Chemistry Full Notes-3 PDF

Table of Contents
FORM ONE NOTES............................................................................................................................ 2

Introduction to chemistry ............................................................................................................... 2
Laboratory Techniques and Safety .............................................................................................. 4
Heat sources and flame ............................................................................................................... 13
The scientific procedure...............................................................................................................15
Matter.............................................................................................................................................. 16
Elements, compound and mixtures ........................................................................................... 20
Air, combustion, firefighting and rusting .................................................................................... 27
FORM TWO NOTES ......................................................................................................................... 31
Oxygen ........................................................................................................................................... 31
Hydrogen ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Water ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Fuels and energy........................................................................................................................... 41
Structure of the atom ................................................................................................................... 52
Periodic classifiCation ................................................................................................................... 56
Bonding, formula and nomenclature ........................................................................................ 59
FORM THREE NOTES ....................................................................................................................... 67
Chemical Equations ...................................................................................................................... 67
Hardness of Water......................................................................................................................... 72
Acids, Bases and Salts ................................................................................................................... 74
The Mole Concept and Related Calculations ......................................................................... 82
Volumetric Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 87
Ionic Theory and Electrolysis ........................................................................................................ 97
Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium ........................................................................................... 109
Extraction and Properties of Metals ......................................................................................... 115
Compounds of Metals................................................................................................................126
FORM FOUR NOTES...................................................................................................................... 144
Non-metals and their compounds ........................................................................................... 144
Introduction to Organic Chemistry........................................................................................... 160
Soil Chemistry ............................................................................................................................... 177
Pollution......................................................................................................................................... 192
Nanguruwe Secondary school i

Prepared by: Daudi katyoki Kapungu O’Level Chemistry Notes - 2017
FORM ONE NOTES Drugs, vaccines, food
Medicines
Introduction to chemistry supplements
By Defn: Chemistry is a science that deals Detergents, beauty
Home care
with the composition, structure and products, soaps, shoe
and cosmetics
properties of matter polish, toothpaste,
industry
disinfectants, insecticides
Where: Food and Soft drinks, common salt,
i. Matter is anything that has mass and beverage yeast, baking powder,
occupies space. It includes the materials industry canned food
or substances of nature which make up Paints, chemicals,
our environment Manufacturing
varnishes, cement
ii. The people who study Chemistry are
industry
,plastics
called chemists. Those who studied Textile industry Closes, dyes
Chemistry in ancient times are known as Fuels, lubricants, oil,
alchemists transport
grease, coolants, tyres
iii. Science is the scientific study of nature.
For example how cooling effect occurs Importance of Chemistry
Chemistry is an important subject due to its
Scientific Subjects application in our daily life. The follows is
In order the subject to be a science subject important of chemistry in various aspect
it should involves experiments and practical i. Agriculture
work. Chemists have to acquire certain skills ii. Food and beverage industry
in order to be successful. These skills include: iii. Medicine
i. Careful and thorough observation iv. The manufacturing industry
ii. Accurate recording of what has been v. Transport
observed vi. Communication
iii. Organizing the observed and recorded vii. Home care products
information viii. Beauty products
iv. Repeating tests to make sure
observations are accurate Agriculture
v. Forming conclusions from observations In a process of growing crops and animal
vi. Predicting possible outcomes of similar keeping, farmers uses many products made
experiments by chemists to get better agricultural yields
includes
Application of Chemistry i. Fertilizers – used to improve the quality
Chemistry is an important subject that is and quantity of crops and yields
applied in different fields such as agriculture, respectively
medicine, manufacturing, education, food ii. Weed killers – are chemical substances
and beverage industry, home care and used to destroy unwanted plants which
cosmetics industry, among others. This means harm the crops
that Chemistry is applied in iii. Pesticides – are chemical substances
i. Factories
ii. Homes sprayed or sprinkled on crops to destroy
pests that leads low or no yields. Also
iii. Hospitals introduces in animal dips to treat animals
iv. Laboratories from ticks etc
v. Research centres iv. Animal vaccines – chemical substance
vi. Universities used to protect animal from disease
v. Processed animal feeds – animal food
Products made by application of Chemistry which mixed with different nutrients
Field product component to improve animal health
Fertilizers, pesticides,
Agriculture weed killers, animal Food and beverage industry
vaccines
Nanguruwe Secondary school 2
i. Preservation of food especially those
canned or bottled example bear, canned
maize etc
ii. Preparation of certain foods such as
bread, cakes and sweet
Medicine
In medicine field Vaccines (prevent illnesses)
and medicines (treat diseases) are
Produced chemically
The manufacturing industry

In industry many material made chemically
used to make product. Examples of product
are cement, plastic container, textiles,
chemicals, rubber and paper
Transport
i. Fuels used on transport are produced
chemically
ii. The parts used on transport like car engine
and tyres are made chemically
Communication
i. Letters, newspaper and magazine are
manufactured chemically
ii. Telephones and computer rely heavily on
wires which made chemically
Home care products

Product used to make home and its
environment which used to clean (soap and
detergents), kill insect (disinfectants) and
decoration (air fresh and paints) are made
chemically
Beauty products
Product used to improve human physical
appearance like nail varnish, creams, lotions,
perfumes and deodorant are made
chemically
Chemistry for careers (professional

development)
The skills acquired in chemistry are very
valuable in different careers like
i. Doctor
ii. Pharmacist
iii. Chemical engineers
iv. Laboratory technician
v. Nurse
vi. Researcher

Laboratory Techniques and Safety vi. Use the fume chamber when carrying out
By defn: laboratory is a special room or experiments where harmful gases and
building that designed and used for scientific vapours are produced
experiments. Laboratories have special tools vii. Only perform the intended experiments.
and equipments calledApparatus Do not set up your own experiments or
interfere with someone’s experiment.
Feature of Laboratory viii. Do not spill liquids on the floor
The laboratory should have the following ix. Report any breakages or accidents to the
i. Water supply system teacher or laboratory assistant
ii. Drainage system immediately
iii. Electricity supply x. When heating substances, direct the
iv. Well illuminated mouth of the test tube away from you or
v. Well ventilated others. Do not point burners or hot
vi. Door open out ward substances towards yourself or other
vii. Gas supply people
xi. Use lighter or wooden splints to light
Laboratory Rules burners. Do not use papers. Always strike
By defn: laboratory rule is the set of the match before turning on the gas tap
regulation governing practical activities in xii. In case of a gas leak, turn off all the gas
the laboratory taps and open the windows. Leave the
room immediately
Parts of laboratory activities xiii. Do not touch any electrical equipment
Laboratories rules divided into three parts with wet hands
include xiv. Do not use dirty, cracked or broken
i. Before laboratory activities apparatus
ii. During laboratory activities xv. Turn off any gas or water taps that are not
iii. After laboratory activities in use
xvi. No chemical or equipment should be
Laboratory Rules Before laboratory activities removed from the laboratory
i. Do not enter the laboratory without the xvii. Replace covers and stoppers on the
permission or presence of the teacher or container after you are through with the
laboratory assistant chemicals
ii. Dress appropriately for the laboratory xviii. Keep inflammable substances away
activities. Do not wear loose or floppy from naked flames
clothing. Tie back long hair. Roll up long xix. Wash off any chemical spillage on your
sleeves. Do not wear shorts, or walk skin or clothes with plenty of clean water
barefoot or in sandals xx. Do not taste things during experiments
iii. Keep the windows open for proper
ventilation. Laboratory Rules After laboratory activities
iv. Master the location of all exits i. Appropriately dispose of any wastes Use
the litter bins, not the sink, to dispose of
Laboratory Rules During laboratory activities solid waste. Do not return unused
i. Read instructions carefully before you substances to their srcinal containers
start any activity ii. Clean up the equipment and store it
ii. If you do not understand something, ask safely
your teacher before proceeding iii. Turn off gas and water taps.
iii. Read the labels on reagent bottles iv. Clean the working surfaces, benches and
carefully to make sure you have the right sinks
substance. Do not interchange labels v. Wash your hands with soap and running
iv. Do not eat, drink, smoke, play or run in water.
the laboratory
v. Do not taste or smell chemicals unless Laboratory Safety measure
advised on how it should be done
By Defn: laboratory safety is the condition in xvii. Equipment for monitoring contamination
which measures of risk avoided during should be installed to give alerts of any
laboratory activities possible dangers.
xviii. Chemicals that easily react with each
List of Laboratory Safety Measures other should never be stored together
The laboratory safety measures includes xix. Containers for chemicals should be
i. Laboratory should well ventilated and his checked regularly to ensure they do not
door should open outward leak. They should have stoppers or covers
ii. Fire extinguishers should be fitted in an which should be secured when the
accessible position with using instruction chemicals are not in use
iii. Laboratory floors should not polished to xx. Stored chemicals should be inspected
avoid slippery regularly to ensure they have not
iv. Cabinets and drawer must present for expired.
storing apparatus xxi. All apparatus should be checked
v. All apparatus should checked regularly regularly to ensure they are safe for use
to ensure they are safe to use xxii. All persons using the laboratory should
vi. Emergence exit should present and easy ensure they wear appropriate protective
to access and use clothing to minimize exposure to hazards
vii. The laboratory should be equipped with to access and use.
working fire extinguishers and other
working fire equipment with clear First Aid
instructions on how to use them in case By Defn: First aid is the help given to a
of a fire sick/injured person before getting
viii. Cupboards, storage cabinets and professional medical help
drawers should have locks
Reason: This is to ensure one does not Importance of First Aid
accidentally get into contact with i. It helps to preserve life
harmful substances or interfere with ii. It prevents the victim’s condition from
equipment becoming worse
ix. All chemicals should be well-labelled iii. It promotes recovery by bringing hope
Reason: prevent accidental use of the and encouragement to the victim
wrong substance iv. It helps to reduce pain and suffering
x. Emergency exits should be present and v. It prevents infection
easy
xi. There should be a manual or instruction First Aid Kit
guide on how to treat spills of different By Defn: first aid kit is the small box contains
chemical substances. items that are used to give help to a sick
xii. Any chemical spills should be cleaned person. Usual labelled as “FIRST AID” and
immediately stored in a safe and easily accessible place
xiii. The fume chamber should be labelled. It
should be kept in good working Items Found In First Aid Kit
condition to minimize unexpected gas Items Uses
leaks or emissions Contains guidelines
xiv. Gas cylinders should be labelled, stored on how to use the
First Aid Manual
well and supported. They should be in items in the first aid
good working condition at all times. kit
xv. laboratory should containFirst Aid kits Cleaning wound to
antiseptic
xvi. Refrigerators and freezers used should be kill germs
labelled ‘For chemical use only’ washing hands,
Reason: avoid contamination of other Soap wounds and
substances. They should be clean and equipment
free of any spills Cleaning and
cotton wool
drying wounds
Preventing direct ix. Poisoning
Disposable sterile
contact with x. vomiting
gloves
victim’s body fluids
Reducing muscular Burns
Liniment
pain By defn: Burns is an injuries resulting contact
Painkillers Relieving pain with heat or harmful chemicals. Burns cause
Adhesive by liquids or vapour is called scalds
Covering minor
bandage
wounds Effect of burns
(plaster)
Keeping dressings in Burns cause blisters on skin and if severe the
place and skin becomes charred and peels off
Bandage
immobilizing injured
limbs Procedure to follow in giving first aid
Measure body i. Lay the victim down and protect the burnt
Thermometer area from coming contact with ground, if
temperature
Covering wounds to possible
Sterile gauze protect them from ii. Gently pour cold water on the burn for
dirty and germs about 10 minutes to cool it and reduce
Safety pins, clips Securing bandages pain
and tape. or dressing. Note: if the burn is severe, immediately call
Scissors and razor Cutting dressing for medical help
blades materials. iii. Check the breath and pulse and prepare
Smoothening and to resuscitate the victim, if necessary
Petroleum jelly iv. Gently remove any Jewellery, shoes or
soothing skin
Torch Source of light burnt clothing from the injured area
Note: loosen any tight clothing. Do not
Whistle Blow to call for help
remove any sticking clothing to the skin
For fungal
of infection
the skin and v. Cover the burn with sterile gauze and
wrap it loosely to avoid pressure on the
Gentian violet mouth. Also used for
skin
the treatment of
Note: do not use fluffy cotton. Bandage
serious heat burns
the wound reduce pain and infection
vi. Give the victim a pain reliever and treat
Causes of Laboratory Accident
them for shock
i. Slippery floor
vii. Seek medical help immediately
ii. Incorrect use and handling of apparatus
iii. Gas leakages from faulty gas taps
Caution!
iv. Fires
i. Do not ice as it further damages the skin
v. Failure to follow the right experimental
ii. Do not apply ointment or butter to the
procedures and laid down safety rules
burn since this prevents proper healing
iii. Do not break any blisters as this can cause
First Aid Procedure
infection
When accident occur we have to help the iv. Burns to the face and in the mouth or
victim by following the follows procedures,
throat are serious as they cause rapid
consider the follows accidents
inflammation of air passage and may
i. Burns
cause suffocation. In such case seek
ii. Suffocation
medical help immediately
iii. Choking
iv. Bruises
Suffocation
v. Shock
When dealing with a victim of electric shock,
vi. Electrical shock
remember to take the following action
vii. Fainting
viii. Bleeding
Choking
Chemical changes
By Defn: Chemical changes are the changes
which change the identity of
matter/substance. It chemical properties
vary which may be smell, colour etc. For
example rusting, burning, decaying, rotting,
fermentation of fruit and souring of milk
Changes undergoes chemical changes

i. Milk turns sour
ii. Jewellery tarnishes (changes colour)
iii. Toasting bread
iv. Nails or iron sheets rust
v. Wood is burnt
vi. Food scraps are turned into compost in a
compost pit
vii. A match is lit
viii. An antacid settles your stomach upset
ix. Your body digests food
x. An egg is fried
xi. Food is cooked
Different between Physical Changes and

Chemical Changes
Physical Changes Chemical Changes
Change physical Change chemically
No new substance new substance
formed formed
No product given product given off
off
Changes is Changes is irreversible
reversible
Does not affect affect component of
component of substance
substance

Elements, compound and mixtures Element Symbol
Element Calcium Ca
By Defn: Element is a pure chemical Aluminium Al
substance which cannot be split into simple Chlorine Cl
substance by a simple chemical process. For Cobalt Co
example iron, silver, gold, copper, oxygen, Magnesium Mg
hydrogen etc Manganese Mn
Argon Ar
Names and chemical symbol of elements
All known element have name, usually the iii. Elements can be represented by a
names represents by letter (abbreviation or symbol delivered from their Latin names
short representation of the name) called Element Symbol
chemical symbol Sodium Na
Gold Au
Nb:
Potassium K
i. Most Chemical symbol often derived from
Copper Cu
Latin or Greek name of the element. For
Iron Fe
example of some elements
Element Latin name Symbol
Common elements
Sodium Natrium Na
There are twenty common elements which
Gold Aurum Au
we were using most in our o’level chemistry
Potassium Kalium K
course. Consider the table below
Copper Cuprum Cu
Element name Element symbol
Iron Ferrum Fe
Hydrogen H
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Helium He
Silver Argentum Ah
Lithium Li
Tin Stannum Sn
Lead Plumbum Pb Beryllium Be
Boron B
Carbon C
ii. Other Chemical symbol often derived
Nitrogen N
from English name of the element. For
Oxygen O
example of some elements
Fluorine F
Element English name Symbol
Neon Ne
Carbon Carbon C
Sodium Na
Iodine Iodine I
Magnesium Mg
Fluorine Fluorine F
Aluminium Al
Hydrogen Hydrogen H
Silicon Si
Calcium Calcium Ca
Phosphorus P
Aluminium Aluminium Al
Sulphur S
Argon Argon Ar
Chlorine Cl
Criteria used to generate chemical symbol Argon

Potassium KAr
i. Elements can be represented by a symbol
Calcium Ca
delivered from the first letter
Element Symbol
How to remember common 20 elements
Carbon C
You should sing a Swahili simple song In order
Iodine I
to remember common elements as
Fluorine F
Element Word to sing Stand for
Hydrogen Hallo H
ii. Elements can be represented by a
Helium Hemedi He
symbol delivered from the first and
Lithium Lile Li
second letter

Beryllium Beberu Be By defn: Mixture is a physical combination of
Boron Bora B two or more substances in any ratio.
Carbon Chinja C Example muddy water, mixture of sand and
Nitrogen Na N salt, mixture of oil and water , mixture of
Oxygen Ondoa O maize and sand etc
Fluorine Figo F
Neon Nene Ne Nb:
Sodium Na Na They separated physically
Magnesium Mgeni Mg
Aluminium Aliye Al Types of mixture
Silicon Simama Si They are two types include
i. Homogenous mixture
Phosphorus Pale P
Sulphur Serengeti S ii. Heterogeneous mixture
Chlorine Club Cl
Homogenous mixture
Argon Arudishwe Ar
By defn: Homogenous mixture is the kind of
Potassium Kwao K
mixture in which has uniform composition,
Calcium Canada Ca
appearance and properties. Example
i. Mixture of salt and water
Significance of chemical symbol ii. Mixture of sugar and water
i. Help to understand quickly element
instead of memorize full names
Heterogeneous mixture
ii. Possible to write chemical equation By defn: Heterogeneous mixture is the kind of
instead to write in full name
mixture in which has difference composition,
iii. show clear quantity of element appearance and properties. Example
i. Mixture of water and sand
Compound ii. Mixture of ice and water
By defn: compound is a pure substance that
is made up of more than one element in a Properties of mixture
chemical combination. Example sugar, salt, i. mixture can be seen separated
water etc ii. Constituent elements can be separated
by physical means
Nb: iii. Constituent elements Have no definite
i. Combination is always in fixed ratio. For ratio
example iv. When formed involve physical change
a. carbon dioxide (CO2) is made up of two v. Its properties same from its Constituent
parts of oxygen for every one part of
elements
carbon
b. water (H2O) is made up of two parts of Different between compound and mixture
hydrogen for every one part of oxygen
Compound Mixture
ii. they are separated chemically
Compound cannot mixture can be seen
Properties of compound be seen separated

