-magnitude data

Let the magnitude of two numbers be A & B. When signed numbers are added or
subtracted, there are 4 different conditions to be considered for each addition and
subtraction depending on the sign of the numbers. The conditions are listed in the table
below. The table shows the operation to be performed with magnitude(addition or
subtraction) are indicated for different conditions.

Add Subtract magnitudes

Magnitudes
Sl.No Operation When A> When A< When
B B A=B

1 ( +A ) + (+B ) +(A+B)

2 ( +A ) + (-B ) +( A-B ) -( B-A ) +( A-B )

3 ( -A ) + (+B ) -( A-B ) +( B-A ) +( A-B )

4 ( -A ) + (-B ) -(A+B)

5 ( +A ) - (+B ) +( A-B ) -( B-A ) +( A-B )

6 ( +A ) - (-B ) +(A+B)

7 ( -A ) - (+B ) -(A+B)

8 ( -A ) - (-B ) -( A-B ) +( B-A ) +( A-B )

The last column is needed to prevent a negative zero. In other words, when two equal
numbers are subtracted, the result should be +0 not -0.

The algorithm for addition and subtraction ( from the table above):
Addition Algorithm:
When the signs of A and B are identical, add two magnitudes and attach the sign of A to
the result. When the sign of A and B are different, compare the magnitudes and subtract
the smaller number from the larger. Choose the sign of the result to be the same as A if
A>B or the complement of sign of A if A < B. If the two magnitudes are equal, subtract
B from A and make te sign of the result positive.
Subtraction algorithm:
When the signs of A and B are different, add two magnitudes and attach the sign of A to
the result. When the sign of A and B are identical, compare the magnitudes and subtract
the smaller number from the larger. Choose the sign of the result to be the same as A if
A>B or the complement of sign of A if A < B. If the two magnitudes are equal, subtract
B from A and make te sign of the result positive.
Hardware Implementation:
Let A and B are two registers that hold the numbers.
AS and BS are 2, flip-flops that hold sign of corresponding numbers. The result is stored
In A and AS .and thus they form Accumulator register.
We need to perform micro operation, A+ B and hence a parallel adder.
A comparator is needed to establish if A> B, A=B, or A<B.
We need to perform micro operations A-B and B-A and hence two parallel subtractor.
An exclusive OR gate can be used to determine the sign relationship, that is, equal or not.
Thus the hardware components required are a magnitude comparator, an adder, and two
subtractors.
Reduction of hardware by using different procedure:
1. We know subtraction can be done by complement and add.
2. The result of comparison can be determined from the end carry after the subtraction.
We find An adder and a complementer can do subtraction and comparison if 2’s
complement is used for subtraction.

Hardware forsigned-magnitude addition and subtraction:

 AVF Add overflow flip flop. It hold the overflow bit when A & B are added.

Flip flop E—Output carry is transferred to E. It can be checked to see the relative magnitudes of
the two numbers.

A-B = A +( -B )= Adding a and 2’s complement of B.

The A register provides other micro operations that may be needed when the sequence of steps
in the algorithm is specified.

The complementer Passes the contents of B or the complement of B to the Parallel Adder
depending on the state of the mode control B. It consists of EX-OR gates and the parallel adder
consists of full adder circuits. The M signal is also applied to the input carry of the adder.

When input carry M=0, the sum of full adder is A +B. When M=1, S = A + B’ +1= A – B

Hardware algorithm:

Flow Chart for Add and Subtract operations:

The EX-OR gate provides 0 as output when the signs are identical. It is 1 when the signs are
different.

A + B is computed for the following and the sum is stored in EA:

1. When the signs are same and addition operation is required.

2. When the signs are different and subtract operation is required.

The carry in E after addition indicates an overflow if it is 1 and it is transferred to AVF,

the addoverflow flag

A-B = A+ B’+1 computed for the following:

1. When the signs are different and addition operation is required.
2. When the signs are same and subtract operation is required.
No overflow can occur if the numbers are subtracted and hence AVF is cleared to
Zero.

[ the subtraction of 2 n-digit un signed numbers M-N ( N≠0) in base r can be done as
follows:
1. Add minuend M to thee r’s complement of the subtrahend N. This performs M-N
+rn .
2. If M ≥ N, The sum will produce an end carry rnwhich is discarded, and what is
left is the result M-N.
3. If M< N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal to rn–( N-M ),
which is the r’s complement of the sum and place a negative sign in front.]
A 1 in E indicates that A ≥ B and the number in A is the correct result.
If this number in A is zero, the sign AS must be made positive to avoid a negative
zero.
A 0 in E indicates that A< B. For this case it is necessary to take the 2’s
complement of the value in A.
In the algorithm shown in flow chart, it is assumed that A register has circuits for
micro operations complement and increment. Hence two complement of value in
A is obtained in 2, micro operations. In other paths of the flow chart , the sign of
the result is the same as the sign of A, so no change in AS is required.
However When A < B, the sign of the result is the complement of original sign of
A.
Hence The complement of AS stored in AS.
Final Result: AS A
Flow chart for ADD and Subtract operations:
Addition and Subtraction with signed-2’s complement Data.:
Arithmetic Addition:
This method does not need a comparison or subtraction but only addition
and complementation. The procedure is as below:
1. Represent the negative numbers in 2’s complement form.
2. Add the two numbers including the sign bits and discard any carry out of
sign bit position.
3. The overflow bit V is set to 1 if there is a carry into sign bit and no carry
out of sign bit or if there is a no carry into sign bit and a carry out of sign
bit. Otherwise it is set to zero.
4. If the result is negative, take the 2’s complement of the result to get a
correct negative result.

Arithmetic Subtraction:

1. Represent the negative numbers in 2’s complement form.

2. Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend including the sign bit and add
it to the minuend including the sign bit.
 3. The overflow bit V is set to 1 if there is a carry into sign bit and no carry
out of sign bit or if there is a no carry into sign bit and a carry out of sign
bit. Otherwise it is set to zero.
4. Discard the carry out of the sign bit position.

