Edited by

Dr Ashok S. Nene

1 Engineering Applications of Botany

 CONTENTS

Chapter Topic Page

1-Prologue 03
2-Architecture & Civil Engineering 04
3-Miscellaneous 47
4- Mining & Metallurgy 50
5-Aeronautics 52
6-Epilogue 54
7-References 55
8-Annexure 57
-About the Editor 59

2 Engineering Applications of Botany

 1 PROLOGUE
The Engineering applications of botany can be grouped under following
heads.

 Adobe construction- brick earths, mud plasters, pottery, mud

floorings etc.
 Tempering of steel implements
 Water purification.
 Rainfall predictions.
 Gold plating of copper and silver
 Crack detection by herbal paints.
 Adamantine Glue.
 Lime Mortars and lime plasters
 Basic colors and pigments.
 Herbal paste for water divining.
The subsequent parts of this book contain engineering applications of
ancient Indian Botany.

3 Engineering Applications of Botany

 2 ARCHITECTURE & CIVIL ENGINEERING

2.1 Rainfall prediction

Ancient text Kadambini mentions certain precursors of rainfall. It mentions

few precursors of rainy season.

 Flowering of certain trees can be linked to onset of rainy season. Rainy

season starts 45 days after Amaltash flowers bloom. Ref Fig. below.
 If creeper grows upwards or buds of small flowering plants decay without
flowering indicates immediate rains.

Fig.2.1 Flowering of Amaltash tree

2.2 Water Purification

1-Brihat Samhita (6th century A.D.): The chapter 54 describes surface

indicators for underground water springs. It also describes certain herbs for
water purification. Refer Table and Figure below.

2- Abhilishartha ChintamaNi (10th Century A.D.): This text mentions a

process of raw water purification. The ingredients needed are Khus,
Chandan, pippali, Nagarmotha, cardamom, and Multani Mitti for cover. All
ingredients are mixed and encapsulated in Multani Miiti dove. Peanut size

4 Engineering Applications of Botany

pallets are prepared and heated to 600 degrees in a furnace. See figure
below. One such palette is used for purification of 5 liters of water.
Experiments were conducted at VNIT Nagpur, to verify the information and it
was observed that;

 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) increase from 5 to 11,

 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) increase from 51 to 220 ,
 MPN decrease from 2400 to 14.

The process patented by Dr. Deopujari & Dr.Mandavgane, 2011.

The figure 2.2.2, contains the original reference verse and the table gives
the ingredients used.

Fig. 2.2-Clay palette

Table 2.1-The ingredients for water purification as per B.S.

and A.C.

Sanskrit Name and part to be used English Name

Arjun (tree fruits) Arjun tree

Mushta (bulb of plant) Cypriol plant

Ushir (roots of plant) Khus grass

Chandvel (stem) Arvensis -A small climber

Amalaki (dry powder of fruits) gooseberry frruits

Kanakphul (fruits of) Mexican prickly poppy

Chandan (paste of core) Sandal wood

Pippli (fruits) Long pepper

5 Engineering Applications of Botany

3-Scientific research has proved that;

 Powder of Nirmali seeds removes the turbidity of water.

 Roots of Khus plant gives pleasant smell to drinking water
 Use of Basil plant (Tulsi) or Holy tree (Bael) leaf increase shelf life potted
water.
 Core of Jamul tree wood acts as algaecide, it destroys the algae in 24 hours.
 Seeds of drumstick tree also act as coagulant for turbidity removal.

Fig.2.3- Nirmali seeds and Khus grass roots

Fig.2.4- Core of Jamul tree wood and Seeds of drumstick tree

2.3 Adobe construction

General: Soil stabilization includes soil selection, treatment with organic

additives. Such soil is used for brick earth, mud walls, plastering, and outer
coat of idols, pottery, base coat of cave paintings and other purposes.

Functions of soil plasticizers are; to increase

1. workability with optimum water content

2. water repellent property

6 Engineering Applications of Botany

 3. strength by increasing the density

4. Impart glazing to pottery products.

Ancient plasticizers can be grouped as

A) Extracts of herbs, fruits and tree barks: Trifala- Aamla, Hirda and
Behada,Wood apple, Holy tree fruit ,Barks- Khadir4, Arjun trees

B) Natural fibers: Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton or jute

C) Natural polymers: Cow Dung, Jiggery, Coconut water, Eggs, Green Algae,
rice husk, burnt coconut shell.