Constituent separated
i. Compound cannot be seen separated Constituent elements
elements can be
ii. Constituent elements can be separated can be separated by
separated by
by chemical means physical means
chemical means
iii. Constituent elements Have definite ratio
Constituent
iv. When formed involve chemical change Constituent elements
elements Have
v. Its properties differ from its Constituent Have no definite ratio
definite ratio
elements
When formed
When formed involve
involve chemical
Mixture physical change
change
Its properties differ Its properties same
from its Constituent from its Constituent Solution can be solid, liquid or gas. Even
elements elements solute and solvent can exist in three state of
matter. Consider the table follows
Solution Solutes
By defn: solution is a homogenous mixture of Solid Liquid Gas
two or more substances (solvent and solute) Naphthal water oxygen and
s ene slowly vapour in air other gases
Where a sublimes in in air
g
i. By defn: solvent is a substance dissolves air to form
the other substance (solute) a solution
ii. By defn solute is a substance dissolved by sucrose ethanol carbon
other substance (solvent) (sugar) in (alcohol) in dioxide in
tn water and water and water(carbo
Example of solute and solvent e id
lv u salt in various nated water
i. Mixture of sugar and water to form a o qil water hydrocarbon
s
solution s in each
a. Sugar is a solute other
b. Water is a solvent (petroleum)
ii. Mixture of salt and water to form a steel and mercury in hydrogen in
solution
ild other gold and metals
a. Salt is a solute o
s metal hexane in
b. Water is a solvent alloys paraffin wax
Types of solution
Their three types of solution, includes Uses of solvents
i. Unsaturated solution i. Varnish removal: solvent used to removal
ii. Saturated solution varnish
iii. Supersaturated solution ii. Degrease: solvent used to remove excess
grease or fat from. For example when we
Unsaturated Solution wash our hand if contaminated with oil
By defn: Unsaturated solution is the solution iii. Thinning paint: a volatile solvent used to
that can dissolve more solute at a given make paint or other solutions less viscous
temperature iv. Bleaching agent: it make white or much
lighter by a chemical process or by
Saturated Solution exposure to sunlight
By defn: Saturated solution is the solution that v. Stain removal: solvent used mark or
cannot dissolve more solute at a given discolour with something that is not easily
temperature removed
vi. Cleaning: solvent (soap) removal dirt
Supersaturated Solution (solute) by form solution
By defn: Supersaturated solution is the
Properties of solution
solution
than thatsaturated
the temporarily holds more
solution at a solute
given i. Homogenous mixture
temperature ii. transparent/clear
iii. Particles completely dissolved
Application of saturation iv. Components separate byEvaporation
It uses when
i. Separating certain mixtures in the Suspension
laboratory By defn: Suspension is heterogeneous mixture
ii. Extracting some minerals such ascommon of liquid and fine particles of a solid
salt (NaCL)
Nb:
Classification of solution into state of matter i. Suspended particles are slight visible

ii. Particles Settle at bottom if undisturbed vii. Solvent extraction
iii. Suspension formed either by liquid viii. Layer separation
droplets or fine particle float in a gas is ix. Magnetization
called Aerosols
iv. The blood in our body also is suspension Decantation
v. Suspension used at homes asinsecticides, By defn: Decantation is the process of
body spray and medicine(syrup) always separating a heterogeneous mixture of a
labelled ‘’Shake well before use’’ liquid and solid by pouring out of the liquid
only and leaving the solid at the bottom of
Properties of suspension the container
i. Heterogeneous mixture
ii. Opaque (not clear) Nb:
iii. Particles separate without dissolving i. The process of some components of
iv. Components separate by filtration mixture settling at the bottom is called
Sedimentation
Different between solution and suspension
Solution Suspension Decantation can be used to separate
Homogenous mixture Heterogeneous i. Water from muddy water
mixture ii. Blood test: Clearer part of blood from
transparent/clear Opaque (not clear) mixture of clear blood and its solid
Particles completely Particles separate components
dissolved without dissolving
Components Components Separation Application of Decantation
separate by separate by i. Water treatment systems
Evaporation filtration ii. Separate of components of blood
Emulsion Magnetization
By defn: emulsion is a mixture of liquids that This process involve the separation of iron
do not completely mix. Example of emulsion (magnetic material) from a mixture where by
i. Milk, which is drops of butterfat in water magnetic material is attracted to magnet
ii. Emulsion paint, which is drops of coloured and leaves behind other components of
oils in water mixture
Nb: Evaporation
i. Liquids do not mix at is called immiscible By defn: Evaporation is the method in which
ii. Liquids mix is called miscible solvent converted from liquid to gas and
iii. Usually formed from two liquids (oil and solute remains as residue. Example Mixture
water) of water (solvent) and salt (solute), when
iv. When emulsion shakes form droplets (oil heated water evaporates and salt remains
and water) Diagram:
v. When emulsion harder shakes become
homogenous solution
Methods of separating mixture
Mixture can be separated according to
properties of substance (mixture). The follows
methods used to separate are follows
i. Decantation
ii. Evaporation
iii. Distillation Separation Application of Evaporation
iv. Sublimation i. In extraction of common salt
v. Filtration
vi. Chromatography Distillation
By defn: Distillation is the method of
separating mixture due to components
boiling point and finally obtains the wanted
substance. The wanted substance (low
boiling point) is cooled until back to liquid.
The cooled vapour is called Distillate
Types of Distillation
There are two types include
i. Simple Distillation
ii. Fraction Distillation
Simple Distillation
By defn: Simple Distillation is the method of
separating mixture of liquid contains
dissolved substance
Diagram:
Fraction Distillation can be used to separate
i. Distilling ethanol from mixture of ethanol
and water
ii. Distilling petrol from crude oil (petroleum)
Nb:
i. Fraction distillation can collect more than
one component at the same time at the
fraction distillation columns
ii. The liquids with lower boiling point first
collected as distillate
Simple Distillation can be used to separate iii. Each components collected is called
i. Distilling water from muddy water fraction
ii. Distilling water from salt water
Separation Application of Distillation
Nb: i. Purification of water
If Liebig condenser absent, the distillate can ii. Manufacture of alcohol
collect in a test tube that dipped in beaker
contain very cold water or ice Sublimation
By defn: Sublimation is the is the method of
Separation Application of distillation separate mixture whereby a solid (wanted
i. Purification of water substance) changes state directly to gas
ii. Manufacture of alcohol final form Solid that forms after the gas cools
Diagram:
Fraction Distillation
By defn: Fraction Distillation is the method of
separating mixture (homogeneous solution)
of two or more liquids due to its boiling point
by means of fraction columns
Diagram:
Nb:

i. Solid that forms after the vapour cools is i. Moved solvent is called mobile phase
called sublimate ii. Absorbed solvent is called stationary
ii. This method Used to separate mixture phase
where one component sublimes iii. Substance separated is calledAnalyte
iii. Iodine and ammonium chloride are few
compounds can sublimes Uses of chromatography
iv. The reverse process of change from Used in many different ways
vapour to solid on cooling is called i. Medicine
Deposition ii. Security
iii. Chemistry
Sublimation Can Be Used To Separate iv. Health
i. Separate iodine from mixture of sand and
iodine Medicine
ii. Separate ammonium chloride from Used as follows
mixture of salt and ammonium chloride i. Used to analyses blood and urine sample
ii. Study blood cells in blood
Separation Application of Sublimation iii. Detect types of drugs in blood
i. Purification of substance
Security
Filtration Used as follows
By defn: Filtration is the method of separate i. Used to analyses blood and urine sample
heterogeneous mixture of a solid and liquid ii. Detect different fibres
by using porous filter
Diagram: Chemistry
Used as follows
i. Test purity of organic substance
ii. Separates mixture
Health
Used as follows
i. Causes of pollution
ii. Test for blood contamination
Separation Application of Chromatography

i. In medical diagnosis and studies
Nb: ii. In security for crime detection
i. Solid remain is called residue iii. In chemical analysis and tests
ii. Liquid pass through filter is calledfiltrate
Solvent extraction
Fraction Distillation can be used to separate By defn: Solvent extraction is the method of
i. Water from muddy water separate mixture essential oil from plant
materials. This process referred as solid-solid
Separation Application of Filtration extraction
i. Purification of water
ii. Extraction of juice from fruit From the diagram above can be used to
iii. Extraction of cream from milk separate
i. Oil seeds from seed
Chromatography
By defn: Chromatography is the method of Mechanism how separated
separate mixture using moving solvent on Extract oil seed by using water to get mixture
material absorbs the solvent of oil and water then mixture separated by
distillation to get oil
Nb:
Water ii. Liquid state e.g. dew, rain
By defn: Water is the compound formed iii. Vapour state e.g. mist, steam, clouds
between hydrogen gas and water
Distribution of earth’s water
Term used There two kind of water include
i. Evaporation: Evaporation is the process i. Salt water – 97% of earth’s water
whereby water changes to vapour/gas ii. Fresh water - 3% of earth’s water
or steam
ii. Transpiration: Transpiration is the process Distribution of Fresh’s water
whereby plant loses water by Fresh water distributed as follows
evaporation i. Ice caps and glaciers – 68.7% of fresh’s
iii. Condensation: Condensation is the water
process whereby water vapour change ii. Ground water– 30.1% of fresh’s water
back to liquid to form clouds iii. Surface water– 0.3% of fresh’s water
iv. Precipitation: Precipitation is the situation iv. Other water– 0.9% of fresh’s water
whereby rain, snow and sleet (rain with
ice) that falls to ground Water Cycle
v. Collection: Collection is the situation By defn: water cycle is the system whereby
whereby rain accumulated at earth water being recycled. Also is called
ground Hydrological Cycle
vi. Water body: water body is the natural Diagram:
place where can be a source of water.
E.g. wells, rivers, lakes, stream, sea,
ponds, springs etc
vii. environmental conservation:
environmental conservation is the
process of preservation or restoration of
the natural environment and wildlife
viii. fog: fog is a thick cloud of tiny water
droplets suspended in the atmosphere at Water Cycle Parts
or near the earth's surface which make Water cycle is made up to four main parts,
visibility difficult includes
ix. Universal Solvent: universal solvent is a i. Evaporation (include transpiration)
solvent dissolves more substance than ii. Condensation
any solid iii. Precipitation
x. Specific Heat Index: specific heat index is iv. Collection
ability of a substance to absorbs heat
before being hot Evaporation (include transpiration)
xi. Surface Tension: surface tension is Water from rivers, lakes, stream, sea, ponds
properties of liquid to behave like an etc evaporate to air. Plants lose water by
elastic skin transpiration while animal and human being
xii. Solubility: Solubility is the process of lose water through perspiration and
dissolving a solute in solvent sweating
xiii. Water treatment: Water treatment is the
process of making water usable Condensation
xiv. Water purification: Water purification is Water vapour obtained by evaporation,
the process of removal contaminants transpiration, perspiration and sweating in
from treated water the air gets cold and changes back into
liquid to form clouds
Occurrence of water
The water on the earth occurs in three main Precipitation
states includes Rain start when air fails to hold condensed
i. Solid state e.g. snow, hail water and final results rain
vi. It has high surface tension
Collection vii. It has high specific heat index
Takes place when rain water back to the viii. It expand when freeze thus why ice float
ground which may run over the soil and over water
collected in the rivers, lakes, stream, sea, ix. It’s miscible with many liquids
ponds where cycle stars all over again
Chemical properties of water
Water cycle and environmental i. Pure water is neutral (neither acidic nor
conservation basic)
In order to preservation or restoration of ii. Cold water react with some metals to
water to be clean, the following should be form hydroxide and liberate hydrogen gas
done in various aspect includes iii. Some metals react with steam to give
i. Water bodies respective metal oxide and hydrogen gas
ii. Water vapour
iii. Acidic rain Uses of water
Used of water based in different activities
Water bodies includes
Water bodies should not pollute in order to
preservation or restoration of water to be Domestic use (daily use)
clean In domestic activities water used for
i. Drinking
How water body polluted ii. Cooking food
i. Environment degradation destroy the iii. Cleaning our surrounding
quality of water in water bodies iv. Washing our bodies
ii. People damp waste materials into water v. Washing our clothes
bodies
Transportation use
Water vapour In transport activities water used for
Gases (sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and i. Boats and ships used to transport people
carbon dioxide) form industrial combine with ii. Boats and ships used to transport goods
water vapour to form fog
Recreation use
Acidic rain In recreation activities water used for
Acidic gases when combine with water i. Used for swimming
vapour to form acidic rain ii. Used Sporting fishing
iii. Ocean water used for scuba-diving
Effect of acidic rain
i. Acidic rain kills plants Economic use
ii. Acidic rain kills life in water bodies In economic activities water used in
iii. Acidic rain accelerates the decay of i. Manufacture
building materials like iron sheet and ii. Agriculture
paints iii. Mining
iv. Energy
Properties of water v. Construction
Consider the physical and chemical vi. Fishing
properties of water as follows
Manufacture
Physical properties of water i. Manufacture of chemicals
i. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless ii. Manufacture of Food
ii. Occurs natural in all state of mater iii. Manufacture of Beverages
iii. It is universal solvent
iv. Freezing point is 0 ℃ Agriculture
v. Its boiling point is 100 ℃ i. Used in Irrigation
ii. Used in Animal dips and left to settle for twenty minutes before it
iii. Used in Watering animal can be safe for drinking
Mining Use of commercial filters

i. Used to carry away impurities Commercial filter is a filter system which
ii. Used as solvent to extract mineral Contains two or more filter element/media
through which the water passes to be
Energy cleaned
i. Moving water used to generate electricity Diagram:
(HEP)
Construction
i. Contraction of buildings used to mix sand
and cement
ii. Contraction of road it used to compress
the sand
Fishing
i. It used for fishing
ii. Used for artificial fish pond
Unban water treatment
Solubility of different substances in water Tap water used in urban is usual obtained
i. Water as universe solvent dissolves many from sources such as rivers, stream and lakes
substance (solute) like common salts, which are not treated. Processes for treat
liquid soap, Sodium carbonate etc urban water are follows
ii. All substance which does not dissolve in i. Screening
water they dissolve in organic substance. ii. Reservoirs
Example iii. Primary filtration
a. Propane used to dissolve cooking oil iv. Secondary filtration
b. Ethanol used to dissolve glue and v. Disinfection/chlorination
printing ink vi. Storage
Water treatment and purification Screening

Water should be treated and purified before This process involves the removing of floats
it can be clean and safe for use substance
Domestic water purification Reservoirs

The follows methods used to treat water as This process involves the storing of water at
i. Boiling high up so it flows through gravitation
ii. Use of purifiers (atmospheric pressure)
iii. Use of commercial filters
Primary filtration
Boiling This process involves
Untreated water boiled for 5 minutes to kill i. Filtered water comes from reservoir
bacteria and the filtered by using clean through coarse sand (filter medium) to
cloth remove particles
ii. Addition of aluminium sulphate to water
Use of purifiers comes from reservoir to remove smaller
Recommended amount of Chemical particles which was not filtered at coarse
purifiers (AQUAGUARD and WATERGUARD) in sand
liquid or tablet form putted in a specific
amount of water then shaken or stirred well Secondary filtration

This process involves Filtered water comes
from primary filtration through finer sand
(filter medium) to remove smallest particles
Disinfection/chlorination
This process involves put Disinfection to water
comes from secondary filtration to kill
harmful bacteria
Storage
This process involves to store soft water
(comes from Disinfection/chlorination) ready
for use
Importance of water treatment
i. To kill harmful micro-organism such as
bacterial, algae, fungi
ii. To get accurate results from experiment
and effect treatment In laboratories and
medical facilities
iii. To ensure the manufacture products are
safe for consumption in factories
iv. To use small of certain substance to
make solution with water
v. To remove human made chemical
pollutant
vi. To make water safe and clean etc
vii. To removal mineral such as iron, sulphur
etc
viii. To remove the particles such as dust,
sand, leaves etc
Nb:
Disease like amoebic dysentery, cholera,
typhoid and other diarrhoea related diseases
are caused by using contaminated water

Fuels and energy Characteristics of a good fuel
In this topic will deals with fuels and energy, A good fuel should have the following
let us start with fuel characteristics
i. High energy value
Fuel ii. High rate of combustion
By defn: Fuel is combustible substance iii. Have Average ignition point
burning in air to produce energy (heat) iv. Low Non-combustible material content
.Since combustion is chemical process so v. Not produce poisonous gas
fuel is also called chemical fuel vi. Highest pyrometric burning effect
vii. Readily available
Categories of fuels viii. Affordable
Fuel classifies according to; ix. Ease to transport and store
i. Occurrence (preparation) x. Have no effect on environment
ii. Physical state
High energy value
Occurrence (preparation) A good fuel should have a high energy
According to occurrence fuel classified into value. Energy value is determined by the
two fuels includes amount of energy produced per unit mass of
i. Natural/primary fuel the fuel. This is called heat value
ii. Artificial/secondary fuel
High rate of combustion
Natural fuel A good fuel should have high rate of burns
By defn: Natural fuel is the fuel occurs and moderate rate for a continuous supply
natural. Example wood, coal, peat, of heat
petroleum and natural gas
Have Average ignition point
Artificial fuel By defn: ignition point is the temperature
By defn: Artificial fuel is the fuel manufacture needed to burn fuel. A good fuel should
in industries or fining from natural fuel. have average ignition point
Example coke, kerosene, petrol, coal gas
and producer gas Nb:
i. Low ignition is risk due to fire hazard
Physical state ii. High ignition point makes difficult to start a
According to physical state fuel classified fire
into three fuels include iii. Fuel with high ignition point is safe to
i. Solid fuel transport and store
ii. Liquid fuel
iii. Gaseous fuel Low Non-combustible material content
A good fuel should have low or no contents
Table show classification of fuels of non-combustible material. For example
Physical ashes
Natural fuel Artificial fuel
state
Wood, Nb:
Solid Charcoal, coke
coal i. Non-combustible materials lower the heat
Petrol, diesel, value of the fuel
Crude
Liquid kerosene, ii. Non-combustible materials left in form of
petroleum
biodiesel ash
Liquefied
petroleum gas Not produce poisonous gas
Gaseous Natural gas (LPG), coal gas, A good fuel should not give off poisonous
water gas, gases and also it should give off very little or
hydrogen no smoke

Highest pyrometric burning effect i. By defn Fossil energy is the energy formed
By defn: Pyrometric burning effect is the by anaerobic (without oxygen) decay of
highest temperature reached by burning plants that lived millions of years ago
fuel. A good fuel should have highest ii. Energy remain in the coal is Solar energy
Pyrometric burning effect stored in plants
Nb: Composition of coal

i. Gaseous fuels have Pyrometric burning Coal is composed by four components
effect includes
i. Moisture
Readily available ii. Volatile matter
A good fuel should be readily available in iii. Ash
large quantities iv. Coke
Affordable Nb:
A good fuel should be affordable to most i. When coal heated at 950℃ volatile
people matter is driven off in absence of air
ii. Volatile matter consists gases and low
Ease to transport and store boiling point organic compound that
A good fuel should be easy and safe to condense into oil when cooled and tar
transport and store iii. Ash is the non-combustible residue
material left coal burnt
Have no effect on environment iv. Coke is the material left after the volatile
A good fuel should not have harmful effect matter driven off
on the environment. Example Fossil fuels
which produce carbon monoxide on Types of coal
burning are major contributor to global There are different types of coal vary in
warming composition and properties. The most
important types of coal are
Destruction distillation i. Peat coal
By defn: Destruction distillation is the process ii. Lignite coal
whereby organic fuel decomposed by iii. Bituminous (soft) coal
heating in the absence of air (oxygen) to iv. Anthracite (hard) coal
obtain useful product
Destruction distillation of coal
Nb: By defn: Destruction distillation of coal is the
i. Organic fuel is wood, coal and oil shale process whereby coal decomposed by
ii. Useful product is coke, charcoal, oil and heating in the absence of air (oxygen) to
gases obtain coke, gases and volatile matter
Solid fuels Nb:

This is the kind of fuel which exist as solid,i. Coal contains a large amount of volatile
solid fuels include matter burns with smoky flame and has
i. Coal low energy value
ii. Charcoal ii. Coke is most used most coal product
iii. Some gases produced can be refined to
Coal form ammonia, coal tar and light oil
By defn: Coal is the fossil energy formed by iv. Destruction distillation of coal takes place
anaerobic (without oxygen) decay of plants in kilns
that lived millions of years ago
Coal Kilns
Nb: By defn: Coal Kiln is a furnace or oven for
burning coal in absence of air
ii. Insoluble in water c. Steam (hot blow) is passed for (1 – 2)
iii. Denser than air minutes
d. Air (cold blow) is passed for 4 minutes
Uses of producer gas to make coke to be red hot again at
i. Used as fuel to heating open-hearth 1000 ℃
furnace in steel and glass manufacturing e. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and
ii. Used as fuel to heating muffle furnace nitrogen produced during air blow are
and retorts in production of coke and coal escapes into atmosphere
gas ii. When coke become red hot again at
iii. Used to reducing atmosphere in certain 1000 ℃, the steam is allowed to react with
metal extraction operations red hot coke in order to produce water
gas
Water gas iii. The water gas collected at water gas
Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide outlet
and hydrogen gas with a small amount of
carbon dioxide. It buns with a non-luminous Properties of water gas
blue flame therefore is calledblue water gas i. It buns with a non-luminous blue flame
ii. It has energy value about 13628kJ/m3
Composition of water gas iii. It burns with high temperature about
Water gas composed with the follows 1200℃
Gas Percentage
hydrogen 48 % Uses of blue water gas
Carbon monoxide 44 % i. Used as an industrial fuel especially in
Carbon dioxide 4.2 % making steel
nitrogen 3% ii. Used in preparation of hydrogen
Methane 0.8 %
Energy value of a fuel
Production of water gas By defn: Energy value of a fuel is the total
It produced in a water gas generator amount of heat liberated by the complete
Diagram: combustion of unit mass of the fuel in
oxygen. SI unit of energy value is J/g or KJ/Kg
Mathematically:

E= ---------1
m
Where
E = energy value of a fuel
H = heat energy liberated
M = mass of the fuel used
Consider the diagram below
Mechanism Diagram:
i. When steam at 1000 ℃ react with red hot
coke produce water gas (carbon
monoxide and hydrogen gas)
Nb:
a. Reaction above is endothermic
(absorb) heat from red hot coke which
cause red hot coke to cool
b. Cold coke react with stream to form
carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas
instead of water gas
i. Wood, coal and charcoal used for
When water heated by methanol, it means cooking, boiling and ironing
water deliver heat from methanol so ii. Petrol, diesel and liquefied petroleum
From: conservation of energy gases used for running industrial plants,
Then: H = He = Hw = mc∆θ cars, planes, ship etc
Finally: H = mc∆θ - - - - - - 2 iii. Kerosene used for cooking and a source
Where: of light
H = Heat energy liberated iv. Coal is used to generate electricity in
He = Heat energy liberated by ethanol power plant
Hw = Heat energy absorbed by water v. Coal is used to in industry to make dye,
∆θ =(θ2 -θ1) = change in temperature insecticides and fertilizers
θ1=Initial temperature of water
θ2 = Final temperature of water Environmental effects on using charcoal and
m = mass of water firewood
c = specific heat of water Uses of charcoal and firewood cause
Insert eqn 2 into eqn 1 i. Deforestation (cutting down tree)
mc∆θ ii. Drought
Therefore: E =

iii. Floods
∆ iv. Disease
E=
 Deforestation
Nb:
i. Calorimeter is used to control the loss of Cutting down tree cause land unprotected
heat energy when determining energy from soil erosion
value of fuel
ii. In calculation you should convert Drought
temperature to Kelvin unit (K) Deforestation result disturb water cycle
which can cause drought and final famine
Example
The following results were obtained n an Floods
experiment to measure the heat value of Increase in carbon dioxide tend to increase
biodiesel global warming which results high
Initial temperature of water, θ1 = 24.7℃ temperature than normal which can cause
Final temperature of water, θ2 = 68.5℃ rains or melts ice in ice lands and final floods
Mass of biodiesel burnt, M = 56g
Volume of water used, v = 12 litres Disease
Determine heat value of the biodiesel. Flood always water may contaminate and
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 KJ Kg when people uses can affected and final
-1K-1, density of water = 1000 kg m-3) cause disease
Data given
θ1 = 24.7 ℃ = 24.7 + 273 = 297.7 k
θ2 = 68.5 ℃ = 68.5 + 273 =341.5 k
M = 56g 0.056 kg 3
v = 12 litres = 0.12 m
m = density x volume = 1000 x 0.12 = 120 kg
Heat value of biodiesel, E = ?
Solution
mc(θ −θ)
From: E =

 x . x (.5 −.)
E= = 392.32
.5
E = 392.32 kJ / Kg
Uses of fuel
Fuel used according to its efficiency
Energy iv.A microphone convert electrical energy
By defn: Energy is the capacity or ability of a to sound energy
body to do work. SI Unit of energy is Joule (J) v. Solar panel convert solar energy to
electrical energy
Forms of Energy vi.Solar cooker convert solar energy to heat
Energy they can be in motion or in position. energy
So we have about two main forms vii. Heater convert electrical energy to heat
i. Kinetic energy energy
ii. Potential energy
Alternative sources of energy
Kinetic Energy Source of energy can be divided into two
By defn: kinetic energy is the energy due to types
motion
of waves, possessed by atoms,
electrons, a body. molecules
The motionormay be
object Types of Sources of Energy
itself. For example of kinetic energy is
There are two types of sources of energy
i. Electric energy
namely:
ii. Radiant energy
iii. Thermal energy i. Non- renewable sources
iv. Sound energy ii. Renewable sources
v. Wind energy
vi. Water moving Non- Renewable Sources
vii. Ocean Waves These are the energy sources, which cannot
viii. Ocean Tides be turned into use again. For Examples:oil,
ix. Moving machines natural gas and charcoal
x. Falling bodies
Renewable Sources
Potential Energy These are the energy sources, which can be
By Defn: potential energy is the energy due to
turned into use again after being used.
position
potentialpossessed
energy by a body. For example of Example sun, water, wind, fossils etc,
i. (Chemical energy) Energy stored in food consider the follows
ii. Gravitational energy etc i. Solar energy
iii. Elastic energy ii. Biomass
iv. Nuclear energy iii. Biogas
iv. Wind energy
Nb: v. Water power
By defn: Mechanical energy is the sum of
kinetic energy and potential energy Solar energy
By Defn: Solar energy is the radiant energy
Principle of Conservation of Energy emitted by the sun
The law of conversation of energy states that
“Energy can neither be created nor Ways used to tap/harvest solar energy
destroyed but can be transferred from one i. Generating electricity using photovoltaic
form to another” or photoelectric solar cells
ii. Generating electricity using concentrated
Transformation of Energy solar power
Energy can be changes from one form to iii. Heating and cooking using parabolic
another consider the follows examples mirror that focus the suns to a central
i. Battery convert chemical energy to position
electrical energy iv. Heating and cooling using solar chimney
ii. Generator convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy NB:
iii. A motor convert electrical energy to The energy from the sun is the sources of all
mechanical energy energy on the earth

Mechanism
By pumping water to the hotter rocks, steam
drawn back to generate electricity by
rotates a turbine which rotates a turbine
which rotates a generator to produce
electricity
NB:
The turbine and propeller where are inform
of mechanical energy rotate dynamo or
generator which produce electricity

Structure of the atom
Atom
By defn: Atom is the smallest particle of an
element that has all the chemical properties
of that element. For example helium (H),
hydrogen (He), iron (Fe) etc
Molecules
Rutherford’s planetary model of atom
By defn: molecule a group of atoms bonded
together, representing the smallest fundamental Ernest Rutherford, he carried experiment to
unit of a compound that can take part in a prove if Thomson’s model was correct, and
chemical reaction. For Example water molecule final describe his finding
(H2O), hydrogen molecules (H2) i. The positively charged particles of an
atom located in the nucleus is called
Dalton’s Atomic theory protons
John Dalton developed his theory about the ii. Most of the mass of the atom located in
atom with five main points as follows the nucleus
i. Matter is made up of tiny particles called iii. Nucleus has a relative smaller volume
atom compared to whole atom
ii. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed iv. Negative charged particle moves around
iii. Atom of any one element are identical the nucleus in orbit is called electrons
and have the same chemical properties v. Electrons have very small mass compared
and the same mass to the protons
iv. Atom of a given element are different Diagram:
from those of any other element
v. Atoms of one element can combine in
simple ratio with the atom of another
element to form a compound atoms or

molecules
Modification from Dalton’s Atomic theory

i. Atom is made by sub atomic particle such
Simplified model of atom
as electrons, protons and neutrons
Chadwick established that there was
ii. Atoms can be created or destroyed
neutron in nucleus which had the same mass
iii. Atom of any one element can differ
as protons but no charge
example isotopes
Diagram:
iv. Atoms of one element can combine in
any ratio with the atom of another
element
Sub atomic particles

We have three model which describe Sub
atomic particles as follows
i. Thomson’s ‘Plum pudding’ model of atom Where:
ii. Rutherford’s planetary model of atom p = protons
iii. Simplified model of atom n = neutrons
e = electrons
Thomson’s ‘Plum pudding’ model ofatom
Sir JJ Thomson carried experiment and Therefore Atoms are made up by three sub
describe atom as sphere of positive change atomic of particles namely
with negative particles called electrons i. Protons
Diagram: ii. Neutrons
iii. Electrons

Protons v. Electron are arranged so that the lowest
By defn: Protons is the positive charged shell filled first
particle located at nucleus. It denoted by
small letter p. its charge and his mass is +1.6 x Electronic configuration
10− C and 1.6726 x 10− kg respectively By defn: Electronic configuration is the
arrangement of electrons in different shells
Neutrons
By defn: Neutrons is the neutral charged Electronic configuration of 20 elements
particle located at nucleus. It denoted by Element Electronic
Element symbol
small letter n. its charge and his mass is 0C number configuration
and 1.6749 x 10− kg respectively Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Electrons Lithium Li 3 2:1

By defn: Electrons is the negative charged Beryllium Be 4 2:2
particle revolves around the nucleus. It Boron B 5 2:3
denoted by small letter e. its charge and his Carbon C 6 2:4
mass is -1.6 x 10−C and 9.1094 x 10− kg Nitrogen N 7 2:5
respectively Oxygen O 8 2:6
Fluorine F 9 2:7
Properties of Subatomic Particles Neon Ne 10 2:8
Particle Symbol Charge (C) Mass (Kg) Sodium Na 11 2:8:1
Proton p +1.6 x 10− 1.6726 x 10− Magnesium Mg 12 2:8:2
Neutron n 0 1.6749 x 10− Aluminium Al 13 2:8:3
-1.6 x 10 − 9.1094 x 10−
Electron e Silicon Si 14 2:8:4
Phosphorus P 15 2:8:5
Electron arrangement Sulphur S 16 2:8:6
Electron is orbit the nucleus in a special Chlorine
regional called shells (energy levels) are Argon Cl
Ar 17
18 2:8:7
2:8:8
fixed distance from nucleus. Each shell can Potassium K 19 2:8:8:1
hold a maximum number of electrons given Calcium Ca 20 2:8:8:2
by formula (2n2)
Atomic Number
Me = (2n2) By defn: Atomic number is the number of
proton particle in nucleus of a particular
element. It denoted by capital letter Z
Where: Mathematically: Z = p
Me = maximum number of electron
n = position of shell from nucleus Mass Number
By defn: Mass number is the sum of protons
Nb: and neutrons particles. Also is called atomic
i. Electron must occupy the lowest available mass/weight. It denoted by capital letter A
ii. shell
Shell (energy
(energylevel)
level)nearest
can to the nucleus
represent with Mathematically: A = Z + n
letter as K, L, M, N, O ….. and 1,2,3,4,5 … Nb:
respectively i. Magnitude of protons and electrons
iii. Table show total electron in shells particles is equal
Shells Letter Formula Total electrons ii. Mass/weight of atom located at nucleus
1 K 2 x 12 2
2 L 2 x 22 8 Example:
3 M 2 x 32 18 Atom Q has a mass number of 49 and
4 N 2 x 42 32 atomic number of 24
iv. Shell contains maximum number of (a) What is its neutrons number
electrons is called filled shell
Prepared by: Daudi katyoki Kapungu O’Level Chemistry Notes- 2017
FORM THREE NOTES i. Reactants (A and B) are placed on the
Chemical Equations left-hand side of the equation
First we study chemical equation let study ii. Products (C and D) are placed on the
chemical reaction first right-hand side of the equation
iii. Reactants and Product separated by an
Chemical reaction arrow either single (→) or double (⇌)
By defn: Chemical reaction is event or which means Produce, Yield and form
process in which chemical substances iv. Each side of chemical reaction Reactant
change into different substance and products separated by plus (+) sign
Or v. Number of reactants and products do
By defn: Chemical reaction is event or not necessary to be the same
process in which atoms and molecules vi. Chemical equation written first in word
rearrange themselves to form new equation and second in formula equation
compound vii. State symbol must be included in
chemical equation inside parentheses ()
Nb: which is
i. Chemical substance (atoms and (a) Solid (s) – substance is solid state
molecules) reacting is called reactants (b) Liquid (l) - substance is liquid state
ii. New compound (substance) formed is (c) Gas (g) - substance is gas state
called products (d) Aqueous (aq) – substance dissolved
iii. Characteristics of Product formed are in water
different from the srcinal reactants
Types of chemical equation
Characteristics of chemical reactions There are three types of chemical equation
i. One or more new chemical reactions are include
formed i. Word equation
ii. Energy is taken in or given out during ii. Molecular(formula) equation
iii. reactions
Reaction may be reversible or irreversible iii. Ionic equation
reaction Writing and balancing equation
Chemical equation must written according
Irreversible reaction to law of conservation of matter which state
By defn: Irreversible reaction is the reaction that
proceeds only in one (forward) direction. It “In a chemical reaction, the total mass of
goes forward direction to form product. It products equal to the total mass of the
denoted by single allow (→) reactants”
Reversible reaction Steps to write simple chemical equation

By defn: Reversible reaction is the reaction The follows includes the steps used to write
whereby proceed both direction forward and balance simple chemical equation
and backward direction. It goes either i. Write equation in word
forward direction to form product then ii. Write equation by using symbol
backward direction to form srcinal iii. Balance the equation
reactants. It denoted by double allow ⇌
( ) Make sure the total atoms of products
equal to the total atoms of the reactants
Chemical Equation iv. Include the state symbol
By defn: chemical equation is a short way of
describe chemical reaction, when reactant Example
changes to product Solid calcium burns in chlorine to form solid
calcium chloride. Write an equation for the
A+B→C+D
reaction
Solution
Nb:
i. Write equation in word
Calcium + chlorine →calcium chloride
ii. Write equation by using symbol By defn: Combination reaction is reaction
Ca + Cl2 →CaCl2 whereby two or more substances combine
iii. Balance the equation to form a single more complex compound
Ca + Cl2 →CaCl2 (Balanced) Example:
iv. Include the state symbol A + B → AB
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) →CaCl2(s)
Example
Example Ammonia gas may be made from nitrogen
Hydrogen chloride is formed when and hydrogen in an industrial process
hydrogen burns in chlorine. Write an Chemical equation
equation for the reactions Nitrogen + hydrogen → Ammonia gas
Solution N2(g) + H2(g) → NH3(g)
i. Write equation in word
Hydrogen + chlorine → hydrogen chloride Example
ii. Write equation by using symbol If lead (IV) oxide is slight heated and then
H2 + Cl2 → HCl lowered into a gas jar of sulphur dioxide, the
iii. Balance the equation two compound combine to form one new
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl (Balanced) compound Lead (II) sulphate
iv. Include the state symbol Chemical equation
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) Lead (IV) oxide + sulphur dioxide → Lead (II)
sulphate
Example PbO2 (s) + SO2 (g) → PbSO4(s)
Zinc dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid to
form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. Write Decomposition reaction
balanced chemical reaction By defn: Decomposition reaction is reaction
Solution whereby single compound splitting to form
i. Write equation in word its components parts or simpler substance
Zinc n + +dilute
chloride hydrochloric
hydrogen gas acid → zinc often on :heating
Example
ii. Write equation by using symbol AB → A + B
Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
iii. Balance the equation Types of decomposition reaction
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 (g) (Balanced) There are three types include
iv. Include the state symbol i. Catalytic decomposition reaction
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) ii. Electrolytic decomposition reaction
iii. Thermal decomposition reaction
Example
Balance the following chemical equation Catalytic decomposition reaction
and show the reactants and reactants Catalyst is introduce to alter the rate of a
i. CaCO3(s) + 2HCL (aq) → CaCL2(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) chemical reaction
ii. H2O(l) + O2(g) → H2O2
Electrolytic decomposition reaction
Types of chemical reaction Aqueous solution or molten compound
The follows are types of chemical reactions, exposed in electrical current to
includes decomposition compound
i. Combination or synthesis reaction
ii. Decomposition reaction Thermal decomposition reaction
iii. Displacement reaction Heat used to decompose compound
iv. Precipitation (double displacement)
reaction Example
v. Redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction Potassium chlorate will readily decompose
when heated with manganese (IV) oxide as
Combination or synthesis reaction a catalyst to produce oxygen and
potassium chloride
Chemical equation By defn: Precipitation reaction is the

Potassium chlorate  oxygen + reaction whereby two soluble compound

combine to give a soluble compound and
potassium chloride
 precipitate (insoluble compound)

2KClO3 (s)  3O2 (g) + 2KCl (s) Example:
AB(aq) + CD(aq) → AC(s) + BD(aq)
Example
When lead (II) nitrate crystals are heated, Example
they decompose with a cracking sound to White aqueous silver nitrate added to
give off nitrogen (IV) oxide gas which is aqueous solution of sodium chloride, a
brown in colour and oxygen gas. The solid white precipitate of silver chloride is formed
left behind is lead oxide which is yellow in Chemical equation
colour Silver nitrate + sodium chloride → silver
Chemical equation chloride + sodium nitrate

Lead nitrate  lead oxide + nitrogen (IV) AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
oxide + oxygen
 Example
2Pb(NO3)2 (s)  2PbO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
White aqueous solution of sodium sulphate is
mixed with an aqueous solution of barium
Example
chloride; a solid barium sulphate is formed
White silver chloride breaks down in the
Chemical equation
presence of light to give tiny black crystals Sodium sulphate + barium chloride→ barium
of silver and chlorine gas
sulphate + sodium chloride
Chemical equation Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl
ℎ
Silver chloride  silver + chlorine (aq)
ℎ
2AgCl (s)  2Ag (s) + Cl2 (g)
Redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction
Displacement reaction By defn: Redox reaction is a reaction where

By defn: Displacement reaction is a reaction one substance oxidized and one is reduced
whereby a more active substance takes
place of a less active substance in a Term used
compound i. Reduction: Reduction is reaction where
Example: the oxygen removed from substance
AB + C → AC + B Or
Reduction: Reduction is reaction where
Example the hydrogen added to a substance
When zinc combines with hydrochloric acid, Or
the zinc takes place of hydrogen Reduction: Reduction is reaction where
Chemical equation electrons gained
Zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + Or
hydrogen Reduction: Reduction is reaction where
Zn(s) + HCL (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) oxidation number (state) lost
Example ii. Reducing agent : Reducing agent is the

When iron reacts with copper (II) sulphate, substance which removes of oxygen from
copper is replaced from the copper that substance
sulphate Or
Chemical equation Reducing agent: Reducing agent is the
Iron + copper (II) sulphate → iron (II) substance which transfers of hydrogen to
sulphate + copper another substance
Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
iii. Oxidation: Oxidation is reaction where
Precipitation (double displacement) the addition of oxygen from substance
reaction Or
Base hydroxide is the base of hydroxide NH4OH(aq) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH -(aq)
compound. For example Calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2) Concentration of base
Concentration of base is the quantity of the
Classification of Base oxides base (solute) in the water
Classified into two part includes
i. Soluble hydroxide (Alkalis) Nb:
ii. Insoluble hydroxide (basic hydroxide) i. If base contain very little or no water is
called concentrated base
Physical properties of base ii. If base contain more water is called
i. Have a bitter taste diluted base
ii. Turn red litmus paper blue iii. Weak or strong base can be
iii. Have a soap or slippery feel concentrated or diluted
iv. Most insoluble in water
Uses of alkalis
Chemical properties of base i. In various neutralization process
i. Base react with acid to form salt and ii. In the manufacture of cleaning agent
water iii. In various industrial process like
Acid + base → salt + water manufacture of paper
HCL(aq) + NaOH (aq) ⟶ NaCL(aq) + H2O (l)
H2SO4(aq) + CaO(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) + H2O (l) Indicator
By defn: Indicator is a chemical compound
ii. Alkalis precipitate insoluble metal that shows a definite colour change in acid
hydroxides from their salt solution or base. It used to test whether a substance
Alkalis + salt solution → insoluble is acidic, neutral or base
hydroxides + salt
3KOH(aq) + FeCl (aq) → Fe(OH)3 (s) + Common indicator
3KCl(aq) The follows

i. Litmus are common
paper (LT) includes
iii. Alkalis react with ammonium salt to ii. Phenolphthalein (POP)
produce ammonia gas, water and salt iii. Methyl orange (MO)
Alkalis + ammonium salt → ammonia gas iv. Bromothymol blue (BB)
+ water + salt
2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCl2(aq)+ Colour change of common indicator
2H2O(l) + 2NH3 (g) Indicator Acidic basic
LT Red Blue
Strength of base POP Colourless Red
Due to degree of dissociation when MO Red Yellow
dissolved in water, acid can be classified as BB Yellow blue
i. Strong base
ii. Weak base
Strong base
By defn: Strong base is the base whereby all
atoms present in base dissociate completely
in water to give hydroxyl ions and positive
ions associated with base
NaOH(aq) ⟶ Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Weak base
By defn: Weak base is the base whereby all
atoms present in base dissociate partial in
water to give hydroxyl ions and positive ions
associated with base
pH scale (b) Ant bites and nettle sting contain
By defn: pH scale is the scale that indicates methanoic acid which also neutralized
the degree of acidity and basicity of a by baking soda or other alkaline
solution substance like cucumber, avocado
Diagram etc
(c) Wasp sting are alkaline and can be
neutralized by vinegar (acetic acid)
ii. Relieving indigestion

Stomach pain (indigestion) caused by
Relation between Ph scale and acidity
presence of excess acid (HCl) in the
Ph scale is inversely proportion to the acid
stomach. It relieving (neutralized) by
means increase in pH scale acidity
liquid/tables contain magnesium
decrease bicarbonates or sodium bicarbonates
Mathematically

pH = 
iii. Soil treatment
When soil is too acidic lime materials
Relation between Ph scale and basicity include quick lime (CaO), Slaked lime
Ph scale is directly proportion to the basicity (CaOH) and Calcium carbonate
means increase in pH scale basicity (CaCO3) added to neutralize soil
increased
Mathematically iv. Treating factory wasters
pH = basicity Waste from factories often contains acid
which can cause death to living organism
Universal Indicator either land or water bodies. To prevent
Universal indicator is the mixture of these lime materials added to neutralize
indicators whereby indicate pH values more wastes from industries
range about 3-14 value v. Manufacture of fertilizers

Colour of Universal Indicator Ammonium fertilizer produced from
it changes from bright pink in acid solution neutralization between ammonia (NH3)
to purplish then to green in middy alkaline with mineral acid
solutions and finally to yellow in very alkaline HNO3 (aq) + 2NH3 (g) →NH4NO3 (aq)
solution H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (g) → (NH4)2NO3 (aq)
Neutralization vi. Neutralizing accidental spills chemicals

By defn: Neutralization is the reaction When acid accidental spill at a particular
between base and acid to form salt and area since is corrosive is neutralized by
water base
Nb: vii. Reducing acid rain occurrence

i. Volume of acid neutralize alkalis is called Acid rain (acid formed by carbon
Titre dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
ii. Method of neutralization is known as dioxide) is reduced by fitted exhaust
volumetric titration since its involved to pipes and chimneys to neutralize acidic
find quantity of volume of titre compound before reaching the
atmosphere
Application of neutralization
i. Treating insect stings and bites
(a) Acidic liquids injected into the skin by
insect stings (bees) is neutralized by
rubbing with baking soda (NaHCO3) in
affected area