Note: A subtraction operation can be changed to an addition operation if the sign of the
subtrahend is changed.
BR Register

V Complementer&Parallel Adder

Overflow
AC Register

Fig: Hardware for Signed 2/s complement for addition/ subtractioin.

lecture-6.docx

Lecture-7
Multiplication Algorithm:

Hardware implementation of multiplication of numbers in signed – magnitude form:

1. A adder is provided to add two binary numbers and the partial product is accumulated in a
register.
2. Instead of shifting the multiplicand to the left, the partial product is shifted to the right, which
result in leaving the partial product and the multiplicand in the required relative positions.
3. When the corresponding bit of the multiplier is zero, there is no need to add all zeros to the
partial product, since it will not alter it’s value.

The hardware consists of 4 flipflops, 3 registers, one sequence counter , an adder and
complementer.

Q register&QS flip flop : contains multiplier & Its sign

Sequence counter : It is set to a value equal to the number of bits in the multiplier
B Register& BS flipflop : It contains the multiplicand,& its sign
A Register, E Flip flop : Initialized to ‘ 0’. AS denotes sign of partial product
EA Register : hold partial product, with carry generated in addition being
shifted to E .
Qn : Rightmost bit of the multiplier; AQ : will contain the final product.

As AQ represent product register, both AS QSrepresent the sign of the partial product or product.
The number to be multiplied are stores in memory as n bit sign magnitude numbers and when
transferred to register msb bit go to sign flipflop and remaining n-1 bits go to registers. Hence SC
is initially set to n-1.
Let the lower order bit of the multiplier in Qntested.
If it is 1, the multiplicand in B is added to the present partial product in A.
If it is a ‘0’, nothing is done. Register EAQ is then shifted once to the right to form the new
partial product. The sequence counter is decremented by 1 and it’s new value checked. If it is
not equal to zero, the process is repeated and a new partial product is formed. The process stops
when SC = 0.
The final product is available in both A and Q, with A holding the most significant bits and Q
holding the least significant bits.

Flowchart for multiply operation:

Numerical Example for the above algorithm:

Multiplicand B= 10111 E A Q SC

Multiplier in Q 0 00000 10011 101

Qn =1;add B 10111

First Partial Product 0 10111

Shift Right EAQ 0 01011 11001 100

Qn =1;add B 10111

Second Partial Product 1 00010

Shift Right EAQ 0 10001 01100 011

Qn =0; Shift Right EAQ 0 01000 10110 010

Qn =0; Shift Right EAQ 0 00100 01011 001

Qn =1;add B 10111

Fifth Partial Product 0 11011

Shift Right EAQ 0 01101 10101 000

Final Product in AQ

AQ = 0110110101

lecture-7.docx

Lecture-8

Booth Multiplication Algorithm:

Multiplication of signed- 2’s complement integers:

This algorithm uses the following facts.

1. A string of 0’s in the multiplier requires no addition but just shifting.

2. A string of 1’s in the multiplier from bit weight 2k to weight 2m can be treated as 2k+1 -
2m.

Example: Consider the binary number: 001110( +14 )

The number has a string of 1’s from 23 to 21 . Hence k = 3 and m= 1. As other bits are 0’s,
the number can be represented as 2k+1 - 2m = 24 – 21 = 16-2 = 14. Therefore the
multiplication M * 14 , where M is the multiplicand and 14 the multiplier can be done as Mx
24 –M x 21.

This can be achieved by shifting binary multiplicand M four times to the left and subtracting
M shifted left once which is equal to (Mx 24 –M x 21. ).

Shifting and addition/subtraction rules for multiplicand in Booth’s Algorithm:

 1. The multiplicand is subtracted from the partial product upon encountering the first least
significand 1 in a string of I’s in the multiplier.
2. The multiplicand is added to the partial product upon encountering the first 0 ( provided
that there was a previous 1)in a string of 0’s in the multiplier.
3. The partial product does not change when the multiplier bit is identical to the previous
multiplier bit
Hardware Implementation of Booth Algorithm:

Note: Sign bit is not separated from register. QR register contains the multiplier register
and Qnrepresent the least significant bit of the multiplier in QR. Qn+1 is an extra flip flop
appended to QR to facilitate a double bit inspection of the multiplier.
AC register and appended Qn+1 are initially cleared to 0.
Sequence counter Sc is set to the number n which is equal to the number of bits of bits In
the multiplier.
QnQn+1 are to successive bits in the multiplier

Example for multiplication using Boot h algorithm:

BR = 1011 ,𝐵𝑅′+1 = SC
QnQn+1 AC QR Qn+1
01001
10 Initial 00000 10011 0 101
Subtract BR 01001
01001
ashr 00100 11001 1 100

11 ashr 00010 01100 1 011

01 Add BR 10111
11001
ashr 11100 10110 0 010

00 ashr 11110 01011 0 001

 10 Subtract BR 01001
00111
Ashr 00011 10101 1 000

Algorithm in flowchart for multiplication of signed 2’s complement numbers.

Array Multiplier:
2 -bit by 2- bit Array Multiplier:

Multiplicand bits are b1 and b0 .Multiplier bits are a1 and a0 .The first partial product is obtained
by multiplying a0 by b1 b0 . The bit multiplication is implemented by AND gate. First partial
product is made by two AND gates. Second partial product is made by two AND gates. The two
partial products are added with two half adder circuits.
Combinational circuit binary multiplier:

A bit of the multiplier is ANDed with each bit of the multiplicand in as many levels as there bits
in the multiplier. The binary output in each level of the AND gates is added in parallel with the
partial product of the previous level to form a ne partial product. The last level produces the
product. For j multiplier and k multiplicand bits, we need j*k AND Gates and (j-1)*k bit adders
to ptoduce a product of j+k bits.

4- bit by 3-bit Array Multiplier:

 Lecture-9

Division Algorithms:

Division Process for division of fixed point binary number in signed –magnitude representation:

Let dividend A consists of 10 bits and divisor B consists of 5 bits.

1. Compare the 5 most significant bits of the dividend with that of divisor.
2. If the 5 bit number is smaller than divisor B, then take 6 bits of the dividend and compare
with the 5 bit divisor.
3. The 6 bit number is greater than divisor B. Hence place a 1 for the quotient bit in the
sixth position above the dividend. Shift the divisor once to the right and subtracted from
the dividend. The difference is called partial remainder.
4. Repeat the process with the partial remainder and divisor. If the partial remainder is equal
or greater than or equal to the divisor, the quotient bit is equal to 1.The divisor is then
shifted right and subtracted from the partial remainder. If the partial remainder is small
than the divisor, then the quotient bit is zero and no subtraction is needed. The divisor is
shifted once to the right in any case,.

Hardware Implementation of division for signed magnitude fixed point numbers:

To implement division using a digital computer, the process is changed slightly for
convenience.
1. Instead of shifting the divisor to the right, the dividend or the partial remainder, is
shifted to the left so as to leave the two numbers in the required relative position.
2. Subtraction may be achieved by adding A (dividend)to the 2’s complement of
B(divisor). The information about the relative magnitude is then available from end
carry.
 3. Register EAQ is now shifted to the left with 0 inserted into Qn and the previous value
of E is lost..
4. The divisor is stored in B register and the double length dividend is stored in
registers A and Q.
5. The dividend is shifted to the left and the divisor is subtracted by adding it’s 2’s
complement value.
6. If E= 1, it signifies that A ≥ B.A quotient bit is inserted into Qnand the partial
remainder is shifted to the left to repeat the process.
7. If E = 0, it signifies that A < B so the quotient Qn remains 0( inserted during the
shift). The value of B is then added to restore the partial remainder in A to its
previous value. The partial remainder is shifted to the left and the process is repeated
again until all 5 quotient bits are formed.
8. At the end Q contains the quotient and A the remainder. If the sign of dividend and
divisor are alike, the quotient is positive and if unalike, it is negative. The sign of the
remainder is the same as dividend.

B Register Sequence Counter( SC)

Complementer and parallel

adder

AS QS
Qn
A Register Q Register 0
E

Hardware for implementing division of fixed point signed- Magnitude Numbers

Example of Binary division with digital hardware: Divisor B = 10001, B + 1 = 01111

E A Q SC

Dividend: 01110 00000 5

Shl EAQ 11100 00000

Add , B +1 01111

E=1 1 01011

Set Qn= 1 1 01011 00001 4

Shl EAQ 0 10110 00010

Add , B +1 01111

E=1 1 00101

Set Qn= 1 1 00101 00011 3

Shl EAQ 0 01010 00110

Add , B +1 01111

E= 0; Leave Qn= 0 0 11001 00110

Add B 10001

Restore remainder 1 01010 2

Shl EAQ 0 10100 01100

Add , B +1 01111

E=1 1 00011

Set Qn= 1 1 00011 01101 1

Shl EAQ 0 00110 11010

Add , B +1 01111

E= 0; Leave Qn= 0 0 10101 11010

Add B 10001

Restore remainder 1 00110 11010 0

Neglect E
 Remainder in A 00110 11010

Quotient in Q

Divide overflow:

When the dividend is twice as long as the divisor, the condition for overflow can be stated as
follows:

A divide-overflow condition occurs if the higher order half bits of the dividend constitute a
number greater than or equal to the divisor. If the divisor is zero, then the dividend will definitely
be greater than or equal to divisor. Hence divide overflow condition occurs and hence the divide-
overflow –flip flop will be set. Let the flip flop be called DVF.

Handling DVF:

1. Check if DVF is set after each divide instruction. If DVF is set, then the program
branches to a subroutine that takes corrective measures such as rescaling the data to avoid
overflow.
2. An interrupt is generated if DVF is set. The interrupt causes the processor to suspend the
current program and branch to interrupt service routine to take corrective measure. The
most common corrective measure is to remove the program and type an error message
that explains the reasons.
3. The divide overflow can be handled very simply if the numbers are represented in
floating point representation.

Flow chart for divide operation:

Assumption:

Operands are transferred from memory to registers as n bit words.n-1 bit form magnitude and 1
bit shows the sign.

A divide overflow condition is tested by subtracting the divisor in B from half of the bits of
dividend stored in A. If vA ≥ B, the DVF is set and the operation is terminated prematurely. If A
< B, no DVF occurs and so the value of dividend is restored by adding B to A.

The division of the magnitudes starts by shifting the dividend in AQ to the left, with the higher
order bit shifted into E. If the bit shifted into E is 1, we know that EA is greater than B because
EA consists of a 1 followed by n-1 bits while B consists of only n-1 bits. In this case, B must be
subtracted from EA and 1 inserted into Qn for the quotient bit. Since register A is missing the
higher order bit of the dividend (which is in E), it’s value is EA – 2n-1 . Adding to this value the
2’s complement of B results in

(EA-2n-1 ) + ( 2n-1 –B )= E-B. The carry from the addition is not transferred to E if we want E to
remain a 1.

If the shift left operation inserts a zero into E, the divisor is subtracted by adding it’s 2’s
complement value and the carry is transferred into E. If E = 1, it signifies that A ≥ B and hence
Qn is set to 1. If E = 0, it signifies that A < B and the original number is restored by adding B to
A. In the latter case we leave a 0 in Qn .( 0 was inserted during the shift).

This process is repeated again with register A holding the partial remainder. After n-1 times, the
quotient magnitude is formed in the register Q and the remainder is found in register A.

lecture-9.docx

1.1.2.1. Lecture-10
Floating-Point Addition and Subtraction

Floating-Point Multiplication
Floating-Point Division
 Lecture-11

lecture-11.docx

Lecture-12

lecture-12.docx

Lecture-13

lecture-13.docx

Test Questions

4.1.5.a.docx
 4.1.5.b.docx true or false.docx

Fill in the blanks type of questions <Minimum of ten>

a. The decimal representation for hex number F3 is .

b. The binary equivalent for the decimal number 41.6875 is

c. The BCD code for the decimal number 248 is .

d. For a given number N in base r having n digits, the (r-1)’s complement of N is defined as

e. The 10’s complement of a decimal number is obtained by adding to the 9’s

complement value.

f. When 2 unsigned numbers are added, an overflow is detected from the

of the most significant position.

g. An overflow for addition/ subtraction of two signed numbers is detected when the carry
into the sign bit position and carry out of the sign bit position are
.

h. Booth multiplication algorithm is followed when the binary integers are represented in

i. When Booth algorithm is used for multiplication, the partial product does not change
when the multiplier .is identical to the previous multiplier .

j. Floating point multiplication and division do not require an alignment of the

.