Salts Nb:
By defn: Salt is compound formed when Water removed by evaporation to get
hydrogen ions of an acid is replaced crystals
directly or indirectly by metal or an
ammonium (c) Reaction between acid and insoluble
base
Term used Acid + insoluble base → salt + water
i. Water of crystallization: Water of 2HCL(aq) + CuO (s) ⟶ CuCl2(aq) + H2O (l)
crystallization is the water bonded to H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) ⟶ ZnSO4(aq) + H2O (l)
compound which when removed , the
compound reabsorb water again Nb:
ii. Crystallization: Crystallization is the Water removed by evaporation to get
process formation of solid crystals from a crystals
homologous solution
iii. Crystallization point: Crystallization point is (d) Reaction between acids and metal
the point where solid crystal formed when carbonates
water evaporated Acid + metal carbonate → salt + carbon
iv. Solubility: Solubility is the number of moles dioxide + water
of the solute required to saturate 1kg of 2HCL(aq) +CaCO3(aq) ⟶ CaCL2(aq) + CO2
solvent at a given temperature . Its SI Unit (g) + H2O (l)
is Mol/kg H2SO4(aq)+CaCO3(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) + CO2
(g) + H2O (l)
Natural source of salt 2HNO3(aq) + CaCO 3(aq) ⟶ Ca(NO3)2(aq) +
Natural sources of salt are sea water and CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
rocks which consists
i. Sodium chloride (common salt) - NaCl Nb:
ii. Sodium sulphate – Na2SO4 Water removed by evaporation to get
iii. Calcium
iv. Calcium sulphate - CaSO
carbonates
4
– CaCO3 crystals
(e) Reaction between acids and metal
Preparation of salts hydrogen carbonates
Method used depend either salt is Acid + hydrogen carbonate → salt +
i. soluble salt carbon dioxide + water
ii. insoluble salt HCL(aq) + Ca(HCO 3)2(aq) ⟶ CaCL2(aq) +
CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Preparation of soluble salt H2SO4(aq)+ Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) +
They prepared by the following methods CO2 (g)+ H2O (l)
(a) Reaction between acid and metal HNO3(aq) +Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ⟶ Ca(NO3)2(aq)
Acid + metal → salts + hydrogen gas + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
HCL(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ ZnCL2(aq) + H2 (g)
H2SO4(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ ZnSO4(aq) + H2 (g) Nb:
HNO3(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2 (g) Water removed by evaporation to get
crystals
Nb:
This reaction is not suitable for very (f) Direct combination
reactive metals like potassium, sodium or Salt (anhydrous salt) can be formed by
calcium, the reaction would be too first direct combination or synthesis
so can cause explosion 2Fe (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → FeCl3 (s)
(b) Reaction between acid and alkalis Preparation of insoluble salt

Acid + alkalis → salt + water The only method used to prepare insoluble
HCL(aq) + NaOH (aq) ⟶ NaCL(aq) + H2O (l) salt is double decomposition or ionic
H2SO4(aq) + CaO(aq) ⟶ CaSO4(aq) + H2O (l) precipitation reaction, then filters, washed
by distilled water and dried to get crystals
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq) Double salt
Double salt is the salt formed when two
Other common insoluble salts which can be solution of salt are mixed together and
prepared using this method include allowed to stand for some time, they react
i. Calcium sulphate – CaSO4 to form a single new salt which is different
ii. Magnesium carbonate – MgCO3 from the srcinal salts. For example
iii. Silver chloride - AgCl (NH4)2SO4(aq) + Fe2(SO4)3(aq) →
iv. Barium carbonate - BaCO3 [FeNH4(SO4)(aq)]
v. Barium sulphate - BaSO4
vi. Lead sulphate - PbSO4 Solubility of salt
By defn: Solubility of salt is the amount moles
Types of salt of salt required to saturate 1 kg of solvent at
There are four types of salts include a given temperature
i. Normal salt
ii. Acidic salt Nb:
iii. Basic salt i. Solubility varies with temperature
iv. Double salt ii. Solubility useful for predicting amount of
solute can dissolved in a given mass of
Normal salt solvent at a particular temperature
Normal salt is the salt formed when all the iii. All nitrates are soluble in water
replacement hydrogen ions of acid are iv. All suphates are soluble in water, except
replaced by metal. For example (a) Lead sulphate - PbSO4
Potassium carbonate – K2CO3 (b) Barium sulphate - BaSO4
Sodium sulphate – Na2SO4 (c) Calcium sulphate - CaSO4
Ammonium sulphate – (NH4)2SO4 (d) Mercury (II) sulphate - HgSO4
Zinc chloride - ZnCl v. All chlorides s are soluble in water, except
(a) Lead chloride - PbCl2
Acidic
Acidic salt
salt is the salt formed when only part (b)
(c) Silver chloride
Mercury - AgCl– HgCl
(II) chloride 2
of the replacement hydrogen ions of acid vi. All carbonates are soluble in water
are replaced by metal. For example except
First stage (a) Sodium carbonate - Na2CO3
NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) → Na2CO3 (aq) (b) Potassium carbonate - K2CO3
(c) Ammonium carbonate – (NH4)2CO3
Second stage
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → NaHCO3 (aq) Solubility curve
Solubility curve is the graph of solubility (y-
Other acidic salt axes) against temperature (x-axis) which
i. Sodium hydrogen sulphate – NaHSO4 used to predict how much solute (salt) will
ii. Potassium hydrogen carbonate - KHCO3 dissolved in a given mass of solvent (water)
iii. Sodium hydrogen phosphate – NaHPO4 at a particular temperature
Diagram
Nb:
Monobasic acid cannot form acidic salts
Basic salt
Basic salt is the salt formed when amount of
acid required to neutralize an alkali (base) is
insufficient. For example
i. Basic zinc chloride – [ZnCl2 . Zn(OH)2]
ii. Basic magnesium chloride –
[MgCl2.Mg(OH)2]
iii. Basic lead carbonates - [PbCO3. Pb(OH)2]


Example MgCO3 (s)  MgO (s)+ CO2 (g)
Consider the diagram below 
CaCO3 (s)  CaO (s)+ CO2 (g)
Green copper (II) carbonate decompose

easily to give black copper (II) oxide and
carbon dioxide

CuCO3 (s)  CuO (s)+ CO2 (g)
Zinc (II) carbonate decompose to form

yellow zinc (II) oxide and carbon dioxide
gas

at 50 ℃?, What solubility of ZnCO3 (s) ZnOzinc

Nb: whenyellow + CO (s) 2 (g)
(II) oxide cool become
(a) KNO3 white
(b) (NH4)2SO4
(c) KCl Lead (II) carbonate decompose to give
(d) K2SO4 reddish brown lead (II) oxide and carbon
(e) NaCl dioxide gas

Solution PbCO3 (s)  PbO (s) + CO2 (g)
The solubility at 50 ℃ is Nb: when reddish brown lead (II) oxide cool
(a) KNO3 – 92 mol/kg become yellow
(b) (NH4)2SO4 – 92 mol/kg
(c) KCl – 55 mol/kg Ammonium carbonate decompose to give
(d) K2SO4 – 35 mol/kg ammonia gas, carbon dioxide and water
(e) NaCl - 21 mol/kg 
(NH4)2CO3 (s)  NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(g)
Nb: ammonia carbonate decompose slowly
Action of heat on salts at room temperature to produce ammonia
When salt heated some salts decompose
gas which has a strong pungent smell
on slight heating, other salts decompose
when heated strongly and other salts do not
Effect of heat on carbonates
decompose on heating instead changes its
Carbonate Product
state, consider the follows
Potassium
i. Action of heat on carbonates Do not decompose
Sodium
ii. Action of heat on nitrates
iii. Action of heat on sulphates Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Action of heat on carbonates
Zinc Metal oxide +carbon diode
Metal carbonates decompose on heating
Iron
to form a metal oxide and carbon dioxide
 Lead
Metal carbonates  metal oxide + carbon Copper
dioxide Silver Not exist
Mercury
Sodium and potassium carbonates does not ammonia gas + carbon
decompose on heating because is the very Ammonium
dioxide + water
reactive metal

Na2CO3  no reaction Action of heat on nitrates

K2CO3  no reaction Nitrates are not stable so Most Metalnitrates
decompose on heating to form a metal
Magnesium and calcium carbonates oxide, nitrogen dioxide (brown fumes) and
decompose to gives oxide and carbon oxygen gas

dioxide Metal nitrate  metal oxide + nitrogen
dioxide + oxygen gas
Second stage occur during ammonium
Sodium and potassium nitrates melts and hydrogen sulphate cooling to form
decompose slowly to give oxygen and ammonia and sulphuric acid

metal nitrite NH4HSO4 (l)  H2SO4 (l) + NH3 (g)

2NaNO3 (s)  2NaNO2 (s) + O2 (g)

2KNO3 (s)  2KNO2 (s) + O2 (g) Nb:
All ammonium salts decompose on heating,
All remain metal nitrates decompose to give ammonium chloride decompose on
metal oxides, nitrogen dioxide and water heating to form hydrogen chloride and
 ammonia gas
CuNO3 (s)  CuO (s) + NO2 (g) + O2 (g) 
 NH4Cl (l)  HCl (g) + NH3 (g)
CaNO3 (s)  CaO (s) + NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
Silver and mercury decompose to give Uses of salts

i. Control soil pH
metal, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas
 Calcium oxide added when soil is acidic
2AgNO3 (s)  2Ag (s) + 2NO 2 (g) + O2 (g) and calcium sulphate (gypsum) added

2HgNO3 (s)  2Hg (s) + 2NO 2 (g) + O2 (g) when soil is alkaline
ii. Used as antacid
Ammonium nitrates decompose to give Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt) and
Dinitrogen oxide and water sodium hydrogen carbonate are used to
 relieve heartburn and acid in the
NH4NO3 (s)  N2O (g) + H2O(g)
stomach
iii. Used as inorganic fertilizer
Effect of heat on nitrates
Inorganic fertilizers like ammonium
Nitrate Product
sulphate, ammonium nitrate and calcium
Potassium
Metal nitrate + oxygen phosphate
Sodium
iv. Sodium chloride used for seasoning and
Calcium preserving food
Magnesium v. Sodium carbonates used to soft hard
Aluminium water
Metal oxide + nitrogen (IV)
Zinc vi. Ammonium chloride used as electrolyte in
oxide + oxygen
Iron dry batteries
Lead vii. Ammonium salts are used in the
Copper manufacture of plastic, synthetic fibre,
Silver Metal + nitrogen (IV) oxide + dyes, explosives and pharmaceuticals
Mercury oxygen viii. Copper (II) sulphate is used as a
Ammonium Dinitrogen oxide +water fungicide
ix. Silver bromide is used in making
Action of heat on sulphates photographic film
Sulphates are more stable than nitrate. It x. Calcium chloride is used as a drying
must heated strongly to decompose agent and in freezing mixture
Sulphate of alkalis and alkali earth metal do

not decompose when heated

Na2SO4  no reaction

K2SO4  no reaction
Ammonium sulphate decompose on two

stage on heating
First stage decompose to form ammonium
hydrogen sulphate and ammonia gas

(NH4)2SO4 (s)  NH4HSO4 (l) + NH3 (g)

Mathematically
Example n1 = n2
Calculate the molarity of the following But: n = cv
solutions Then: n1 = c1v1 and n2 = c2v2
(a) 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in 250 If: n1 = n2 = c1v1 = c2v2
cm3 of the solution Then: c1v1 = c2v2
(b) 2 moles of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
c1v1 = c2v2
into 5 litres of the solution
Solution
Where:
(a) Molarity of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
n1 = mole of concentrated solution
m = 4.0 g
n2 = mole of diluted solution
v = 250 cm3 = 0.25 dm3
c1 = concentration of concentrated solution
Mr = NaOH = 23 + 16 +1 = 40g/ mol
M=? v1 = volume of concentrated solution
c2 =concentration of diluted solution
Solution
m v2 = volume of diluted solution
From: M =
 x v

M =
 x .5 Dilution Factor

M =  By Defn: Dilution Factor is the factor shows
M = 0.4 how times the volume of concentrated
M = 0.4 M solution is diluted to obtain the diluted
solution
(b) Molarity of sodium carbonate Mathematically
n = 2 moles From: c1v1 = c2v2
v = 5 litres = 5 dm3 Divide by v1 and c2 both sides
M=?  
Solution
= =k

 
From: M =

v
M = v = 5 = 0.4 Where:
k = diluted factor
M = 0.4 M
Example
Example
What volume of 10 M of acetic acid is
How many moles of potassium hydroxide
required to prepare 1.0 dm3 of 0.50 M of
are there in 0.5 dm3 of a 0.2M potassium
acetic acid?
hydroxide solution?
Data
Data
c1 = 10 M
v = 0.5 dm3
c2 =0.50 M
M = 0.2 M
v2 = 1.0 dm3
n=?
v1 = ?
Solution
 Solution
From: M = - substitute n subject
v From: c1v1 = c2v2 – make c1 subject
n = Mv = 0.2 x 0.5 = 0.1 moles v1 =   
n = 0.1 mol 
.5  
v1 =

Dilution v1 = 0.05
By Defn: Dilution is the process of lowering v1 = 0.05 dm3
concentration by adding more solvent.
Concentrated solution is called stock Stoichiometry
solution By defn: Stoichiometry is the relationship
between relative quantity of Reactant and
Dilution formula products
Mole remain constant even if solution
concentration lowered Example of Stoichiometry
 
Consider the reaction below n= = = 0.01 mol of CaCO3
 
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 ()
i. For molecule 
1 molecule of nitrogen gas requires 3 1 mole of CO2  1 moles of CaCO3

molecules of nitrogen gas to produce 2 X volume of CO2  0.01 mol of CaCO3
molecules of ammonia gas Then: Cross multiplication
  .
X= = 0.05 mol

ii. For mole
X = 0.01 mol of CO2
1 mole of nitrogen gas requires3 moles of
Then: find volume of CO2 at STP from
nitrogen gas to produce 2 moles of
calculated mol above
ammonia gas 
From: n = - make v subject

iii. According to Avogadro’s law V = n x GMV = 0.01 x 22.4 = 2.24
1 volume of nitrogen gas requires 3 V = 2.24 dm3
volumes of nitrogen gas to produce 2
volumes of ammonia gas
iv. For ratio

N2 : H2 : NH3 = 1:3:2
Example
How many moles of nitrogen would react
with excess hydrogen to produce 2.24 dm3
of ammonia at STP?
Solution
From balanced equation
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 ()

1 mole of N2  2 moles of NH3

X moles of N2  2.24 dm3 of NH3
Nb: find mole of ammonia
 .
n= = = 0.1 mol of NH3
 .

1 mole of N2  2 moles of NH3

X moles of N2  0.1 mol of NH3
Then: Cross multiplication
.  
X= = 0.05 mol

X = 0.05 mol
Example
Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide gas
that will be produced at STP. When 10g of
calcium carbonate is completely
decomposed by heating as shown by the
following equation

CaCO3 (s)  CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Solution
From balanced equation above

1 mole of CO2  1 moles of CaCO3

X volume of CO2  10 g of CaCO3
Nb: find moles of CaCO3

Volumetric Analysis ii. Reading of burette should be in two
By defn: Volumetric analysis is a chemical decimal places
procedure for determining the
concentration of a solution How to clean burette
i. Clean by detergent and tap water. Rinse
Terms used (remove soap or dirt) by using tap water
i. standards solution: Standards solution is until no foam
solution of known concentration ii. Fill the burette with distilled water three
ii. Titration: Titration is a technique of adding times by allowing the distilled water to run
standard solution to flask from burette through the stop tap each times
iii. Indicator: Indicator is used to monitor a iii. Finally rinse the burette with (5 - 10)cm 3 of
chemical change when the correct the reagent (titrant) to run through the
proportions have reacted stop tap each
iv. End point: End point is the point whereby
the correct proportions have reacted Nb:
completely If there leakage in the burette, apply some
v. Standardization: standardization is a petroleum jelly to the leaking part to stop
procedure used to determine the the leakage
unknown concentration of solution
vi. Equivalent point of titration: Equivalent How to use burette
point of titration is the point whereby i. Clamp the burette in the retort stand
number of moles of base is equal to the ii. Fill the reagent (titrant) by filter funnel up
number of moles of acid in a solution to above the zero mark
iii. Remove air bubble from the burette tip
Standard Volumetric Apparatus by rapid draining the titrant through the
The follows apparatus used burette while gently tapping the tip
i. Burette iv. Refill the burette and adjust its reading to
ii. Pipette
iii. Volumetric flasks zero and take the initial reading
iv. Conical flask Nb:
v. Filter funnel i. Initial reading should note be zero
vi. Retort stand with clamp ii. Hold a black-stripped white card behind
vii. White tile or paper the meniscus when taking the reading in
viii. Measuring cylinders order to ensure the meniscus is clearly
ix. Wash bottle visible
x. Beakers iii. Solution filled in burette is called titrant
xi. Dropper iv. View the meniscus horizontal to obtain
correct reading which tend to avoid
Burette parallax error
Burette is a graduated tube with one open v. During titration top of burette should be
end and a stop tap at the other end centre and dipped into the flask
Diagram:
Pipette
Pipette is a thin glass tube with a wide
middle part used to measure and transfer
definite volume of liquid or solution. It has a
capacity of (20 or 25) cm3
Diagram:
Nb:
i. Common burette has a capacity of 50
cm3
It states that Product particle = 4
’’If a system at equilibrium is subjected to This type of reactions favour low pressure
change, processes occur which tend to forward direction since products has high
counteract the change’’ number of particle and vice versa
Or
’’If stress is applied to a system at Example
equilibrium, the system readjusts, if possible, CO (g) + H2O (g) CO2(g) + H2(g)
to reduce the effect of the stress’’ Reactant particle = 2
Product particle = 2
Factors affect position of equilibrium Has equal number of gaseous molecules on
The factors affect position of equilibrium both sides. Changing the overall pressure
include the following will not affect the state of equilibrium
i. Concentration
ii. Pressure Example
iii. Temperature H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
Reactant particle = 2
Concentration Product particle = 2
The reaction always shift (proceeds) from Has equal number of gaseous molecules on
the side of high concentration to low both sides. Changing the overall pressure
concentration will not affect the state of equilibrium
Pressure Example
Pressure depends on number of particles Determine whether the following reactions
reactants side and product side to favor high or low pressures?
determine the direction of reaction. (a) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g)
Increase in pressure cause reaction to shift (b) PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
(proceeds) from the side of high number of (c) CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g)
particles to low number of particles (d)

(e) N
2O4(g)
H2(g) 2 NO2
+ F2(g)
2(g)
HF(g)
Nb: Pressure affects only gaseous Solution
components (a) high pressures
(b) high pressures
Example (c) high pressures
Consider the reaction of reddish brown (d) low pressures
nitrogen dioxide to form yellow Dinitrogen (e) high or low pressures will not affect the
tetraoxide state of equilibrium
2NO2 (g) ⇌ N2O4 (g)
Reactant particle = 2 Temperature
Product particle = 1 Temperature affect equilibrium in two
Increase in pressure will favour forward dimensions either reaction is
direction since reactant has high number of i. Endothermic reaction
particle and vice versa ii. Exothermic release reaction
Example Endothermic reaction

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g) By defn: Endothermic reaction is the
Reactant particle = 4 reaction absorbs heat energy from
Product particle = 2 surrounding. Increase in temperature favour
Increase in pressure will favour forward endothermic reaction. It denoted by +∆H kJ
direction since reactant has high number of mol -1. For Example
particle and vice versa i. Dissolving ammonium chloride in water
ii. Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water
Example iii. Mixing water and potassium chloride
CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g), iv. Photosynthesis
Reactant particle = 2
Energy level diagram
Energy (heat) change can be represented
on a graph paper in which x-axis represents
energy and y-axis represents reaction path
Diagram:
Activation energy (AE) also can be shown in

an energy level diagram
Diagram:
Activation energy (AE) also can be shown in

an energy level diagram
Diagram:
Where
Ea = activation energy
∆H = -∆H = (Hp – Hr) = exothermic energy
Hp = final (product) temperature
Hr = initial (reactant) temperature
Where
Ea = activation energy Example
∆H = +∆H = (Hp – Hr) = endothermic energy Determine whether the following reactions
Hp = final (product) temperature favour high or low temperature?
Hr = initial (reactant) temperature (a) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g) ∆H = -180 kJ
(b) CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g) ∆H = -46 kJ
Exothermic release reaction (c) CO(g) + Cl2(g) COCl2(g) ∆H = -108.3 kJ
By defn: Exothermic reaction is the reaction (d) N2O4(g) 2 NO2(g) ∆H = +57.3 kJ
release heat energy from surrounding. (e) CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g) ∆H = -270 kJ
Increase in temperature favour exothermic Solution
reaction. It denoted by -∆H kJ mol -1 for (a) Favour low temperature
Example (b) Favour low temperature
i. Combustion reactions (c) Favour low temperature
ii. Mixing of water and strong acids like (d) Favour high temperature
Concentrated HCl (e) Favour low temperature
Energy level diagram Example