Answers: ( 1). 243 (2) 101001.1011 (3) 0010 0100 1000

(4) ( rn-1)-N (5) 1 (6) carry out (7) not equal

(8) signed 2’s complement representation for negative integers. (9) bit, bit

(10) mantissa

Multiple choice questions<Minimum of ten>

1. Floating point representation is used to store
(A) Boolean values (B) whole numbers (C) real integers (D) integers
Ans: C

2. In computers, subtraction is generally carried out by

(A) 9’s complement (B) 10’s complement (C) 1’s complement (D) 2’s complement

Ans: D

3. The circuit used to store one bit of data is known as

(A) Register (B) Encoder (C) Decoder (D) Flip Flop
Ans: D

4. Which of the following is not a weighted code?

(A) Decimal Number system (B) Excess 3-cod
(C) Binary number System (D) None of these
Ans: B

5. Assembly language
(A) uses alphabetic codes in place of binary numbers used in machine language
(B) is the easiest language to write programs
(C) need not be translated into machine language
(D) None of these
Ans: A

6. The multiplicand register & multiplier register of a hardware circuit implementing booth's
algorithm have (11101) & (1100). The result shall be
(A) (812) 10 (B) (-12) 10 (C) (12) 10 (D) (-812) 10
Ans: A

7. What characteristic of RAM memory makes it not suitable for permanent storage?
(A) too slow (B) unreliable (C) it is volatile (D) too bulky
Ans: C

8. (2FAOC) 16 is equivalent to
(A) (195 084) 10 (B) (001011111010 0000 1100) 2 (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these
Ans: B

9. The average time required to reach a storage location in memory and obtain its contents is
called the
(A) seek time (B) turnaround time (C) access time (D) transfer time
Ans: C

10. In signed-magnitude binary division, if the dividend is (11100) 2 and divisor is (10011) 2
then the result is
(A) (00100) 2 (B) (10100) 2 (C) (11001) 2 (D) (01100) 2
k. Ans: B
 Fill the blank with true or false.
1. EEPROM comes under volatile memory category.

2. Thumb drive or pen drive is semiconductor memory.

3. The control unit generates the appropriate signal at the right moment.

4. While executing a program, CPU brings instruction and data from disk memory.

5. A memory module of capacity 16 * 4 , indicates a storage of 128 bits.

6. A memory module of capacity of 1024 locations, the required address bus size is 10.

7. The program counter PC is used to store the address of the next instruction to be fetched
from Accumulator.
.

8. For n-bit signed integer, the range of numbers that can be represented is – 2n-1 to 2n+1 .

9. Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r-1)’s complement of N is defined as

( rn-1 ) – r.

10. Floating point representation uses mantissa and an exponent part of radix R .

Answers: ( 1). false (2) true (3) true (4) false (5) false
(6) true (7) false (8) false (9)false (10) true

Review Questions

4.1.6.a.docx 4.1.6.b.docx 4.1.6. d.docx 4.1.6.e.docx 4.1.6.c.docx

a. Objective type of questions(Very short notes)<Minimum of ten>

b. Analytical type questions<Minimum of ten>
c. Essay type Questions<As per requirements>
d. Problems<As per required Number>
e. Case study<As per required Number>

Skill Building Exercises/Assignments

a. Take the mother board of a computer and identify CPU, memory, peripheral ICs, BUS
etc.

b. Buy the components of a computer, assemble, install the software and make it to
function.

Eg:- -Prepare a model of something

-Trace something
-Prepare a report on something etc.,

Previous Questions (Asked by JNTUK from the concerned Unit)

JNTUK questions
unit-1.docx

GATE Questions (Where relevant)

Subject is not in gate syllabus

Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical round-Placements)

4.1.10.docx

Real-Word (Live) Examples/Case studies wherever applicable

a. List out the intel CPUs in various generation with their specifications. Write how
the performance was improved in each generation.

Suggested “Expert Guest Lectures” (both from in and outside of the campus)

Literature references of Relevant NPTEL Videos/Web/You Tube videos etc.

neptel vidieo
ref.docx
Reference Text Books / with Journals Chapters etc.

T1: M. Moris Mano (2006), Computer System Architecture, 3rd edition, Pearson/PHI,
India.

T2: Carl Hamacher, ZvonksVranesic, SafeaZaky (2002), Computer Organization, 5th

edition, McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India

R1: Computer Organization Architecture- William Stallings (2006), 7th edition,

PHI/PEARSON.
 Unit – II
REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE
AND MICRO-OPERATIONS

REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE AND MICRO-OPERATIONS:

Register Transfer language. Register Transfer, Bus and memory transfer,Arithmetic Micro-operations,
logic micro operations, shift micro-operations,Arithmetic logic shift unit. Instruction codes. Computer
Registers Computerinstructions –Instruction cycle. Memory Reference Instructions. Input Onput
and Interrupt. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT - Stack organization.Instruction formats. Addressing
modes. DATA Transfer and manipulation.Program control. Reduced Instruction set computerUNIT
SYLLABUS

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Unit Objectives:
….
After reading this Unit, the reader should……
be able to understand:

- Register Transfer language & use it to express micro-operations in symbolic form.

- The symbol definition for Arithmetic , logic, shift micro-operations
- The development of a composite Arithmetic logic shift unit to show the hardware
design of the most common micro operations.
- The organization and design of a basic digital computer. That is registers, common
bus system, memory system, computer instructions, timing and control, micro
operations involved in instruction cycle of various instructions.
- The functional capabilities of a stored program general purpose device.
- The description of internal operation of the computer by RTL and providing design
requirements by RTL
- Input-output by means of programmed control transfer and an interrupt cycle.
- The operation of the memory stack and stack applications
- Various instruction formats and Addressing modes.
- The operation of most common Instructions & their operation.
 - The RISC concept its characteristics and advantages.