Energy (heat) change can be represented A solution of sodium hydroxide is added to a
on a graph paper in which x-axis represents solution of hydrochloric acid
energy and y-axis represents reaction path (a) Given that both solution are at room
Diagram: temperature of 18℃, what type of
reaction takes place if the final steady
temperature of reaction mixture is 36℃
(b) Draw an energy level diagram for the
reaction
Solution
(a) Data
Hp = 36℃

Hr = 18℃
∆H = ? The reactants should mixed in stoichiometric
From: ∆H = (Hp – Hr)= (36 – 18) ℃ = 18℃ proportions of nitrogen and hydrogen (that
∆H = +18℃ is, 1 volume of N2 to 3 volume of H2) and
The reaction is endothermic reaction carrying out the reaction at high pressure,
the percent yield of ammonia is between
(b) (15 - 20)%
Effect of temperature
The reaction is exothermic reaction but in
this process temperature supplied is about
250 oC. This temperature is high enough to
enable the production of ammonia to
proceed at acceptable rate
Effect of pressure
Nb: Pressure about (200-300) atm supplied to
i. The study of energy change that enable the production of ammonia to
accompany chemical reactions is proceed at acceptable rate. Ammonia
called Thermochemistry condenses to a liquid under conditions at
ii. Energy (kinetic and potential)used to which nitrogen and hydrogen exist as gases
breaking intermolecular bond
iii. The sum of kinetic energy and potential Effect of catalyst
energy is called heat content or Iron is used as catalyst to speed up the
enthalpy reaction
iv. The energy gained or lost during
chemical reaction when molar quantity Effect of Concentration
are reactingreaction
in chemical is called enthalpy change However, equilibrium
adding more N2 isand
shifted
H2 togases
the rightand
by
v. enthalpy change in chemical reaction simultaneously removing the ammonia as it
has a SI unit of kJ mol -1 is formed
vi. enthalpy change in chemical reaction It
denoted by delta H (∆H) Nb:
vii. enthalpy change in chemical reaction is i. The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen
obtained by subtract heat content of are recycled, together with the newly
reactant (Hr) from heat content of added batch of reactants
product (Hp) ii. In the above process, hydrogen is
Mathematically obtained from natural gas by the
∆H = (Hp – Hr) following reactions
CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)
2CH4(g) + O2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2(g)
Industrially Important Chemical Equilibrium
Many important processes in chemical
industries involve shifting equilibrium to make Contact Process
The production of sulfuric acid starts with the
the most of product at the lowest cost. The
following are some of the examples following steps, include
i. formation of sulfur dioxide
i. Haber Process
ii. Contact Process ii. formation of sulfur trioxide
iii. Production of Lime iii. formation of disulfuric acid
iv. formation of sulfuric acid
Haber process
In the Haber process, nitrogen and Formation of sulfur dioxide
hydrogen gases are fixed to form ammonia Formation of sulfur dioxide gas can be done
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g) ∆H = -92 kJ by the following methods
i. burning sulfur in dry air
Extraction of metals If metal ore occur as sulphides, the
By defn: Extraction of metal is the process concentrated ore is heated in air to convert
whereby pure metal obtained from an ore the ore from sulphide compound to Oxide
compound

Stages of the extraction of metals Metal sulphide  metal oxide (s) + SO2 (g)
There are four common stages include
i. Concentration of the Ore Chemical equation
ii. Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide 2Cu2S(s) + 3 O(g)
2 2SO 2 (g) + 2Cu2O (s)
iii. Reduction 2FeS (s) + 2O
(g)
2 2SO 2 (g) + 2FeO (s)
iv. Purifying the Metal
Nb:
Concentration of the Ore i. Roasting usually involve greater chemical
It involves the removing the impurities
present in the metal ore change such
ii. Roasting takeas oxidation
place or chlorination
in a furnace
Method used to remove impurities Reduction

Impurities is removed by the follows methods Reduction is the process whereby oxygen is
i. Dressing removed from a metal oxide
ii. Calcination
NB
Dressing i. Reduction by carbon is called Smelting
Dressing is the removal of impurities from the ii. Reduction by heating in the presence of
metal Ore without decomposing the ore air is called Autoreduction
chemically iii. Reduction by passing electricity in the
compound solution is called electrolysis
Nb: iv. Reduction by forming precipitate is called
i. The main impurities which are removed precipitation
during the dressing
Sand, Limestone, of Silicates
Quartz, metal ores are v. Reduction by forming amalgam is called
amalgamation
ii. Ore is broken down into small pieces vi. Impure metal from reduction is known as
which are then ground to fine powder crude Metal
iii. Fine powder fed into water tanks
containing frothing chemical for froth Method used to extract different metal ore
flotation Less electropositive
metal oxides and
Calcination sulphides such a lead,
Calcination is heating of metal ore of Autoreduction mercury and copper.
hydrated oxide or carbonate in the HgS is reduced to
absence of Air below its melting point mercury using this

Metal oxide.XH2O  Metal oxide(s) + method
XH2O(g) The oxides, hydroxide or

chlorides of more
Metal carbonate  Metal oxide (s) + CO2 reactive metal like
(g) Electrolysis
sodium, calcium,
Nb: magnesium and
i. small molecules such as water, carbon aluminium
dioxide or Sulphur dioxide are usually The oxides of less
expelled from the ore reactive metals. A
ii. Calcination and roasting take place in a solution containing the
furnace Precipitation metal’s ion is reacted
with a more reactive
Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide metal. The more reactive
metal displaces the less

reactive metal from the i. crude metal contains impurities such as
solution other metals, non-metals such as Silicon
Less reactive metals like and phosphorus and unreduced oxides
silver and gold. The finely and sulphides of the metals
crushed ore is brought ii. Some impurities are also introduced in the
Amalgamation into contact with process when preparing the metal ore for
mercury which forms an reduction
alloy (amalgam) with the
metal Extraction of most reactive metals
It found in compound, the most reactive
Purifying the Metal metal is all four above in reactivity series like
Purifying the Metal Is the process whereby potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium
crude Metal Purified to get pure metal and aluminium. It can by the following
methods
Methods used to Purifying the Metal
i. Distillation of crude metal Concentration of the Ore
ii. Oxidation of crude metal It involves the removing the impurities
iii. Electro-refining(Electrolysis) of crude present in the metal ore; it may by Dressing
metal or Calcination
Distillation of crude metal Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide

The crude metal is heated in a furnace until If metal ore occur as sulphides, the
the pure metal evaporates, leaving behind concentrated ore is heated in air to convert
the impurities. The vapour is then collected the ore from sulphide compound to Oxide
and condensed in separated chamber compound
Oxidation of crude metal Reduction
The molten crude metal is heated in air in Most reactive

to obtain metal
a pure reduced by electrolysis
metal
furnace. The impurities are oxidized and
escape as a vapour or form of scum over
the molten metal. The scum is then removed Purifying the Metal
by skimming Most reactive Metal forming crude Metal
Purified to get pure metal whether by
Nb: Distillation of crude metal or Oxidation of
i. Skimming is the remove a substance from crude metal or Electro-refining(Electrolysis)
the surface of a liquid of crude metal
ii. Skimming is used only when the impurities
have a greater affinity for oxygen than
the metal
iii. Affinity is the degree to which a
substance tends to combine with another
Electrolysis of crude metal

The crude metal is moulded into blocks and
made the anode of an electrolytic cell. The
cathode is usually made up of a thin plate
of the pure metal. When a current is passed
the anode dissolves and the pure metal is
deposited on the cathode. The soluble
impurities go into solution while the insoluble
impurities settle down below the anode as
anode mud or sludge
Nb:
Extraction of Sodium iv. The large Graphite anode is used to
Sodium does not occur naturally as a free facilitate maximum oxidation of chlorine
element. This is because it is too reactive. ions to chlorine gas
However, it is abundant different compound v. The large Graphite anode is used
such as maximizes the formation of sodium metal
i. NaCl - common salt at cathode
ii. NaNO3 - chile salt petre
iii. Na2SO4.10H2O - Glauber‘s salt Component
iv. Na2B4O7.10H2O - Borax (sodium Molten sodium Chloride (NaCl)
tetraborate sodium borate) Molten Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Nb: The main ore used is NaCl Dissociation (Ions presents)
compound Cation Anion
Extraction methods NaCl (l) Na +(l) Cl -(l)
Concentration of the Ore CaCl2 (l) Ca 2+(l) Cl -(l)
The sodium chloride is collected
Migration
Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide cathode Anode
Since sodium chloride does not contain Na +(l) Cl -(l)
sulphur it is not roasted Ca 2+(l) Cl -(l)
Reduction Discharge
Sodium chloride reduced by electrolysis to From concentration Sodium Cation will
obtain a crude metal discharge at cathode and chlorine anion
will discharge at anode
Electrolysis to obtain a pure metal At cathode: Na +(l) + e → Na (s)
Molten mixture of Sodium chloride (NaCL) At Anode: Cl -(l) → Cl2(g) + e
and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) in a Downs
o
cell
and at
a 600 C. The
circular cell
iron has a graphite
cathode, anode
both covered Product
Chlorine liberated at the cathode rises up
and with proper outlets through a pipe and gets collected in a
Diagram: receiver in the molten state and chlorine will
produced at anode and water remain in
the solution
Nb:
i. Chlorine collects in the inverted trough
(Hood) placed over the cathode, rises up
the pipe, and is tapped off through an
iron vessel
ii. The sodium metal is collected upwards
because of its low density which makes it
to float over the mixture
Nb:
i. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) is added to
Purifying the sodium Metal
sodium chloride to lower the melting
The sodium metal collected from the Downs
point of sodium chloride from 774 oC to
cell contains some Calcium, which is also
about 600oC
formed through electrolysis. Calcium
ii. Sodium and chlorine produced would
crystallizes when the mixture cools and a
react violently if allowed to come into
relatively pure sodium metal is obtained
contact
iii. steel gauze (Diaphragm) around the
anode to keep the two products apart
introduced to prevent reaction between
Sodium and chlorine produced

carbon rods as cathode which Extraction of Iron
suspended from above Iron does not occur naturally as a free
element. This is because of it is relatively
Mechanism reactive. However, it is abundant different
The impure aluminium passes from bottom compound such as
layer to the middle layer and aluminium i. Fe2O3 - Haematite Contains about 70%
formed in the middle layer passes to the top ii. Fe3O4 - Magnetite Contains about 72.4%
layer as pure aluminium and the process iii. Fe2O3. H2O Limonite
continues to obtain pure aluminium about iv. FeCO3 - Siderite or Spathic iron ore
99.99% tapped from the tapping hole v. FeS2 - Iron pyrites
Nb: The main ore used is Haematite
Question
Why most reactive metal reduced by Extraction methods
smiting? Concentration of the Ore
Answer: In this metallurgical operation, the ore is
They have a greater affinity for oxygen than concentrated by removing impurities like soil
carbon therefore they will react with carbon etc. The process involves the crushing and
to form metal carbide washing of ore
Extraction of relatively reactive metals Calcination

It found in compound, the most reactive The concentrated ore is now heated in the
metal is all three below the most reactivity presence of air in shallow kilns. The following
series in the reactivity series like zinc, iron changes occur during the roasting process
and Lead. It can by the following methods (a) The process performed to remove water
Fe2O3 . XH2O (s) Fe2O3 (s) + XH2O (l)
Concentration of the Ore (b) The process performed to remove
It involves the removing the impurities Carbon dioxide gas when Siderite (
present in the metal ore; it may by Dressing

or Calcination FeCO
FeCO3 )(s)used as ore
3
FeO (s) + CO2 (g)
(c) The process performed to remove
Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide impurity of sulphur and escape as a gas
If metal ore occur as sulphides, the S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
concentrated ore is heated in air to convert (d) The process performed to remove
the ore from sulphide compound to Oxide impurity of arsenic and escape as a gas
compound 4As (s) + 3O2 (g) 2As2O3 (g)
(e) The process of heating Ferrous oxide (
Reduction Iron (II) Oxide) is also oxidized to ferric
Moderate reactive metal reduced by oxide ( Iron (III) Oxide)
smelting to obtain a pure crude metal FeO (s) + O2 (g) Fe2O3 (s)
Purifying the Metal Roasting of Sulphide to Oxide

Moderate reactive Metal forming crude If metal ore Iron pyrites (FeS 2) used is heated
Metal Purified to get pure metal either by in air to convert the ore from sulphide
Distillation of crude metal or Oxidation of compound to Oxide compound
crude metal or Electro-refining(Electrolysis) 2FeS (s) + 2O
(g)
2 2SO 2 (g) + 2FeO (s)
of crude metal
Reduction
Moderate reactive metal reduced by
smelting to obtain a crude metal
Smelting (Reduction of ore)

The process of reduction is carried out in a
Blast Furnace

Structure of blast furnace iii. The carbon monoxide formed reduce
The blast furnace is a cylindrical tower like ferric oxide ( Iron (III) Oxide) to spongy
structure about 25m to 35m high. It has an Iron
outer shell of steel. Inside of furnace is lined FeCO3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
with fire bricks. The top of the furnace is iv. when Siderite (FeCO3 ) present
closed by a cup-cone feeder. Small Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
opening near the base known asTuyeres
Diagram: Nb:
i. The main reducing agent in the blast
furnace is carbon monoxide and not
carbon
ii. Iron obtained is called Spongy Iron
because the temperature in this zone is
too low to melt iron
iii. When iron ore is reduced, part of the
limestone decompose at 600oC to lime
and carbon dioxide
CaCO(s)3 CaO (s) + CO 2 (g)
iv. The limestone also react more coke to
form carbon monoxide
CaCO3 (s)+ C (s) CaO (s) + CO (g)
How iron smelted The Middle Zone reduction

The ore is mixed with Carbon (Coke) and The zone is lower zone of reduction. The
Limestone (CaCO3) and introduced into the temperature range in this zone is 900oC -
furnace from the top. Blasts of hot air are 1200oC. The following are the reaction that
blown into the furnace through Tuyeres takes place in this zone
Diagram: i. The carbonthis

monoxide. dioxide reduced
reaction to carbon
is accompanied
by heat absorption
CO(g)
2 + C (s) CO (g)
ii. At about 1000oC, calcium Carbonates is
almost completely decomposed to lime
CaCO(s) 3 CaO (s) + CO 2 (g)
iii. The lime (Calcium oxide) combines with
the silica presences as impurity in the ore
to form Calcium silicate (Fusible Slag)
CaO (s) + SiO
(s) 2 CaSiO 3 (l)
iv. A flux is a mixture of chemicals that react
with impurities to formSlag
The Lower Zone reduction
The Upper Zone Reduction The zone is lowest and hottest part of
furnace. The temperature range in this zone
The zone is near the top of the furnace. The is 1200oC - 1500oC. The following are the
temperature range in this zone is 300oC - reaction that takes place in this zone
800oC. In this zone i. The carbon burns in oxygen of the hot air
i. The carbon burns in oxygen of the hot air to form carbon dioxide
to form carbon dioxide C (s) + (g)O2 CO 2 (g)
C (s) + (g)
O2 CO 2 (g)
The spongy iron melts in this zone at
ii. The carbon dioxide formed react more about 1300oC and collects at the bottom
coke to form carbon monoxide ii. The carbon monoxide formed reduce
CO(g)
2 + C (s) CO (g) ferric oxide (Iron (III) Oxide) might have

escaped the reduction process in the Extraction of copper
middle zone to spongy Iron Copper occurs in both free and combined
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g) states. Most copper occurs in compound
form, mainly as sulphides and oxides. The
Nb: main ores of copper are
i. At the bottom of the furnace, the molten i. copper pyrites - (CuFeS)
iron sinks while the fusible slag, being less ii. copper glance - (Cu2S)
dense, floats over the molten iron forming iii. cuprite - (Cu20)
a separate layer iv. malachite - [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]
ii. Separate layer of slag prevents iron from v. azurite - [2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]
being oxidized by the hot air NB: Main ore used is copper pyrites
iii. The slag and iron are periodically
removed through different outlets Concentration of the Ore
iv. The mixture of water gases containing The powdered ore is concentrated to
nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon remove impurities such as galena (PbS)
monoxide are known as blast furnace
gases Roasting of Sulphides to Oxide
v. The mixture is burnt in air to produce heat The concentrated ore is heated strongly in
which is used for pre-heating the air blast the presence of excess air in a special
coming in through the tuyeres furnace
vi. The iron obtained from the blast furnace i. The copper pyrites decompose to form
is an impure variety known asPig Iron copper (I) and iron (II) sulphides
2CuFeS(s)+02(g) 4Cu2S(s)+2FeS(s) +
Purifying the Metal S02(g)
Pig iron is further purified by re-smelting it ii. Part of the sulphides may be oxidized to
with coke and lime in another furnace their respective oxides
called Cupola. The molten iron from the 2Cu2S(s) + 302(g) 2Cu2O(s) +
cupola is iron
shapes. The poured into moulds
thus obtained desired
is calledCast 2S0 2(g)
2FeS(s) + 302(g) 2FeO(s) + 2S02(g)
Iron iii. As the roasting proceeds, any moisture
present in the ore evaporates
iv. Impurities such as sulphur, arsenic and
antimony oxides are also removed as a
gas
S(s) + 02(g) S02(g)
4As(s) + 302g) 2As2O3 (g)
4Sb(s) + 302(g) 2Sb2O3 (g)
v. The roasting process results in a mixture of
sulphides and oxides of copper and iron
Reduction
Moderate reactive metal reduced by
smelting to obtain a pure crude metal
Smelting (Autoreduction)
The roasted ore is mixed with coke and sand
and heated in the presence of excess air in
a water jacketed blast furnace as shown
Diagram:

The following reactions take place in the

converter
i. Iron (II) sulphide reacts with oxygen to
form iron (II) oxide
How copper ore smelted (Autoreduction) 2FeS(l) + 302(g) 2FeO(l) + 2S02(g)
Consider the follow is chemical reaction
ii. The iron (II) oxide formed reacts with sand
which takes place in the blast furnace (silicon dioxide) to form slag
i. oxidation of iron (II) sulphide which FeO(l) + Si02(s) FeSiO3(l)
started during the roasting process
iii. Some of the copper (I) sulphide is
continues
oxidized to copper (I) oxide
2FeS(s) + 302(g) 2FeO(s) + 2S02(g) 2Cu2S(s)+ 302(g) 2Cu2O(s) + 2S02(g)
ii. The iron (II) oxide formed combines with
iv. Copper (I) oxide is reduced by copper (I)
sand to form a fusible slag:
sulphide to copper
FeO(s) + Si02(s) FeSiO3(l) 2Cu2O(s) + Cu2S(s) 6Cu(l) + S02(g)
iii. The copper (I) oxide also reacts with iron
Nb:
(II) sulphide to form matte (iron (II) oxide
i. This is self-reduction of copper because
and copper (I) sulphide)
the substances involved are both copper
Cu2O(s) + FeS(s) CuS(s) + FeO(s)
compounds
ii. The molten metal is poured out into sand
Nb:
moulds and allowed to stand to cool
i. The above reaction takes place because
iii. On cooling, any dissolved sulphur dioxide
iron has a greater affinity for oxygen than
escapes leaving blisters on the surface of
copper
the copper
ii. The matte is taken out through the outlet
iv. The copper obtained from the Bessemer
at the bottom
converter is therefore known as blister
copper
Conversion
The molten matte is then transferred to a
Purifying of copper
Bessemer converter for Conversion. This is a
Blister copper is refined further by electrolysis
pear-shaped furnace made of steel. The
in copper (II) sulphate solution. The blister
furnace is fitted with pipes known astuyeres
copper is cast into blocks and made the
on the sides. Sand and hot air are blown
anode. The cathode is made up of a sheet
through these pipes
Diagram: of pure copper
Diagram:
At the anode

Blister copper is oxidized (blister copper
dissolved) to copper (II)ions
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) +2e-
At the cathode
The copper ions move to the cathode. At
the cathode, copper (II) ions are reduced
to copper metal
Cu2+(aq) +2e- Cu(s)
Product
The copper is deposited on the cathode
sheet and the pure plate will become larger
in size

Compounds of Metals iii. When sodium peroxide dissolves in water
By Defn: A compound is a substance at room temperature, it forms an alkaline
formed by the chemical Combination of solution and Oxygen gas
two or more elements. Metals react with 2Na2O2(s) + 2H20(l) → 4NaOH (aq) + O2(g)
other substances, especially non- metals, to
form different compounds. The compounds iv. When sodium peroxide dissolves in ice-
of metals include: cold water, it forms an alkaline solution
i. Metal oxides and sodium peroxide forms hydrogen
ii. Metal hydroxides peroxide
iii. Metal Hydrogen Carbonates 2Na2O2(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2O2(l)
iv. Metal carbonates
v. Metal nitrates v. Sodium oxide reacts with water to give
vi. Metal chlorides sodium hydroxide
vii. Metal sulphates Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
Metal Oxides vi. Depending on the degree of heating,

By defn: Metal oxides an oxide is a sodium peroxide and sodium oxide can
compound formed by the combination of be formed at the same time
oxygen and metal elements 6Na(s) + 202(g) → Na202(s) + 2Na2O(s)
Nb: Magnesium oxides

i. Metal oxides are compounds of the Magnesium burns in air with a very brilliant
metals with oxygen white flame to form a white solid of
ii. Oxides they are binary compounds magnesium oxide
means contain two elements, one of 2Mg(s) + 02(g) → 2MgO(s)
which must be oxygen
Magnesium oxide reacts with water to form
Preparation
Metal oxides of can
metalbe
oxides
prepared using two basic magnesium
MgO (s) + H20(l) → hydroxide
Mg(OH)2(aq)
methods namely:
i. Direct method Calcium oxides
ii. Indirect method Calcium burns in air with a red flame to form
calcium oxide which is white
Preparation oxides by direct methods 2Ca(s)+ 02(g) → 2CaO(s)
In the direct method, a metal is directly
heated in oxygen to give a metal oxide Calcium oxide reacts with water to form
basic calcium hydroxide
Sodium oxide CaO(s)+ H20(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
Sodium burns in air with a persistent yellow
flame to form sodium peroxide which is a Nb:
pale yellow solid i. Calcium hydroxide is sparingly soluble in
2Na(s) + O2(g) → Na2O (s) water
ii. Metals high in the reactivity series such as
When sodium is exposed to air, it reacts with sodium and potassium readily react with
the oxygen of the air to form sodium oxide oxygen directly to form oxides
(Na20) which is a whitish-grey solid iii. Magnesium and calcium also react with
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s) air to form an oxide coating on the
metals
Nb:
i. sodium is stored under oil to prevent react Preparation of oxides by indirect methods
with oxygen at room temperature The indirect methods of preparing oxides by
ii. Sodium oxide is also formed when sodium i. Decomposing compound by heating it to
is burnt in a limited supply of air give the oxide

ii. Preparing a compound which is then i. A green Copper (II) hydroxide when
decomposed by heating to give the heated decompose to give black copper
oxide oxide and water
Cu(OH)2→CuO + H20
Decompose compound by heating to oxide
1. The carbonates of zinc, lead, copper ii. White Zinc hydroxide when heated
and iron decompose on heat to form decompose to give Yellow zinc oxide
metal oxide and carbon dioxide and water
i. Copper carbonate decomposes to Zn(OH)2 → ZnO + H20
give copper (II) oxide
CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + C02 (g) iii. White Lead hydroxide when heated
decompose to give Reddish Brown lead
ii. Zinc carbonate, which is white in oxide when hot and yellow when cool
colour, decomposes to give zinc and water
oxide and carbon dioxide PbOH → PbO + H20
ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + C02(g)
iv. Reddish Brown Iron (III) hydroxide when
iii. Lead carbonate decomposes to the heated decompose to give Reddish
lead (II) oxide which is reddish-brown Brown irin (II) oxide and water
when hot and yellow when cold: Fe(OH)3 → Fe203 + H20
PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + C02(g)
v. White Magnesium hydroxide when
iv. Iron (II) carbonate decomposes to heated decompose to give white
give iron (II) oxide which is black magnesium oxide and water
FeCO3(s) → FeO(s) + C02(g) Mg(OH)2 → MgO + H20
v. The iron (II) oxide formed is vi. White Aluminium (III) hydroxide when
immediately oxidized
4FeO(s) + 02(g) → 2Fe2to
O3iron
(s) (III) oxide heated
aluminiumdecompose
(III) oxide and to give
water white
Al(OH)3 → Al203 + H20
vi. Magnesium carbonate decomposes
only on strong heating to give Nb:
magnesium oxide i. The hydroxides of lithium, sodium and
MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + C02(g) potassium are stable and do not
decompose on heating
vii.Calcium carbonate, like magnesium ii. Hydroxides of silver, gold and mercury do
carbonate, will only decompose not exist
when strongly heated iii. Hydroxides such as those of zinc, iron,
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + C02(g) lead and copper decompose to metal
oxides on heating
Nb:
i. Alkali metal carbonates such as sodium Preparing a compound which is then
carbonate do not decompose when decomposed by heating to give the oxide
heated Copper reacts with Nitric acid to form
ii. oxides of Alkali metals cannot therefore brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide and
be prepared using this method copper nitrate
iii. carbonates such as those of zinc, iron, Cu(s) + 4HN03(I) → Cu(N03)2(aq) + 2N02(g) +
lead and copper decompose to metal 2H2O(l)
oxides on heating
When the blue solution of copper nitrate is
2. Metal hydroxide when heated heated to dry to blue crystals of copper
decompose to give oxide and water nitrate and when heating is continued, the
copper nitrate decomposes to form copper

(II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen Amphoteric oxides are the metal oxides
gas which have both acidic and basic
2Cu(N03)2(aq) →2CuO(s) + 4N02(g) + 02(g) characteristics. The oxides of aluminium, zinc
and lead react with both acid and base
Nb: Reaction with base
i. Copper (II) oxide is left as ablack residue Al2O3 + NaOH → Al(OH)3 + Na2O
ii. Nitrogen dioxide is observed as brown ZnO + NaOH → Zn(OH)2 + Na2O
fumes
Reaction with acid
ClassifiCation of metal oxides Al2O3 + HCl → AlCl3 + H2O
Metal oxide grouped into various categories ZnO + HCl → ZnCL2 + H2O
based on their solubility and their reactions
with acids and bases, includes Chemical properties of metal oxides
i. Soluble metal oxides 1. Reaction of metal with water
ii. Insoluble metal oxides Metal oxides react differently with water.
iii. Basic metal oxides Most of the metal oxides are not soluble
iv. Amphoteric oxides in water
When calcium oxide is added to water,
Soluble metal oxides some of it reacts with water to form basic
Soluble metal oxides readily dissolve in calcium hydroxide:
water to form a metal hydroxide solution. CaO(s) + H20(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
They include potassium, sodium and
magnesium oxides. Soluble metal oxides are Nb:
known as alkalis Calcium hydroxide is sparingly soluble in
K2O(s) + H2O(l) → KOH(s) water. It forms calcium and hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(s) ions:
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s) Ca(OH)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 0H-(aq)
Magnesium oxide reacts with water to form The solution of calcium hydroxide in water
a basic solution of magnesium hydroxide is called lime water when exhaled air is
MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(s) blown through the, lime water; a white
precipitate (calcium carbonate) is
Insoluble metal oxides formed. Exhaled air contains a large
Insoluble metal oxides do not dissolve in proportion of carbon dioxide
water. Most metal oxides are insoluble in Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H20(l)
water. Aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, lead (II)
oxide, copper (II) oxide and iron (II) and (III) 2. Reaction of metal oxides with acids and
oxides do not react with water alkalis
Most metal oxides react with acids to
Basic metal oxides form a salt and water and Amphoteric
Basic metal oxides react with acids to give a oxides react with both and alkalis
salt and water as the only products. Basic
metal oxides include all the oxides of Group Table below shows the reactions of metal
I metals oxides with dilute mineral acids
PbO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → PbCl (s) + H20 (l) Metal oxides Reaction
PbO (s) + H2S04 (aq) → PbSO4(s) + H20 (l) Dilute nitric acid
Calcium CaO(s)+2HN03(aq)→Ca
Basic metal oxides readily dissolve in water oxide (N03)2(aq) + H20(l)
to form a metal hydroxide solution (CaO)
K2O(s) + H2O(l) → KOH(aq) Magnesium MgO(s)+2HN03(aq)→Mg
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) oxide (MgO) (N03)2(aq) + H20(l)
Li2O(s) + H2O(l) → LiOH(aq) Aluminium Al203(s)+6HN03(aq)→2Al(
oxide (Al203) N03)3(aq) + 3H20(l)
Amphoteric oxides Iron(II) oxide FeO(s)+2HN03(aq)→
Metal Hydrogen Carbonates CaOH+ CO2 → CaCO3
By defn: Metal Hydrogen Carbonates are This is used as a confirmatory test for Metal
formed when only one hydrogen atoms in hydrogen carbonates
carbonic acid (HCO3) are replaced by a
metal 2. The Hydrogen Carbonates when react
with Magnesium Sulphate solution which is
Preparation of Metal Hydrogen Carbonates soluble in water form soluble salt of
1. Reaction between concentrated Sodium Magnesium hydrogen Carbonates
Hydroxide (NaOH) and Excess Carbon NaHCO3 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) → 2NaSO4 (aq)
dioxide. The reaction takes place in two + Mg(HCO3)2(aq)
stages includes
First Stage But: when heated Magnesium hydrogen
NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O Carbonate salt decompose to form white
precipitation of Magnesium Carbonates
Second Stage which is insoluble Salt.
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → NaHCO3 Mg(HCO3)2(aq) → MgCO3(s) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)
2. The Calcium carbonates also prepared
as the Sodium Carbonate. The reaction Nb:
takes place in two stages includes i. All Metal Hydrogen Carbonates are
First Stage soluble in water
CaOH + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O ii. The Hydrogen carbonates of Aluminium,
Zinc, Iron, Lead, and Copper do not exist
Second Stage
CaCO3 + H2O+ CO2 → CaHCO3 Uses of Hydrogen Carbonates
i. Sodium hydrogen carbonates used to
Nb: make Baking soda
When Calcium to
it decompose hydrogen carbonate
form calcium boiled
carbonate, ii. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonates act as
carbon dioxide and water. Magnesium Antacid which neutralizes the
hydrogen carbonate can also prepared Hydrochloric Acid in the stomach
using the procedure as Calcium hydrogen
carbonate prepared above.
Chemical Properties of Metal Hydrogen

Carbonates
1. Action on Heating
Hydrogen carbonates whether in solution or
solid form Decompose on heating to give a
metal carbonate and Carbon dioxide
CaHCO3→ CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 → NaCO3 + H2O + CO2
2. Action on Diluted Acids

Metal Hydrogen carbonates s react with
mineral acids to give a Salt, Carbon dioxide
and Water
NaHCO3 + HCL → NaCl+ H2O + CO2
Test for Hydrogen Carbonates

1. The carbon dioxide from Hydrogen
carbonates after decomposes or
neutralization forms a white precipitation
with lime water (Calcium Hydroxide).
Metal Nitrates Zinc does not give nitrogen dioxide with
By Defn: Metal Nitrates are the Salts concentration nitric acid instead
delivered from Nitric Acid ammonium nitrate is formed
4Zn(s) + 10HNO3(aq) → 4Zn(NO3)2(aq)+
Preparations of Metal Nitrates NH4NO3(aq) + 3H2O(g)
There are different methods of prepare
Metal Nitric. These include Copper Metal reacted with
i. Reaction between metal with dilute Nitric concentrated nitric Acid to give a blue
Acid solution of Copper nitrate and Brown
Na (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → 2NaNO3 (aq) + H2 (g fumes of Nitrogen (iv) oxide gas
Mg (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g Cu(s) + 4HNO3(l) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2
Cu (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g (g) +2H2O(l)
ii. Reaction between metal Hydroxide with When moderately concentration nitric
dilute Nitric Acid Acid is used, nitrogen monoxide gas (NO)
NaOH (aq)+ HNO3(aq)→NaNO3 (aq)+H2O (l) is formed instead of Nitrogen (IV) oxide.
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) +
iii. Reaction between metal Oxides with 2NO(g) + H2O(l)
dilute Nitric Acid
CuO(s) + 2HNO3 (aq)→Cu(NO3)2(aq)+H2O (l) The solution should not be evaporated to
dryness because Nitrate will undergo
iv. Reaction between metal Carbonates thermal decomposing
with dilute Nitric Acid
CuCO3(s)+2HNO3(aq)→Cu(NO3)2(aq)+CO2(g) +2H2O(l) The reaction of nitric acid with aluminium
and Iron stops soon after starting due to
v. Reaction between metal Hydrogen the formation of an Oxide layer on the
carbonates with dilute Nitric Acid Metals surfaces. The Oxide layer prevents
CuHCO3(s)+HNO3(aq)→Cu(NO3)2(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l)
further reaction between the Acid and
the Metals
Nb:
i. Nitric Acid, unlike other acid, does not iii. Dilute nitric acid reacts with metal
give hydrogen gas with Metal, except the hydroxides in a neutralization reaction to
acid is very diluted about one give a salt and water
percentage by mass A blue solution of copper nitrate is formed
Mg (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g) when copper carbonate reacts with
dilute nitric acid
ii. Metal reacts with concentrated nitric acid CuCO3(s) + 2HN03 (aq) Cu(N03)2(aq) +
to give a Nitrate of metal among other C02(g) + H20 (l)
products When the solution is heated to saturation
The other product depend the then cooled, blue crystals of copper
concentration of the nitric acid. Nitrogen nitrate are formed
gas (Brown gas) is the mainly gas given
off when
nitric acidMetals react with concentrated Sodium carbonate, a colourless solution
of sodium nitrate is formed
Na2CO3(s) + 2HN03 (aq) 2NaNO3 (aq) +
Magnesium reacts with concentrated C02 (g) + H20 (l)
nitric acid to form a solution of White crystals of sodium nitrate are
magnesium nitrate and nitrogen (IV) formed when the solution is heated to
oxide gas saturation, and then cooled
Mg(s)+4HNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) +2NO2(g)
+ 2H2O(l) iv. Reactions between dilute nitric acid and
metal hydroxides are neutralization
reactions

The acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to
form sodium nitrate and water Test for Nitrates
NaOH (aq) + HNO3 (aq)→ NaNO3 (aq) + The follows is different tests of nitrate,
H20(l) include
White crystals of sodium nitrate are i. Decomposition of metal nitrates
formed when the solution of sodium ii. Metal nitrate React with Copper
nitrate is heated to saturation then iii. Brown Ring Test
cooled
Decomposition of metal nitrates
v. Reactions between dilute nitric acid and When metal nitrate except of most reactive
metal oxides are neutralization reactions metal decompose on heating and always
Zinc oxide forms a colourless solution of the Reddish Brown Fumes of Nitrogen
zinc nitrate. This is shown in the equation dioxide (NO2) are observed
below
ZnO(s) +2HN03 (aq) → Zn(N03)2(aq) + H2O (l) Metal nitrate React with Copper
White zinc crystals are formed when the Any Metal nitrate will readily dissolve in
colourless solution is heated to saturation water to form solution and react with metal
to form brown fumes of Nitrogen dioxide
Copper (II) oxide reacts with dilute nitric (NO2) are observed
acid to form a blue solution of copper
nitrate Brown Ring Test
CuO(s) +2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)(aq)+H2O (l) When concentration sulphuric acid is
The solution forms blue crystals when poured down the side of the test tube, it
heated to saturation then cooled moves down and settles at the bottom of
the test tube contain the mixture of the
Calcium oxide forms a colourless solution prepared Iron (II) Sulphate and Metal
of calcium nitrate. The solution forms Nitrate. A brown ring forms between the
white crystals when the saturated solution

is cooled layer forms
concentration between the and
Sulphuric Acid layer the
of
CaO(s) + 2HN03 (aq) → Ca(N03)2(aq) + H20(l) Mixture of the solution of Metal nitrates and
Iron sulphate, if the test solution is a Nitrate
Chemical Properties of Metal Nitrates Concentration sulphuric acid + (Iron (II)
The following Metal Nitrates IdentifiCation Sulphate + Metal Nitrate) → brown ring
by their production on heating
i. All Nitrate of Sodium and Potassium Nb:
decompose to gives Metal Nitrite and Brown ring test is the best test since all
Oxygen gas Nitrate form this Brown Ring
NaNO3 (aq) → NaNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
KNO3 (aq) → KNO2 (s) + O2 (g) How Brown Ring Formed
i. Concentrated sulphuric acid react with
ii. All Nitrate of Calcium, Magnesium, Nitrate ion to form Nitric acid
Aluminium, Zinc, Iron, Lead and Copper H2SO4 (l) + 2NO3-(aq) → 2HNO3(aq) +
decompose to gives Metal Oxide, SO42-
Nitrogen dioxide and Oxygen gas
2Ca(NO3)2(s) → 2CaO(s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) ii. Nitric acid Oxidizes Iron (II) Sulphate to
2Cu(NO3)2(s) → 2CuO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) form Iron (III)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) → 2PbO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) Fe2+ → Fe3+
2Zn(NO3)2(s) → 2ZnO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
iii. Nitric acid itself reduced to nitrogen
iii. All Nitrate of Silver and Mercury Monoxide
decompose to gives Metal, Nitrogen 4HNO3 (aq) + 4NO (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 3O2 (g)
Dioxide and Oxygen gas
AgNO3 (s) 2Ag (s) + 2NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
HgNO3 (s) 2Hg (s) + 2NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
iv. The nitrogen Monoxide combine with How: Potassium and Sodium Nitrate is
some of the remaining Iron (II) Sulphate to used as a source of Nitrite (NO2), the
form a Dark Brown Complex nitrite breaks down in the meat into Nitric
FeSO4(aq) + NO (g) → FeSO4.NO (aq) Oxide (NO) which helps to prevent
Oxidation of Meat and fish.
Nb:
i. If the solution is disturbed the Brown ring
disappears
Reason: This is because concentrated
Sulphuric Acid and Water mix, produce
allot of heat which helps to decompose
the Dark Brown Complex which is a very
Unstable Compound
FeSO4.NO (aq) → FeSO4(aq) + NO (g)
ii. The formation of the brown complex is a
reversible chemical reaction
FeSO4.NO (aq) ⇌ FeSO4(aq) + NO (g)
Uses of Metal Nitrates

i. Agriculture: Nitrogen fertilizers are mainly
Nitrate. They include Ammonium Nitrate,
Potassium Nitrate, and calcium nitrate
ii. Photography: Silver Nitrate Solution reacts

with Potassium Bromide to form Silver
bromide.
2AgNO3(aq) + KBr(aq)→2AgBr(s) +KHO3 (aq)
Photographic films
emulsion in form ofand plates
Silver contain
Bromide an
which
decomposes to small amount of Silver on
exposure to Light
2AgBr(s) → 2Ag (s) + Br2 (g)
The photochemical change involving
Silver Bromide is the key reaction in Black
and White photography
iii. Antiseptics: Is the one which used to kill

Germs on the Skin. Silver Nitrate
Compound and Silver Sulphadiazinehave
been used to prevent the infection of
burns and some eye infections and to
destroy Warts
iv. Weapons: Gun powder is a mixture of

potassium Nitrate, Charcoal and Sulphur.
Ammonium Nitrate is also used in making
explosives and blasting agents which are
used in mines and quarries
v. Food Preservation: Nitrates and Nitrites

are used in Curing meats and fish, Not
only to kill Bacteria but also to produce a
characteristic flavour and give meat a
pink or Red colour
All alkane is prepared in the same way but ii. Alkanes with five to ten carbon atoms
let us see the preparation of methane and (pentane to decane) are liquids at room
ethane temperature and pressure
NB: The change in physical state is due to
Preparation of Methane increase in molecular mass. This in turn
Methane gas can be prepared in the increases intermolecular attractions
laboratory by reacting sodium Ethanoate iii. boiling points of alkanes increase
with soda lime methane to decane
Diagram: iv. melting points of alkanes increase
methane to decane
v. density of alkanes increase methane to
decane
Physical Properties of the Alkanes

B.P M.P Density
Alkane
(oC) (oC) (g/cm3)
Methane -162 -183 0.466
Ethane -89 -772 0.572
Propane -42 -188 0.585
Soda lime is a mixture of sodium and Butane -0.5 -135 0.601
calcium hydroxide. The sodium hydroxide in
Pentane 36 -130 0.626
the mixture reacts with sodium Ethanoate to
Hexane 69 -95 0.659
produce methane gas.
Heptane 98 -91 0.684
CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s) CH4(g) +
Octane 126 -57 0.703
Na2CO3(g)
Nonane 151 -54 0.718
Decane 174 -30 0.730
Nb:
i. Methane gas is colourless and odourless
ii. It is insoluble in water. This is the reason Chemical Properties of Alkanes
why it is collected over water Reactions with air (oxygen)
Alkane burn in air to give carbon dioxide
Preparation of Ethane and water
It prepared like methane, sodium For example, Methane burns in air as shown
propanoate react with soda lime to in the following equation.
produce Ethane CH4 (g) + 2O(g)
2 CO 2 (g) + 2H20(l)
CH3CH2COONa(s) + NaOH C 2H6 (g) +
Na2CO3(s) Nb:
The combustion of alkanes is a highly
Nb: exothermic reaction; most alkanes are
i. Ethane is a constituent of natural gas but actually used as fuels.
it is of a lower percentage compared to
methane Alkanes undergo Substitution reaction
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. They
ii. It is a colourless and odourless gas only take part in substitution reactions.
iii. It is insoluble in water and this is why it is
collected over water
By Defn: A substitution reaction is one in
Physical Properties of Alkanes which an atom or a group of atoms is
The trend in physical properties of the replaced by another atom or group of
straight-chain alkanes changes gradually atoms.
from methane to decane.
i. The first four alkanes, that is methane, NB:
ethane, propane and butane, are gases i. Substitution reactions of alkanes mainly
at room temperature and pressure. involve halogens such as bromine and
chlorine.