1.1.3. Unit Outcomes:

Student is able to
- give the definition for micro operation, register transfer and symbols for RTL
- Student understands what is register transfer, bus transfer and control condition for
transfer; differentiate between common bus with multiplexer and 3-state buffers.
- Able to represent arithmetic, logic and shift micro operations using RTL.
- Able to design circuits for arithmetic, logic and shift operations.
- Able to explain instruction code, addressing modes for instruction operands and
stored program concept.
- List out registers for a basic computer, explain their connections to common bus and
control signals to effect micro operations.
- Explain different instruction formats, set of basic computer instructions that provide
instruction set completeness.
- Explains control unit, timing signals, hardwired control and micro programmed
control.
- Able to provide micro operations in the execution of instructions.
- Able to provide micro operations for input – output operations, programmed I/O and
interrupt based I/O.
- Explain the micro operations of register stack, memory stack required for
instructions used with stack
- Able to differentiate between infix notation and reverse polish notation in arithmetic
expressions and the conversions from one to another and thereby evaluate arithmetic
expressions efficiently.
- Explain instruction format, number of operands addresses used in the instruction and
their advantages and disadvantages; different addressing modes used for operand
addresses.
- Able to list out instructions for data transfer, data manipulation and program control
instructions and explain various types of interrupts.
- Able to differentiate between RISC and CISC machines
 Lectures for the concerned Unit:

Lecture-1

unit-2.Lecture-1.ppt
x

Lecture-2

unit-2.Lecture-2.ppt
x

Lecture-3

unit-2.Lecture-3.ppt
x

Lecture-4

unit-2.Lecture-4.ppt
x

Lecture-5

unit-2.Lecture-5.ppt
x

Lecture-6
 unit-2.Lecture-6.ppt
x

Lecture-7

unit-2, l7.ppt

Lecture-8

unit-2, l8.ppt

Lecture-9

unit-2, l9.ppt

Lecture-10

unit-2,l-10.ppt

Lecture-11

unit-2.Lecture-11.pp
tx

Test Questions

4.2.5.b.docx
 4.2.5.c.docx

Fill in the blanks using true or false.

1. The operations executed on data stored on memory is called Micro operations.

2. The symbolic notation used to describe the micro operation transfers among registers is called
register transfer language.

3. The control function is included in the RTL as: P R2 R1. .

4. Arithmetic micro operations perform arithmetic operations on binary data stored in registers.

5. The AND micro operation can be used to selectively set bits of a register.

6. The EX-OR micro operation can be used to selectively complement bits of a register.
.

7. The AND micro operation can be used for selectively clearing bits in a register.

8. The instruction read from memory is placed in the register PC .

9. Effective address is defined as the address of the operand in a computation type instruction or
the target address in a branch type instruction.

10. Inn hardwired control, control logic is implemented with gates, flip-flops, decoders,and other
digital circuits.

Answers: (1) True (2) True (3) false (4) false (5) false (6) True (7) True

(8) false (9) True (10) True.

a. Multiple choice questions<Minimum of ten>

b. UNIT-II
c.
d. 1. In Reverse Polish notation, expression A*B+C*D is written as
e. (A) AB*CD*+ (B) A*BCD*+ (C) AB*CD+* (D) A*B*CD+
f. Ans: A

g.
h. 2. The addressing mode used in an instruction of the form ADD X Y, is
i. (A) Absolute (B) indirect (C) index (D) none of these
j. Ans: C

k. 3. The BSA instruction is

l. (A) Branch and store accumulator (B) Branch and save return address
m. (C) Branch and shift address (D) Branch and show accumulator
n. Ans: B
o.
p. 4. In a program using subroutine call instruction, it is necessary
q. (A) initialise program counter (B) Clear the accumulator
r. (C) Reset the microprocessor (D) Clear the instruction register
s. Ans: D

t. 5. A Stack-organised Computer uses instruction of

u. (A) Indirect addressing (B) Two-addressing (C) Zero addressing (D) Index
addressing
v. Ans: C

w. 6. Logic X-OR operation of (4ACO) H & (B53F) H results

x. (A) AACB (B) 0000 (C) FFFF (D) ABCD
y. Ans: C

z. 7. When CPU is executing a Program that is part of the Operating System, it

is said to be in (A) Interrupt mode (B) System mode (C) Half mode (D)
Simplex mode
aa. Ans: B

bb. 8. A three input NOR gate gives logic high output only when
cc. (A) one input is high (B) one input is low
dd. (C) two input are low (D) all input are high
ee. Ans: D
ff. 9. n bits in operation code imply that there are ___________ possible
distinct operators (A) 2n (B) 2n (C) n/2 (D) n2
gg. Ans: B

hh. 10. The instruction ‘ORG O’ is a

ii. (A) Machine Instruction. (B) Pseudo instruction.
jj. (C) High level instruction. (D) Memory instruction.
kk. Ans: B
 ll.

mm.

c.True or False questions<Minimum of ten>

Fill in the blanks with true or false statement.

1. An instruction code is a group of bytes that instruct the computer to perform a specific
operation. .
2. The number of bits required for the operation code of an instruction depends on the total
number of operations available in the computer. .
3. When the second part of an instruction code specifies an operand, the instruction is said to have
direct address .
4. If the memory address register has 12 bits, then the program counter register will have 16 bits.
.
5. If the load input of a register is enabled, then it will receive data from the bus during the next
clock pulse transition.
6. The timing signals to the control logic can be derived by decoding the output of a sequence
counter.
7. The operation of deletion in a stack is called push or push down operation.
8. Arithmetic, logical and shift instructions come under data manipulation instructions.
9. The instruction that transfers program control to a subroutine is known as branch and save
address.
10. Interrupts are classified as traps and faults.

Answer: (1) false (2) True (3) false (4) false (5)true (6) true (7) false (8) true
(9) true (10) false

1.1.4. Review Questions

4.2.6.c.docx 4.2.6.a.docx 4.2.6.b.docx

a. Objective type of questions(Very short notes)<Minimum of ten>

b. What do you mean by RTL?.
c. What do you mean by common bus system?
d. What is the use of 3 state buffers?
 e. List out different arithmetic operations.
f. What do you mean by stored program organization.
g. List out registers for a basic computer.
h. What is meant by hardwired control unit?
i. What is meant by micro programmed control?
j. What do you mean by interrupt based data transfer?
k. What is reverse polish notation?

b.Analytical type questions<Minimum of ten>

1. Referring to the bus system shown above, explain why each of the following micro operations
cannot be executed during a single clock pulse. Specify a sequence of micro operations that will
perform the operation.

A. IR M[PC] B. AC AC +TR
C. DR DR + AC ( AC does not change).

2. Referring to the above bus system, the following control inputs are active. For each case ,
specify the register transfer that will be executed during the next clock transition.
 S2 S1 S0 LD of register Memory Adder

a. 1 1 1 IR Read

b. 1 1 0 PC

c. 1 0 0 DR Write

d. 0 0 0 AC Add

3. The following register transfers are to be executed in the above system. For each transfer
specify: (1) The binary value that must be applied to bus select inputs S2, S1, S0; (2)the register
whose load control input must be active(if any); (3) A memory read or write operation ( if
needed); and (4) the operation in the adder and logic circuit (if any).

4.

5.
 8.

9.
10.

l. Essay type Questions<As per requirements>

Essay Type Questions:

UNIT-II

1. What is the need of addressing modes? Explain different types of addressing modes
2. List out the instruction formats used in the processor and discuss with example
3. Explain about machine instruction characteristics
4. What are the differences between direct and indirect addressing instructions? How
many references to memory are needed for each type of instruction to bring an
operandin to a process register?
5. Discuss about the register organization in computer
6. Explain about registers for floating point arithmetic operation
7. Discuss about one stage of a decimal arithmetic unit.
8. Discuss about adding of decimal numbers methods.
9. Discuss about the design of the control unit
10. ExplainBooth’salgorithm. ApplyBooth’salgorithm tomultiplythetwodecimal
numbers14and12.Assumethemultiplierandmultiplicandtobeof5bitseach

m. Problems<As per required Number> N.A

n. Case study<As per required Number>N.A

Skill Building Exercises/Assignments

a. Compare Instruction set of 8 bit and 16 bit and 32 bit processors

b. Compare addressing mode of 8 bit, 16 bit and 32 bit processors.

c. Compare features of 8,16 and 32 bit processors

 Eg:- -Prepare a model of something
-Trace something
-Prepare a report on something etc.,

Previous Questions (Asked by JNTUK from the concerned Unit)

JNTUK questions
unit-2.docx

1. A. Consider 4 , 4-bit registers A,B,C and D connected to a common bus system using
multiplexers. What has to be done to the bus system so that information can be transferred
from any register to any other register?.
B. Represent the following conditional control statements by two register transfer statements
with control functions. If ( p=1 ) then ( R1 R2) else if ( Q =1 ) then ( R1 R3 ).

2. A digital computer has common bus system for 16 registers of 32 bits each. The bus is constructed
with multiplexers.

a. How many selection inputs are there in each multiplexer?

b. What size of multiplexers are needed?

c. How many multiplexers are in the bus?

3a.Draw the block diagram of the hardware that implements the following statements:
X +yz: AR AR + BR

, where AR and BR are 2 n bit registers and x, y and z are control variables. Include the logic gates for
the control function.

b. Show the hardware that implements the following statements.Include the logic gates for the control
function and a block diagram for the binary counter with a count enable input.

xyT0 + T1 +y’ T2: AR AR +1 .

4. Design a 4 bit combinational circuit decrementer using 4 full adder circuits.

5. What is wrong with the following register transfer statements?

a. xT: AR AR , AR 0
b. yT: R1 R2, R1 R3
c. zT: PC AR, PC PC + 1
6. (a) Explain the various Instruction types.
(b) Draw and explain the flow chart for instruction cycle.

7 (a) Explain various instruction formats with examples.

(b) Write short notes on process organization.
8. (a) List and explain the characteristics of machine instructions
(b) Describe various addressing modes in detail
(c) Give a short note on instruction pipelining

9a. Draw the flowchart for memory reference instructions and explain.
b. Discuss about stack organization with register stack and memory stack.

10a. Design a combinational circuit for i) 4-bit shifter ii) 4-bit decrementer and explain.
b. Briefly explain the computer registers for basic computer.

11a. Design a combinational circuit for the following arithmetic operations

(i) Addition (ii) Subtraction (iii) Increment (iv) decrement

b. Discuss about instruction codes and stored program organization

Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical round-

Placements)

4.2.10.docx

4.2.10 Interview questions

1. What is micro operation in a digital computer.

2. What is register transfer language?

3. What do you mean by addressing mode?

4. What is indirect address?

5. What is meant by instruction set of a computer?

6. What is the use of PC and IR in a digital computer?

7. What is stack in a computer?

8. Explain instruction format.

9. What is interrupts and interrupt service routine?

10. What is RISC and CISC?

Text Books:

3. M. Moris Mano (2006), Computer System Architecture, 3rd edition, Pearson/PHI, India.
4. Carl Hamacher, Zvonks Vranesic, SafeaZaky (2002), Computer Organization, 5th edition,
McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India.

Reference Books:
th
3. Computer Organization Architecture- William Stallings (2006), 7 edition,
PHI/PEARSON.
4. ComputerArchitectureandOrganization-John P.Hayes ,Mc Graw Hill, International
editions,2002.
 Unit – III –Micro programmed Control

MICRO PROGRAMMED CONTROL: Control memory,

Addresssequencing, micro program example, Design of control unit-
Hard wiredcontrol. Micro programmed control.

3.1. Unit Objectives

After reading this Unit, the reader should be able to understand:

- The concept of microprogramming and define control memory, microinstruction, micro

program, control address register, address sequencer, pipeline register etc.

- writing microcode for a typical set of instructions.

- The design of micro programmed control unit, by designing hardware for the
microprogram sequencer.

3.2. Unit Outcomes:

Student is able to
- Differentiate between hardwired control and micro programmed control

- Explain control word, microinstruction, micro program, control memory, control address
register, micro program sequencer and pipeline register.

- Understands micro program routine, sequencing microinstructions in a routine and

branching from one routine to another.

- Understands how microprogram routine is reached from instruction code.

- Develop a micro program for a given computer hardware configuration and convert into
binary micro program.

- Develop a control unit with the design of micro program sequencer.