ii. Substitution reaction can be used to test Alkenes
whether the hydrocarbon is saturated By Defn: Alkenes are hydrocarbons which
iii. In the presence of sunlight alkane contain at least one double bond (-C=C-)
decolorized potassium permanganate between two carbon atoms.
and bromide water, this two reagent is Diagram:
used to test for saturated hydrocarbon
Bromine reacts with methane in the

presence of sunlight in a substitution
reaction to form tetrabromoethane
CH4 (g) + 4Br
(g)
2 CBr 4 (g) + 4HBr (g)
General Formula
Chlorine also reacts with methane in the
same way Alkenes have the general formulaC2H2n
CH4 (g) + 4Cl
(g)
2 CCI 4 (g) + 4HCl (g) Homologous Series of Alkenes
Molecula
The reaction takes place in stages, with one n Name Structure Formula
r Formula
chlorine atom replacing a hydrogen atom 2 Ethene C2H4 CH2=CH2
in methane at each stage.
3 Propene C3H6 CH3CH=CH2
(i) Formation of chloromethane
4 Butene C4H8 CH3CH2CH=CH2
CH4 (g) +Cl
(g)
2 CH 3C1 (g) +HC1 (g)
5 Pentene C5H10 CH3(CH2)2CH=CH
2
(ii) Formation of dichloromethane
6 Hexene C6H12 CH3(CH2)3CH=CH
CH3CI (g) + Cl2 ( g) CH2Cl2(g) +
2
HCl(g)
7 Heptene C7H14 CH3(CH2)4CH=CH
2
(iii) Formation trichloromethane
8 Octene C8H16 CH3(CH2)5CH=CH
CH
(g) CI (g) + Cl
2 2 (g)
2 CHCl 3 (g) + HCl 2
9 Nonene C9H18 CH3(CH2)6CH=CH
2
(iv)Formation of tetrachloromethane
CHCl3 (g) + Cl(g) CCl 1 Decene C10H20 CH3(CH2)7CH=CH
2 4 (g) + HCl
(g) 0 2
NB: methane not exist
Nb:
i. The reaction between methane and Naming Alkenes
bromine also takes place in a similar way. The rules used in naming alkenes are
ii. Substitution reactions are characteristic of applied the same way as those for naming
saturated hydrocarbons alkanes. In alkene the position of double
bond added to the root word followed by
the suffix -p-ene
Where:
p is the position of double bond of smallest
number
Example
Name the compound below
CH3CH2CH=CH2
Answer
Parent chain is butene
Smallest number Position of double bond is 1
The name of compound isbut-1-ene

Example: NECTA 2006 Qn 08 (c) roman B Answer:
Name the systematic IUPAC name of the CH3CH2CH=CH2 (but-1-ene)
compound CH2=CH2 CH3CH=CHCH3 (but-2-ene)
Answer CH3-C=CH2 (2-methylprop-1-ene)
Parent chain is ethene I
Smallest number Position of double bond is 1 CH3
The name of compound iseth-1-ene Nb:
i. Isomers due to the position of the double
Example: bond. They are usually referred to as
Name the systematic IUPAC name of the positional isomers
compound A, B, C and D ii. Isomer due to the presence of a
substituent. It is usually referred to as a
branch isomer
Preparation of Ethene
Ethene can be prepared in the laboratory
by heating a mixture of ethanol and
concentrated sulphuric acid
Answer for Compound A Diagram:
Parent chain is pentene
The name of compound ispent-2-ene
Answer for Compound B

Parent chain is pentene
Branch chain is 4-methyl
The name of compound is 4-methylpent-2-
ene
Answer for Compound C Concentrated sulphuric acid dehydrates

Parent chain is hexene ethanol at 160 - 180°C to give ethene.
Branch chain is 4-methyl and 5-ethyl CH3CH2OH (l) CH2CH2 (g) + H20 (l)
The name of compound is 5-ethyl,4- Ethene can also be prepared in the
methylhex-1-ene laboratory by dehydrating ethanol using
aluminium oxide.
Answer for Compound D
CH3CH2OH (l) CH2CH2 (g) + H20 (l)
Parent chain is octene
Branch chain is 6-methyl and 4-propyl
NB:
i. Ethene is a colourless gas with a faint
The name of compound is 6-methyl,4-
smell
propyloct-2-ene ii. It is slightly soluble in water
Isomerism in Alkenes
Physical Properties of Alkenes
Alkenes form different isomers due to the
i. The first three alkenes, that ethene,
changing position of the double bond as
propene and butene, are gases at room
well as the presence and position of
temperature and pressure.
substituents.
ii. The four ten alkenes are liquids at room
temperature and pressure
NB: Ethene and propene have not isomers.
NB: The change in physical state is due to
increase in molecular mass. This in turn
Example
increases intermolecular attractions
Write the possible isomers of butene

iii. boiling points of alkenes increase ethene
to decene Hydrogenation of alkenes
iv. melting points of alkenes increase ethene The reaction takes place in the presence of
to decene nickel which acts as a catalyst.
v. density of alkenes increase ethene to CH2=CH2 (g) + (g)
H2 CH 3CH3 (g
decene
NB:
Physical properties of the alkenes i. Hydrogenation is an addition reaction.
Alkene B.P M.P Density ii. Hydrogenation is an important industrial
(oC) (oC) (g/cm3) process in the manufacture of margarine
Ethene -169.0 -104.0 0.501 from vegetable oils such as corn oil and
Propene -185.0 -48.0 0.519 sunflower oil. These oils are unsaturated
But-1-ene 185.0 -6.5 0.595 and contain one or more double bonds.
Pent-1-ene 138.0 30.0 0.641 iii. Hydrogenation converts the oils into solid
Hex-1-ene 140 63.0 0.673 fats such as margarine. Margarines are
left partially unsaturated because
Chemical Properties of Alkenes unsaturated fats are healthier than
Chemical reactions involving alkenes are completely saturated ones.
addition reactions.
By Defn: an addition reaction is one in which Reaction with hydrogen halides
one molecule is added to another. Halides are binary compounds that contain
halogens. Alkenes react with hydrogen
Reaction with oxygen halides such as hydrogen bromide and
Alkenes burn in air to give water and hydrogen iodide, in addition reactions.
carbon dioxide CH2= CH2(g) + HBr (g) CH 3CH2Br (l)
C2H4 (g) + 3O
(g)
2 2C0 2 (g) + 2H20(l) (Bromoethane)
CH2= CH2(g) + HI (g) CH 3CH2I (l)
Halogenation of ethene (Iodoethane)

By Defn: Halogenation of alkenes is the
process through which halogen groups such NB:
as bromine and chlorine are added across i. During these reactions the alkenes
the carbon-carbon double bond. become saturated.
The bromine decolorized by alkenes, for ii. Hydrogen chloride does not react with
example eth-1-ene react with bromine in alkenes at room temperature
absence/presence of light to produce 1, 2- iii. The reaction with ethene requires heat
dibromoethane (colourless) and a catalyst.
CH2 = CH2 (g) + Br
(g)
2 CH 2BrCH2Br (g)
Reaction with sulphuric acid
NB: Ethene takes part in an addition reaction
i. Light is not necessary for the reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid to form
between bromine and ethene, ethyl hydrogensulphate
ii. The reaction between bromine and CH2CH2 (g) + H2S0
(l)4 CH 3CH2OSO3H
ethene is an addition reaction, in which
bromine takes the place of the double
bond in ethene.
iii. Addition reactions are characteristic of
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
iv.Bromine is used to test for unsaturation in
hydrocarbons.
Chlorine will react in a similar way with

ethene in presence of silica (Si02) to form
1,2-dichloroethane (colourless)
CH2CH2 (g) + Cl
(g)
2 CH 2ClCH2Cl (g)
Alkynes ii. The number of possible isomers of alkynes
Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons increases with the increase in molecular
which contain at least one triple bond -( mass
C≡C-)
Example
General Formula Write the possible isomers of butyne (C4H6)
The general formula of alkynes isCnH2n-2 Answer:
CH3CH2C≡CH (but-1-yne)
Homologous Series of Alkynes CH3CHC≡CH3 (but-2-yne)
Molecula Structure CH3-C≡CH (2-methylprop-1-yne)
n Name
r Formula Formula I
2 Ethyne C2H2 CH≡CH CH3
3 Propyne C3H4 CHC≡CH
4 But-1-y ne C4H6 CH3CH2C≡CH Preparation of Alkynes
5 Pent-1-y C5H8 CH3(CH2)2C≡C Ethyne can be prepared in the laboratory
ne H by the action of water on calcium carbide
6 Hex-1-y C6H10 CH3(CH2)3C≡C (CaC2).
ne H Diagram:
7 Hept-1-y C7H12 CH3(CH2)4C≡C
ne H
8 Oct-1-y C8H14 CH3(CH2)5C≡C
ne H
9 Non-1-y C9H16 CH3(CH2)6C≡C
ne H
1 Dec-1-yne C10H18 CH3(CH2)7C≡C
0 H
Naming Alkynes
The rules used in naming alkynes are Calcium carbide is hydrolysed by water to
applied the same way as those for naming give ethyne and calcium hydroxide.
alkenes. CaC2(s) + 2H2O (l) C2H2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (s)
In alkene the position of triple bond added
to the root word followed by the suffix -p- NB:
yne. The reaction is exothermic and this is why
sand is put into the round-bottomed flask to
Where: prevent it from cracking.
p is the position of triple bond of smallest
number of alkyne Physical Properties of Alkynes
i. The first three alkynes are all gases at
Nb: room temperature.
i. The position of the triple bond in the first ii. Melting points of alkynes increase with the
two alkynes, that is ethyne and propyne,
cannot change. iii. increase in molecular
Boiling points mass.
of alkynes increase with the
ii. methyne not exist increase in molecular mass.
iv. Density of alkynes increase with the
Isomerism in Alkynes increase in molecular mass.
Alkynes form different isomers due to the
changing position of the triple bond as well Physical Properties of the Alkynes
as the presence and position of substituents. B.P M.P Density
Alkyne
(oC) (oC) (g/cm3)
Nb: Ethyne -75 -82 0.62
i. Ethyne and propyne have not isomers. Propyne -23 -102 0.67
But-1-y ne 9 -122 0.69

Pent-1-y ne 40 -98 0.72 HC≡CH (g) + HBr (aq) H2C=CHBr (g)
Hex-1-y ne 72 -124 0.712 Stage II:
Hept-1-y 100 -80 0.73 H2C=CHBr (g) + HBr (aq) H3CCHBr2 (g)
ne The overall equation is:
Oct-1-y ne 126 -70 0.75 HC≡CH (g) + 2HBr (aq) H3CCHBr2 (g)
Non-1-y ne 151 -65 0.76
Dec-1-yne 182 -36 0.77
Chemical Properties of Alkynes

Just like alkenes, alkynes take part in
addition reactions. However, alkynes are
less reactive than corresponding alkenes.
Reaction with oxygen

The Alkynes burn in air with a luminous
smoky flame (due to the high proportion of
carbon compared with hydrogen in
alkynes) to produce carbon dioxide and
water
2C2H2 (g) + 502(g) 4C02 (g) + 2H2O (g)
In limited supply of air carbon monoxide is

formed due to incomplete combustion.
2C2H2 (g) + 302(g) 4C0 (g) + 2H20(g)
Halogenation of alkynes
Bromine is decolourized by ethyne as we
see from Halogenation of alkene. For
example when ethyne react with bromine
form 1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane which is
colourless
HC≡CH+2Br2 CHBr2-CHBr2
Nb:
i. Alkynes react with halogens in the same
way as alkenes.
ii. The reaction between alkynes and
bromine is used as a test for unsaturation
of alkynes.
Hydrogenation of alkynes
Like in alkynes, this reaction takes place in
presence of a nickel catalyst at 1500C. The
hydrogenation of alkynes first gives alkenes.
CH≡CH (g) + (g)
H2 H 2C=CH2 (g)
Further hydrogenation gives alkanes.

H2C=CH2 (g) + (g)
H2 CH 3CH3 (g)
Reaction with hydrogen halides

Alkynes react with hydrogen halides at
room temperature in stages as shown
below.
Stage I:
Alcohols/ Alkanols Nb: The condensed structural formula of
Alcohols are organic compounds with an - butanol (CH3CH2CH2CH2OH) can be
OH (hydroxyl) as a functional group which is simplified further to be CH3(CH2)2CH2OH.
attached to a saturated carbon. The
systematic name for alcohols is alkanols. Naming of Alcohols
The rules used in naming Alcohols are
General Formulae applied the same way as those for naming
Alcohols can be represented as R-OH. hydrocarbons. In Alcohols the position of -
OH (hydroxyl) added to the root word
Where: followed by the suffix-p-ol.
R is the alkyl group (CnH2n+1)
Where:
Therefore the general formula of alcohols P is the position of -OH (hydroxyl) of smallest
CnH2n+1OH number of alkyne
Where: Example
n = number of carbon atoms Write the IUPAC name of the follows
compounds
Homologous Series of Alkanes i. CH3OH
N Name Molecular Formula ii. CH3CH2OH
1 Methanol CH3OH iii. CH3CH2CH2OH
2 Ethanol C2H5OH iv. CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
3 Propan-1-ol C3H7OH v. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
4 Butan-1-ol C4H9OH Answer:
5 Pentan-1-ol C5H11OH i. CH3OH - Methanol
6 Hexan-1-ol C6H13OH ii. CH3CH2OH - Ethanol
7 Heptan-1-ol C7H15OH iii. CH3CH2CH2OH - Propan-1-ol
8 Octan-1-ol C8H17OH iv.

v. CH
CH3CH
3
CH2CH
2
CH2CH
2
CH2OH
2
CH2-OH
Butan-1-ol
- Pentan-1-ol
9 Nonan-1-ol C9H19OH
10 Decan-1-ol C10H21OH
Isomerism in Alcohols
Like alkenes, alcohols form positional isomers
Structural Formulae
by changing the position of the -OH
The figure below shows the structural
functional groups
formulae of some alcohols.
Nb:
i. As the number of carbon atoms increases
the number of possible isomers of the
alcohols also increases.
ii. methanol and ethanol have no isomers
iii. Propanol have two isomers
iv. butanol have three isomers
Example
Write the possible isomers of Propanol and
butanol
Answer:
For Propanol
CH3CH2CH2OH – propan-1-ol
CH3CHCH3 – propan-2-ol
I
OH
For butanol
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH – Butan-1-ol
OH
CH3CH2CHCH3 – Butan-2-ol I
I CH3CH2CCH3 - 2-methylbutan-2-ol
OH I
CH3
CH3CHCH2OH – 2-methylpropan-1-ol
I Preparation of Ethanol
CH3 Ethanol is produced through the
fermentation of carbohydrates
CH3
I Fermentation of carbohydrates
CH3CCH3 – 2-methylpropan-2-ol By Defn: Fermentation is the process in
I which carbohydrates, are broken down into
OH alcohol with the help of living organisms
(bacteria, yeasts, moulds and fungi)
Classification of Alcohols Diagram:
Alcohols are classified into three main
groups depending on the position of the -
OH group in the main carbon chain include;
i. Primary alcohols
ii. secondary alcohols
iii. Tertiary alcohols
Primary Alcohols
In primary alcohols, the carbon atom
carrying the -OH group is attached to only
one other carbon atom. Examples
CH3CHCH
I
2OH – 2-methylpropan-1-ol The following reactions take place during
the fermentation of sucrose. First, the
CH3 sucrose (C12H22O11) is converted to glucose
CH3CH2CH2OH – propan-1-ol (C6H1206) and fructose (C6H1206):
i. C12H22O11(s) + H20(1) C6H1206(aq) +
Secondary Alcohols C6H1206(aq)
In secondary alcohols, the carbon atom ii. The glucose and fructose produced are
carrying the -OH group is attached to two then converted to ethanol and carbon
other carbon atoms. dioxide.
CH3CHCH3 - propan-2-ol iii. C6H1206 (aq) + C6H12(aq)
06 4C 2H50H
I (aq) + 4C02 (g)
OH
Nb:
CH3CH2CHCH2CH3 - pentan-3-ol i. Lime water turn milky due to the carbon
I dioxide produced
OH ii. Fructose is an isomer of glucose. The two
compounds therefore have the same
Tertiary Alcohols molecular formula.
In tertiary alcohols, the carbon atom iii. The optimum temperature for yeast to
carrying the -OH group is attached to three catalyze the process is 37°C.
other carbon atoms. Example iv. Ethanol can also be prepared by the
OH hydrolysis of ethene using concentrated
I sulphuric acid.
CH3CCH3 - 2-methylpropan-2-ol CH2=CH2 (g) + H20 (l) CH3CH2OH
I (aq)
CH3

A solution of ethanol in water is produced. i. The alcohols are first partially oxidized to a
This solution contains only a small amount of group of compounds known asaldehydes.
ethanol. A more concentrated solution is For example, ethanol is first oxidized to
obtained by distillation. ethanal, which is an aldehyde.
Diagram: CH3CH2OH (aq) + [0] CH 3CHO + H20(l)
Nb:
Aldehydes are named by replacing the -ol
in the alcohol with-al
ii. The aldehydes (ethanal) are then

oxidized to carboxylic acids (Ethanoic
acid).
CH3CHO + [0] CH3COOH
Nb:
The full equation for the complete oxidation
is:
Chemical Properties of Alcohols CH3CH2OH (aq) +2 [O] CH 3COOH +
Combustion of alcohols H2O(l)
Alcohols burn in air to give carbon dioxide The [0] represents the oxygen from the
and water oxidizing agent
CH3CH2OH (aq) + 3O (g)
2 2C0 2 (g) +
3H20(l) Esterification Reactions
By Defn: Esterification reactions(Reaction
Nb: between alcohol and carboxylic acid)are
i. Chemical reactions Takes part due to the neutralization reactions in which a salt
presence of the -OH functional group. (alkanoate) and water are formed
ii. It burns in air with a blue flame
Alcohols react with carboxylic acids to form
Reaction with sodium metal sweet-smelling compounds known as esters.
Sodium reacts with ethanol to give sodium For example, ethanol reacts with Ethanoic
ethoxide and hydrogen gas. acid to form ethylethanoate, which is an
2Na(s) + 2C2H50H (aq) 2C2H5ONa (aq) ester.
+ H2 (g) CH3CH2OH (aq) + CH3COOH
CH3COOCH2CH3 + H20 (l)
Nb:
The reaction between sodium and ethanol Nb:
is similar to that between sodium and water. i. The first part of the name of an ester is
However, the reaction with water is faster derived by replacing the -ol in alcohol
and more vigorous with -yl
ii. The second part is derived by replacing
Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid the -oic in the carboxylic acid with -oate
When concentrated sulphuric acid is In general:
heated together with ethanol at Alkanol + alkanoic acid
temperatures between 169° and 180°C, it alkylalkanoate + water
dehydrates ethanol to give ethene and
water. For example
C2H5OH (aq) CH2=CH2 (g) + H20 (1) Ethanol + propanoic acid
ethylpropanoate + water
Oxidation of alcohols C2H5OH (aq) + C2H5COOH
Acidified potassium dichromate (VI) oxidizes C2H5COOC2H5 +H20(l)
primary alcohols to carboxylic acids. The
oxidation takes place in stages. Harmful Effects of Alcohol
Excessive consumption of alcohol leads to iv. 2-hydroxypropanoic (lactic) acid is found
addiction. A person who is addicted to in sour milk and in animal muscles.
alcohol is known as an alcoholic v. 2-hydroxypropan-1,2,3-tricarboxylic
(citric) acid is found in citrus fruits such as
Negative Effects in the Society lemons, oranges and lime fruits.
i. Neglecting families and other vi. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is found in citrus
relationships. fruits and tomatoes.
ii. Children from neglected families can also
get involved in criminal activities. General Formula
iii. Alcoholics are sometimes violent and Carboxylic acids can be represented by a
may cause injuries to other people. general formula of CnH2n02 or CnH2n+1COOH
Harmful Effects on the Human Body Nb:

i. Damage of the liver The formulae of carboxylic acids with more
ii. Damage of the brain cells than one carbon atom can be represented
iii. Damage to the heart as R-COOH, where R represents an alkyl
iv. The alcoholic may develop anaemia group.
v. Alcohol interferes with the production of
testosterone and may lead to impotence Homologous Series of Carboxylic Acids
and male feminization Name Molecular Formula
By Defn: Feminisation is a situation in Methanoic acid CH202 or HCOOH
which males develop female Ethanoic acid C2H402 or CH3COOH
characteristics and behaviour Propanoic acid C3H602 or C2H5COOH
vi. Excessive consumption of alcohol by Butanoic acid C4H802 or C3H7COOH
pregnant women may lead to defects in Pentanoic acid C5H1002 or C4H9COOH
an unborn baby
vii. Alcohol is a diuretic, that is, it stimulates
Structural formulae
production of urine The following are the structural formulae of
the first four carboxylic acids
Carboxylic Acids Methanoic acid
Carboxylic acids are organic acids derived
by replacing one or two hydrogen atoms of
the alkanes with a carboxyl group (-COOH).
Its functional group is –COOH with structure
formula shown below
Diagram Ethanoic acid
Propanoic acid
Carboxylic acids occur naturally but can
also be manufactured
Natural Sources of Organic Acids

Natural sources of organic acids are;
i. Methanoic (formic) acid is found in bees Butanoic acid
and ants which use it as a defence
against the enemy. It is also found in the
stinging nettle plant.
ii. Ethanoic (acetic) acid is found in rotting
fruits.
iii. Octadecanoic (stearic) acid is found in Naming Of Carboxylic Acids
many natural fats and oils.
The rules used in naming carboxylic acids
are applied the same way as those for Solubility
naming alkanes In vapour form, alkanoic acids dissolve in
organic solvents and formdimers.
Nb:
i. Carboxylic acids are named by replacing By Defn: dimers are pairs of molecules
the suffix -ane in a corresponding alkane, bridged by hydrogen bonds
with -anoic Diagram:
ii. The functional group can only be at the
end of the carbon chain
iii. The position of the carboxylic group (R-
COOH) is therefore not indicated in the
name
Names of First Five Carboxylic Acids

Old Name Iupac Name
Carboxylic acids of lower molecular mass
Formic acid Methanoic acid dissolve completely in water. The dimers
Acetic acid Ethanoic acid dissociate to form single molecules which
Propionoic acid Propanoic acid form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
Butyric acid Butanoic acid Diagram:
valeric acid Pentatonic acid
Nb:
The use of old names is discouraged
because they do not aid in the drawing of
structural formulae. Boiling and melting points
Carboxylic acids have higher melting and
Isomerism of Carboxylic Acids boiling points compared to the
Like many organic compounds, carboxylic corresponding alcohols due to dimer. The
acids also have isomers. dimers have double the mass of the
individual molecule.
Nb:
i. The first three carboxylic acids that is, Anhydrous ethanoic acid freezes at 17°C,
methanoic acid, ethanoic acid and which is also its melting point, and is often
propanoic acid, have no isomers. called glacial acetic acid
ii. Butanoic acid has two isomers which is
butanoic acid and 2-methylbutonoic Boiling and Melting Points
acid Alkanoic Acid B.P (°C) M.P (°C)
Methanoic acid 101 08
Physical Properties Ethanoic acid 118 17
Physical state Propanoic acid 141 21
The first four members of the homologous
series are liquids. Chemical Properties
Reaction with sodium hydroxide
pH value Carboxylic acids react with sodium
They have a pH value of 4 and above, hydroxide in a neutralization reaction to
therefore its weak acid form a salt and water.
Example Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium
Smell hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate, which
Methanoic, ethanoic and propanoic acids is a white crystalline salt.
have sharp smells similar to that of vinegar. CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq)
Carboxylic acids with four or more carbon CH3COONa (aq) + H20 (l)
atoms have unpleasant smells. An example
is butanoic acid found in human sweat.
Magnesium Mg Mg2+ Practice of grazing animals on the same
Sulphur S SO42- piece of land repeatedly to the point of
leaving the land bare cause exposition the
Micronutrients top soil of agents of erosion
By defn: Micronutrients is the nutrient
required by plant in small quantity. They Overstocking
include Manganese, Molybdenum, Iron, Keeping too many animals on the piece of
Cobalt, Zinc, Boron, Copper and Chlorine land than it can support, animals eat most
vegetation, leaving the land bare cause
Essential Micronutrients exposes the top soil of agents of erosion
Chemical Form taken up
Element Deforestation
symbol by plant
2+ 3+ Cutting down trees without planting other
Iron
Manganese Fe
Mn Fe 2+, Fe
Mn leaves soil unprotected against agent of soil
Boron B H3BO3
Chlorine Cl Cl- Burning of vegetation
Zinc Zn Zn2+ Burning vegetation exposes the top soil of
Copper Cu Cu2+ agents of erosion
Molybdenum Mo MoO42-
Leaching
When soluble plant nutrients are washed
Loss of plant nutrients from the soil
into the lower layer of soil and beyond the
Unmanaged soil loses their fertility (ability to
root zone makes the nutrients unavailable to
provide crops). If nutrients are not supplied
plants
in the correct quantity, the plants and their
yields are affected
Poor farming methods
Destroy or exhaust plant nutrients in the soil
How soil loses nutrients
Soil may lose its nutrients in any of the like monoculture,
and burning overgrazing,
of vegetation lose soiloverstock
nutrients
following ways
i. Soil erosion
Managing of soil nutrients
ii. Monocropping
Soil can be managing by the following
iii. Overgrazing
methods
iv. Overstocking
i. Prevention of soil erosion
v. Deforestation
ii. Crop rotation
vi. Burning of vegetation
iii. Good harvesting practices
vii. Leaching
iv. Controlled grazing
viii. Poor farming methods
v. Intercropping (Mixed cropping)
vi. Uses of manures
Soil erosion
vii. Minimum tillage
Removal and carrying away of top fertile
viii. Agroforestry
soil (organic matter and plant nutrients)
ix. Mulching
leading to the loss of soil nutrients
Prevention of soil erosion

Monocropping
The soil erosion can be prevented by the
Growing one type of crop repeatedly one
following ways
the same piece of land, exhausts the soil
i. Terracing
nutrients and leaves it bare after harvest.
ii. Contour farming
This make easy for the top soil be carried
iii. Strip cropping
away by agent of erosion, leading to loss of
iv. Planting windbreakers
soil nutrients
Terracing
Overgrazing
By defn: Terracing is the levelled section of
cultivated hilly area designed to check the
speed of water flowing on the surface . They Keeping right number of animals on a piece
are constructed to follow the contour of the of land and rotational grazing does not
land to keep rain water on the land rather leaves the land bare
than run down the slope
Intercropping (Mixed cropping)
Types of terracing Growing different crops on the same land at
There are two main types, include same times with legumes, it prevent soil
i. Level terracing erosion and legumes fix nitrogen into soil
ii. Drain terracing
Uses of manures
Level terracing Manure (decomposing organic water such
By defn: Level terracing is the kind of as plant remains and animal waste) can
terracing whereby soil removed from both manage soil by the follows way
sided of the terrace line to control water i. Manure bind the soil particles which help
run-off to prevent soil erosion
ii. Manure increase water holding capacity
Drain terracing of the soil
By defn: Drain terracing is the kind of iii. Manure Regulate pH
terracing whereby channels are made iv. Manure Improve soil structure
across the slope to control water run-off v. Manure Release nutrients into soil
vi. Manure Prevents leaching of essential
Contour farming nutrients
By defn: Contour farming Is the cultivation
across the slope by slows down the speed of Minimum tillage
surface run-off and traps any eroded soil Prepare and cultivate for crops at minimum
level avoid over cultivation which destroy
Strip cropping soil structure and lead to soil erosion and
Alternative
the contourstrips of crops
to protect can
the soilbe planted on
erosion leaching. Minimum
using alternative tillage
methods achieved
such by
as fallowing,
uprooting and slashing of weed
Planting windbreakers
When trees and tall grasses planted in strip, Agroforestry
it reduce the speed and intensity of wind so Planting trees together with agricultural
reduce soil erosion crops protect the soil erosion
Crop rotation Mulching

Growing different crops on the same field at Covering the bare soil with a layer of
different times in an orderly sequence, organic matter such as straw, grasses,
involves a leguminous crop. It helps to leaves and rice husks protect the soil erosion
manage soil
Advantage of mulching
Important of Crop rotation i. Mulching help to conserve soil moisture
i. it improve nitrogen content of the soil and suppresses the growth of weeds
ii. balance utilizing of the soil nutrients ii. Mulching keep the soil cool and adds to
iii. helps to control pests and diseases the organic matter in the soil
Good harvesting practices

Leaving plant remains to rot in the soil
instead of removing them help to restore soil
fertility by returning the nutrients back into
the soil
Controlled grazing

Manures ii. Direction of the prevailing wind
By defn: Manure is decomposed organic iii. Size of the farm
substance derived from animal waste and iv. Accessibility
plant residues contain one or more plant
nutrients Drainage
It should be placed in drainage (cause the
Types of manure liquid to run out, leaving it empty or dry)
There are three main types of manures, which prevent leaching of nutrients and to
includes ensure good aeration (introduce air into
i. Farmyard manure manure)
ii. Compost manure
iii. Green manure Direction of the prevailing wind
Compost manure preparation should not
Farmyard manure place in the place where wind blow from
Made from the waste of farm animals such compost manure to the settlements
as cattle, horse, sheep, pigs, rabbits and Reason: prevents bad odour to settlements
chicken
Size of the farm
Nb: Compost manure should located at centre
i. Manure Contain varies nutrient due to of the farm where compost manure is to be
food eaten and its storage before used used
ii. Manure Stored in optimum air and water Reason: easily in transport around the farm
to prevent oxidation, which cause heat
that loss nitrogen as a gas Accessibility
iii. Too much water cause Manure leaching The site should easily accessible for easy
iv. Manure Stored in a closed system to transportation on of the material used
avoid any factors that can harm it
Green manure Preparation

Compost manure methods
can prepared by using
Made from ploughing green plant material two methods, includes
into the soil, most plants used are legumes i. Preparation by using pit method
which have nitrogen contents ii. Preparation by using stack method or
heap method
Advantage of using green manure
i. It maintain and improve the organic Preparation by using pit method
matter of soil The following procedure is used to prepare
ii. It conserve plants nutrients compost manure by using pit method
iii. Compost manure i. Dig the compost pit
It should be about 1m deep, (1.5 – 2) m
Compost manure wide and of a suitable length
Made from different types of decayed
organic matter such animal waste and ii. Fill the pit with material
plant residue or plant material only, it has Material filled in layers of (10 – 15) cm,
high nutrient content always
(a) Start with the fibrous material such as
Preparation of compost manure maize stalks to make foundation of
It involves two main stages, includes compost
i. Site selection (b) Pack the next layer with glass, leaves
ii. Preparation methods or any refuse material
(c) Add some well decomposed manure
Site selection to provide nutrients to micro organism
The place compost can be prepared can (d) Add a layer of wood ash to improve
be selected the following factors the level of phosphorus and potassium
i. Drainage in the resulting manure
(e) Add a layer of top soil to supply the i. Turning help air circulation for proper
micro-organism necessary for the decomposition
organic decomposition of the manure ii. Prepared during rainy season
iii. Material used are crop residue, animal
iii. Repeat step 2 until the pit is full waste, farmyard, compost manure,
inorganic fertilizer and top soil
iv. Cover the pit with a layer of top soil iv. Usually used after about six months
Diagram:
Advantage of manure
i. It improve soil structure
ii. Humus from manure bind soil particle
together
iii. Humus (black) from manure absorb more
heat which moderate soil temperature
iv. Humus from manure improve soil aeration
and drainage
v. It not readily lashed out
Preparation using heap method Reason: takes long time to be soluble
The following procedure we used to vi. It food and shelter for soil micro organism
prepare compost by using stack method vii. Do not change the pH soil
i. Scrape off surface vegetation and top viii. Improve soil fertility by release wide
soil from the selected site. Level the range of nutrients over a long period
ground
ii. Fix pegs at a distance of 2m apart to form Disadvantage of manure
the four corners of the heap. The heap i. It have a low nutrient content, they used
should be about 105m high in large quantity to supply the required
iii. Start the heap with a 20 cm layer of amount of nutrients
fibrous material such as leaves, hay, straw ii. Manure

weed seedsspreading pests,material
when infested diseasesusedor
or any other refuse materials
iv. Cover the layer of fibrous material with a iii. Manure release nutrients slowly over a
10 cm layer of nitrogenous material such long time
as fresh grass, weeds, fresh or dry manure iv. Manure can easily lose nutrients if poorly
or digested(disintegrate) sewage sludge stores
v. Repeat the pattern of 20cm of fibrous v. Manure have high moisture content
material and 10 cm nitrogenous material which makes difficult to store and
until hep height is achieved transport
vi. Wet the heap after each layer
vii. Cover the heap with soil or hay to retain
heat
viii. Turn the heap at intervals of 6 and 12
weeks, until complete decomposition of
the compost has occurred
Diagram:
Nb:

i. Agricultural activities . It is released from v. Extreme weather events which include
wetlands, such as rice fields and from floods, drought, heat waves, hurricanes
animals, particularly cud-chewing and tornadoes
animals like cows. vi. higher or lower agricultural yields
ii. mining of coal and oil vii. Melting of Arctic ice and snowcaps. This
iii. When vegetation is burnt causes landslides, flash floods and
Note: Methane molecules have a lifetime of glacial lake overflow
10 years in the atmosphere viii. Extinction of some animal and plant
species,
Dinitrogen Oxide ix. Increase in the range of disease vectors
Dinitrogen oxide is produced from both
natural and human-made processes. Solutions to Minimize Global Warming
Human activities includes The major solution is to reduce the
i. combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and greenhouse gases emission into the
power stations atmosphere by:
ii. Use of nitrogenous fertilizers i. Reduce the use of fossil fuels by use of
iii. burning of vegetation public transport which will minimize the
iv. Animal waste number of vehicles in the roads
ii. Use of fuel-efficient cars
Chlorofluorocarbons iii. Use of clearer alternative sources of
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are organic energy such as solar and wind.
compounds made up of chlorine, fluorine iv. Afforestation
and carbon. The sources of CFCs in the v. Countries to make a policy of minimizing
atmosphere include fridges, air the emission of greenhouse gases.
conditioners, sprays and aerosols Example Kyoto protocol
Note: CFCs are extremely effective
greenhouse gases. A CFC molecule is 10 000 Methods of controlling air pollution
times
carbonmore effective
dioxide in trapping heat than a
molecule Air pollutionover-dependence
i. Reduce is controlled by on fossil fuels
ii. Using fuel-efficient system
Global Warming iii. Modification and replacement of
By Defn: Global warming is the increase of industrial systems
the average temperatures near or on the iv. Use of air pollution control devices
earth’s surface caused by greenhouse v. Enactment of laws
gases
Or Safety measures to protect industrial worked
By Defn: Global warming is the increase in from gaseous pollution
temperature near or on the surface of the The follows is the Safety measures to protect
earth resulting into greenhouse effect industrial worked from gaseous pollution
i. Eliminate hazardous chemicals
Causes of global warming ii. Substituting hazardous chemicals
Global warming is mainly caused by iii. Highly hazardous chemicals should be
greenhouse gases carried out in sealed chambers
iv. Workers should be Use of protective
Effects of Global Warming equipment
The effects of global warming include:
i. Increase the temperature of the oceans Ways workers contaminate gas pollutant
ii. Rise in sea level due to melting land ice. Chemical can get into the workers bodies
This may lead to flooding of the coastal through the following
land i. Inhalation – worker can contaminate
iii. Change in world’s climate patterns through breathing
iv. Acidification of the oceans CO2 dissolves ii. Skin contact - worker can contaminate
in water and forms a weak carbonic through contact with chemical
acid and hence lower of PH of ocean
iii. Ingestion - worker can contaminate These are used in refrigeration and air
through swallow or smoking chemical condition and in aerosols. When reach in
stratosphere they broken up to form chlorine
Ozone Layer atoms
By defn: Ozone layer is a layer in the earth’s
atmosphere which contains relatively high Methyl bromide
concentration of ozone (O3) This used in agriculture as agricultural
Diagram: fumigant. When reach in stratosphere they
broken up to form bromine atoms
Halons
These are compound delivered from
hydrocarbons. All carbon atoms of halons
replaced with halogen (chlorine atom,
bromine atoms and fluorine atoms). Halons
are mainly used in fire extinguishers
Main function of ozone layer Ways of controlling ozone layer depletion

Ozone layer absorbs (97 – 99) % of the sun’s The most effective way of controlling the
high frequency ultraviolet light from the sun depletion of ozone layer is
i. To ban the production of all ozone-
Effect of sun’s high frequency ultraviolet light depleting substance
i. It causes skin cancer in human beings ii. To ban the uses of all ozone-depleting
ii. It causes blindness in human beings substance
iii. It causes skin ailment in human beings iii. To use less harmful substance
Nb: Environmental conservation
i. Over
layer 90% of ozone(O ) is within the ozone
3 By defn: Environmental
protection conservation
and preservation is the
of natural
ii. Ozone layer is spread between (17 – 30) resources from destruction, wastage or loss .
Km in the earth’s atmosphere in the Natural resources includes
Stratosphere i. Minerals
iii. Amount of ozone within the stratosphere ii. Soil
varies according to altitude iii. Water
iv. Ozone concentration are highest iv. Aquatic life
between (19 – 23) Km but Significant v. Air
amount up to 30 Km vi. Forests
vii. Animals (domestic and wild)
Ozone Layer depletion
By defn: Ozone Layer depletion is the Important of Environmental conservation
destruction of ozone layer The following is Important of Environmental
conservation
Ozone-depleting substances i. To protect and preserve all resources
This is the substances contribute to Ozone which Sustain life on the earth
Layer depletion such as Chlorine and ii. To protect and preserve ecological
bromine atoms are main substance that balance in an ecosystem
deplete ozone. The main sources of bromine iii. To keep continuous economic activities
and chlorine atom in the atmosphere are like fishing, hunting etc
Gases such as iv. To making natural resources available for
i. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Future generations
ii. Methyl bromide v. To keep Beauty of environment
iii. Halons
Environmental conservation measures
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
The following are measure being put in
place to conservation the environment
i. Implementations of organization and
institutions responsible for protect and
conserve the natural sources
ii. Formulation of laws which governing
environmental conservation
iii. Provision of Environmental Education
iv. Research on the best way of protect
and conserve the natural sources
v. Pollution should be prevented and
controlled
vi. International agreement aim to protect
and conserve the natural sources
vii. personal involvement to protect and
conserve the natural sources
Ways personal involves in Environmental

conservation
The following are some of the ways which
can take part in environmental
conservation
i. She/he should plant more trees at home
and in school
ii. She/he should place rubbish and any
other waste in designated areas or in
disposal bins
iii. She/he
areas should not start fires near forested
iv. She/he should not harm animal both
domestic and wild
v. She/he should educate other people on
the importance of environmental
conservation
vi. She/he should take part in environmental
conservation programs and tasks

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Table of Contents

FORM ONE NOTES............................................................................................................................ 2

Nanguruwe Secondary school i

The manufacturing industry

Home care products

Chemistry for careers (professional

Nanguruwe Secondary school 3

Changes undergoes chemical changes

Different between Physical Changes and

Nanguruwe Secondary school 19

Criteria used to generate chemical symbol Argon

Nanguruwe Secondary school 20

Properties of compound be seen separated

Nanguruwe Secondary school 22

Nanguruwe Secondary school 24

Separation Application of Chromatography

Mining Use of commercial filters

Water treatment and purification Screening

Domestic water purification Reservoirs

Nanguruwe Secondary school 39

Nanguruwe Secondary school 40

Nanguruwe Secondary school 41

Nb: Composition of coal

Solid fuels Nb:

Consider the diagram below

Nanguruwe Secondary school 47

Nanguruwe Secondary school 51

element to form a compound atoms or

Modification from Dalton’s Atomic theory

Sub atomic particles

Nanguruwe Secondary school 52

Electrons Lithium Li 3 2:1

Reversible reaction Steps to write simple chemical equation

Displacement reaction By defn: Redox reaction is a reaction where

Example ii. Reducing agent : Reducing agent is the

3KCl(aq) The follows

ii. Relieving indigestion

range about 3-14 value v. Manufacture of fertilizers

Neutralization vi. Neutralizing accidental spills chemicals

Nb: vii. Reducing acid rain occurrence

Nanguruwe Secondary school 77

(b) Reaction between acid and alkalis Preparation of insoluble salt

Nanguruwe Secondary school 79

Green copper (II) carbonate decompose

Zinc (II) carbonate decompose to form

at 50 ℃?, What solubility of ZnCO3 (s) ZnOzinc

Silver and mercury decompose to give Uses of salts

Sulphate of alkalis and alkali earth metal do

Ammonium sulphate decompose on two

Nanguruwe Secondary school 81

iv. For ratio

Nanguruwe Secondary school 86

particles to low number of particles (d)

Example Endothermic reaction

Activation energy (AE) also can be shown in

Activation energy (AE) also can be shown in

Energy level diagram Example