3.3. Unit Lecture plan

Lecture no. Topic Methodology Quick reference
1. Control memory Chalk & Board, T1, page 213 -216
PPT

2. Address Sequencing Chalk & Board T1, page 216-220

 3. Micro Program Example: Chalk & Board T1, page 220-230
computer configuration,
instruction format and
symbolic microinstructions;
The fetch routine, symbolic
micro program and binary
micro program

4. Design of Control Unit: Hard Chalk & Board T1, page 231-235
wired Control and Micro
programmed control

3.4. Teaching Material / Teaching Aids as per above lecture plan.

3.4.1 Lecture-1

unit-3, L1, control

memory.pptx

3.4.2. Lecture-2

Unit-3, L2, address

sequencing.pptx

3.4.3 Lecture-3

Unit-3, L3,
Microprogram example.pptx

3.4.4 Lecture-4

Unit-4, L4, Design of

control unit.pptx
 3.4.2 Test Questions
a. Fill in the blanks type of questions

Fill in the blanks type questions.

1. The function of control unit in a digital computer is to initiate

Of micro operations.
2. When the control signals are generated by hardware using conventional
techniques , the control unit is said to be hardwired.
3. The control variables at any given time can be represented by a string of
Called a control word.
4. A control unit whose control variables are stored in memory is called a
micro programmed control unit.
5. A of micro instructions constitutes a micro program.
6. The next address generator in a control unit is sometimes called micro program
7. The data register in a micro programmed control unit is sometimes called
8. .The transformation from the instruction code bits to an address in control memory where the
routine is located is referred to as a .
9. are programs that are used by other routines to accomplish a
particular task.
10. In a microinstruction format , the CD field select bit conditions.

b. Multiple choice questions

1. Translation from symbolic program into Binary is done in

(A) Two passes. (B) Directly (C) Three passes. (D) Four passes.
Ans: A

2.A microprogram sequencer

(A) generates the address of next micro instruction to be executed.
(B) generates the control signals to execute a microinstruction.
(C) sequentially averages all microinstructions in the control memory.
(D) enables the efficient handling of a micro program subroutine.
Ans: A

3.The operation executed on data stored in registers is called

(A) Macro-operation (B) Micro-operation
(C) Bit-operation (D) Byte-operation
Ans: B

4. Microinstructions are stored in control memory groups, with each group specifying a
(A) Routine (B) Subroutine (C) Vector (D) Address
Ans: A
5. PSW is saved in stack when there is a
(A) interrupt recognised (B) execution of RST instruction
(C) Execution of CALL instruction (D) All of these
Ans: A

6. In a vectored interrupt.
(A) the branch address is assigned to a fixed location in memory.
(B) the interrupting source supplies the branch information to the processor through an interrupt
vector.
(C) the branch address is obtained from a register in the processor
(D) none of the above
Ans: B

7. The communication between the components in a microcomputer takes place via the address
and
(A) I/O bus (B) Data bus (C) Address bus (D) Control lines
Ans: B
8. In a program using subroutine call instruction, it is necessary
(A) initialise program counter (B) Clear the accumulator
(C) Reset the microprocessor (D) Clear the instruction register
Ans: D
9. A microprogram written as string of 0's and 1's is a a. symbolic microinstruction b. binary
microinstruction c. symbolic microprogram d. binary microprogram
Ans d

c. fill the blanks with true of false statement.

1. A word in control memory location is called microinstruction. .

2. A group of microinstructions constitute micro program. .

3. In dynamic microprogramming, the micro program can be initially loaded from disk.

4. Each machine instruction initiate a microinstruction in control memory.

5. The microinstruction specifies various internal control signals for execution of register micro
operations. .

6. Each machine instruction has associated micro program in control memory.

7. While the micro operations are are being executed, the next address is computed in the next
address generator circuit and then transferred into the control data register.
8. If we want to establish a different control sequence for the system, we need to simply replace
the control ROM with suitable micro programs , in the control unit of micro programmed control
unit.

9. The subroutine register in the control unit stores the starting address of the subroutine.

10. Some of the bits in the instruction code is used to reach the starting address of the micro
program routine associated with that instruction and this process is called mapping of
instruction. .

Answer:
(1) True (2) false because a sequence of microinstructions constitute a microprogram.

( 3) True (4) false because it initiates a series of microinstructions.

(5) True (6) True (7) false (8)True (9) false 9100 True

3.4.3 Review Questions

a. Objective type of questions(Very short notes)

1. What is the difference between a microprocessor and a micro program?

2. Is it possible to design a micro program without a micro program?
3. Are all micro programmed computers also microprocessors?
4. Is it possible to have hardwired control associated with a control memory?
5. Explain the difference between hardwired control and micro programmed control.
6. Te4ll the mapping process from instruction code to microinstruction address using ROM.
7. Specify a minimum of 3 components used in a micro program sequencer.
8. What is the advantage of writable control memory?
9. What is the function of CD and AD fields in the Microinstruction Format ?
10. Hat is the use of program counter.

b. Analytical type questions<Minimum of ten>

1. With reference to the above figure, the propagation delay timesare : 1) to generate the next
address is 40ns, 2) to transfer the address into the control address register 10ns, 3) to access the
control memory ROM 40 ns, 4) to transfer the microinstruction into the control data register
10ns, 5) to perform the required micro operation specified by the control word 40ns. What is
the maximum clock frequency that the control can use?.
2. Formulate a mapping procedure that provide 8 consecutive microinstructions for each routine.
The operation code has 6 bits and the control memory has 2048 words.
3. Show how a 9-bit micro operation field in a microinstruction can be divided into subfields to
specify 46 micro operations. How many micro operations can be specified in one micro
instruction?.
4. A computer has 16 registers, an ALU with 32 operations, and a shifter with 8 operations, all
connected to a common bus system.
a. Formulate a control word for a micro operation.
b. Specify the number of bits in each field of the control word and give a general encoding
scheme.
c. Show the bits of the control word that specify the micro operation R4 R5 + R6.
5. The control memory system shown above uses a control memory of size 1024*32. The
microinstruction has 3 fields as shown in the diagram. The micro operation field has 16 bits.
a. How many bits are there in the branch address field and the select field?
b. If there are 16 status bits in the system, how many bits of the branch logic are used to select
a status bit?
c. How many bits are left to select an input for the multiplexer?
6. The control memory shown above has 4096 words of 24 bits each.
a. How many bits are there in the control address register?
b. How many bits are there in each of the 4 inputs shown going into the multiplexer?
c. What are the number of inputs in each multiplexer and how many multiplexers are needed?
 7.

8.

9. Which control unit you will prefer? Tell the reasons for your decision.
10.

The micro operation for BSA instruction is given above and the microinstruction format is also
given above. Write the symbolic micro program routines for the BSA instruction.

c. Essay Type Questions:

1. Explain about the micro programmed control organization
2. Explain the differences between hardwired control and micro programmed
Control.
3. Define following terms, micro operations, microinstruction, micro program,
micro code.
4. Explainthevarietyoftechniquesavailableforsequencingofmicroinstructions
basedontheformatoftheaddressinformationinthemicroinstruction.
5. ExplaintheOrganization ofthecontrolunittoallowconditionalbranchinginthe micro
program
6. Explain how the mapping from an instruction code to a micro instruction address
can be done by means of ROM.
7. Draw the block diagram of a micro programmed sequencer and explain its
operation.
8. Explain t h e b a s i c organizationof a m i c r o p r o g r a m m e d control
u n i t a n d t h e generationofcontrolsignalsusingmicroprogram.
 d. Problems

1. Using the mapping procedure given above, give the first microinstruction address for the
following operation code: (a) 0010; (b) 1011; (c) 1111.
2. Explain how the mapping from an instruction code to microinstruction address can be done by
means of a ROM. What is the advantage of this method compared to the method shown in the
figure above?.
3.

e. Case study<As per required Number> N.A.

3.4.4 Skill Building Exercises/Assignments

Draw a neat chart of micro program sequencer.

Write a report on the functioning of plcs

 3.4.5 Previous Questions (Asked by JNTUK from the concerned Unit)
4. JNTUK QUESTIONSJ

1. Discussthebasicorganizationofamicroprogrammedcontrolunitandthegenerationof
controlsignalsusingmicroprogram

2. Explaintheconceptofmicroprogrammedcontrolunit.

3.
(a)Explainthevarietyoftechniquesavailableforsequencingofmicroinstructions
basedontheformatoftheaddressinformationinthemicroinstruction.

(b)CompareandContrasthardwiredcontrolunitwithmicroprogrammedcontrolunit.

4. (a)Hardwiredcontrolunitisfasterthanmicro
programmedcontrolunit?Justify thisstatement.

(b)Briefly explainthebasic organizationofamicro programmedcontrolunitandthe

generationofcontrolsignalsusingmicroprogram

5 a) Explaintheexecutionofmicroinstructionswithaneatdiagram. [5]

b) Brieflydescribethedesignofahardwiredcontrolunit. [10]

6. Explainthedesignofmicro-programmedcontrolunitindetail. [15]

7 a) ExplaintheOrganization ofthecontrolunittoallowconditionalbranchinginthe
microprogram.

b) Whatishardwiredcontrol?Howisitdifferentfrommicroprogrammedcontrol?

8.Explain t h e b a s i c o r g a n i z a t i o n of a micro programmed control unit and the

generationofcontrolsignalsusingmicroprogram.

9. a)Givethetypicalhorizontalandverticalmicroinstructionformats.

b)Describehowmicroinstructionsarearrangedincontrolmemoryandhowthey
areinterpreted.

10.a)Clearlydistinguishbetween

i. Packed/Unpackedmicroinstructions ii. Hard/Softmicroprogramming

b)Listandbrieflyexplainapplicationsofmicroprogramming.
11.a)Whatarethedesigngoalsforadesignerwhiledecidingahardwiredormicro
programmedCUforaCPU.

b)Writeshortnoteson microinstructionsequencing.
12. a)
Definethefollowing:

i. Microoperation

ii. Microinstruction

iii.Microprogram
iv. Controlmemory.
b) Explaintheselectionofaddressforcontrolmemory?

13.a)GivetheCircuitDiagramforMicroProgramSequencefora ControlMemory.

b)Whatisthedifferencebetweena MicroprocessorandaMicroProgram? [8M+8M]

14.a)DiscussindetailaboutAddressSequencing.

b)WritetheSymbolicMicroProgramforBranchandSaveInstructions. [8M+8M]

15.a) DiscussindetailaboutthedecodingofMicroOperationfields.

b) Showhowa9-bitMicrooperationfieldinMicroinstructioncanbedividedintosubfields to
specify46 Microoperations?HowmanyMicrooperationscanbespecifiedinone
Microinstruction? [8M+8M]

16.a) WhatistheDifferencebetweenaMicroprocessorandaMicroprogram?Isitpossibleto
designaMicroprocessorwithoutaMicroprogram?

b)WhatisthefunctionofControlUnit?ExplainthedifferencebetweenHardwiredcontrol
andMicroprogrammedcontrol. [8M+8M]

17 a) Explain briefly about the micro programmed control organization. [7]

b) Briefly discuss about the design of the control unit[8]
18. a) Discuss about the process organization in computer.
b) Discuss about the register organization in computer.
19. a) Define following terms, micro operations, microinstruction, micro program,
micro code.
b) Explain the differences between hardwired control and micro programmed
control.
20. a) Draw the block diagram of microprogram control organization and explain.
b) Discuss how selection of address for control memory.

4.4.1 GATE Questions (Where relevant)

N.A.
 4.4.2 Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical
round-Placements)
1. What is micro operation and Micro program?.

2. What is the use of control memory in a microprogrammed control?

3. What is meant by hardwired control?

4. What are the advantages of micro programmed control unit?

5. What are the functions of a micro program sequencer?

4.4.3 Real-Word (Live) Examples/Case studies wherever applicable

- Micro programmed State Machine design.

- A lot of machine controls with sequential operations can be implemented with

control memory. Ex: Automatic machine tools with sequential control

4.4.4 Suggested “Expert Guest Lectures” (both from in and outside of

the campus)

4.4.5 Literature references of Relevant NPTEL Videos/Web/You Tube

videos etc.
http://nptel.ac.in/video.php?subjectId=106102062

For the following Topics: Processor Design Micro programmed Control (33:11)

4.4.6 Any Lab requirements; if so link it to Lab Lesson Plan.

N.A.

4.4.7 Reference Text Books / with Journals Chapters etc.

Text Book:

M. Moris Mano (2006), Computer System Architecture, 3rd edition,

Pearson/PHI, India.