The Sanskrit alternate name for clay is “Dharmi” which means a material
changes its properties according to the requirement. The procedures for
manufacture of different clay products are described below.

1a Bricks and Roofing tiles: Yajurvedsamhita mentions about method of

preparation bricks and a special type of pot (Ukha). The soil was stabilized
by adding hairs of goat, fine sand, iron slag and stone dust. Shatapatha
Brahman mentions use of sand, stone dust and iron slag for soil
stabilization.
Mix extracts of barks of trees (Pipal and Agar) in wet clay. Knead the clay
daily for 30 day and the use for bricks or roofing tiles. Trifala is mixed with
water .and boiled till the solution is reduced to one fourth of original volume.
It is called Trifala-Kashaya. (Ref. Shilparatna).
The suitable soil is mixed with Trifala-Kashaya. The soil is kneaded for a long
period. The soil such prepared was used for plastering of walls.
Vastu Vidya Savyakhya describes the soil preparation as below,

7 Engineering Applications of Botany

 • Add extracts of barks of milky trees, knead for one to ten days
• Add extracts of barks of Shirish tree, knead for one to ten days
• Add decoction (Kashaya), knead for 3 to 30 days

1b-soil stabilization for idol making: Additives- milk, yogurt, ghee, stone
dust; iron slag. Decoctions made from barks of Khdir or Arjun trees.
turpentine oil, resinous exudation of Sal tree, grass of kandru plant. Ref.
Tantrasamuchhyaya and Vastu Vidya

Preparation of soil by mixing various ingredients and the process of mud

plastering for idols is described in details in Sakaladhikar.

Suitable soil (white, red or yellow) is mixed with cow’s milk and tawny color,
linseed oil, floor of wheat and barley. A decoction is prepared by boiling
barks of Kshir and bakul in water

Clay balls are prepared and allowed to dry. Further lime and gum is added to
dry pulverized clay balls are allowed to mature for one month. Lime in 1:2
pats is added and the mixer is used for coating the idols. Ref.
Aparajitprichha (1200-1300 AD)

Fig.2.5-Fruits

2-Natural fibers are;

Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton, jute, spider’ web etc.

8 Engineering Applications of Botany
 Fig.2.6- Natural fibers

3-Natural polymers

Cow Dung, Jiggery, Coconut water, Eggs, Green Algae, rice husk, burnt
coconut shell etc.

Fig.2.7- Natural Polymers

9 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.2.8- Hand molding of bricks

Shatapatha Brahman mentions use of sand, stone dust and iron slag for soil
stabilization.

Trifala (three fruits-Aamla, Hirda and Behda) are boiled in water till the
solution is reduced to one fourth of original volume. This decoction is called
Trifala-Kashaya. (Ref. Shilparatna).

The suitable soil is mixed with Trifala-Kashaya. The soil is kneaded for a long
period. The soil such prepared was used for plastering of walls.

Vastu Vidya describes the soil preparation as below,

• Add extracts of barks of milky trees, knead for one to ten days

• Add extracts of barks of Shirish tree, knead for one to ten days

• Add decoction (Kashaya), knead for 3 to 30 days

Case Study

13th Centaury Floating Bricks are still available at Ter and Dhoki Village on
Kurduwadi Latur Road, Maharashtra. These bricks are supposed to be
made by Saint Gora Kumbhar. The properties of these floating bricks are;

• Sizes in mm: 100 x 75 x 62.5 Min to 300 x 150 x 75.

• Weight in kg: 0.75 min to 3.15 Max.

• Density ratio (Std Brick/ Ter brick): 1.88 to 2.37

• Floating period prior to sinking in water: 4 to 40 hours .

• Probable Ingredients: Rice Husk creating partially inter-connected

pores.

10 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.2.9 -Brick Floating on Water

1b-Clay idols

Fig.2.10- Clay idols

As per ancient texts such as Tantrasamuchhyaya,Sakaladhikar and Vastu

Vidya soil is stabilized by additives like milk, yogurt, ghee , stone dust and
iron slag . Decoctions made from barks of Khadir or Arjun trees, oil, resinous
exudation of Sal tree, grass of kundru plant is added to the soil to be used
for idol making.

As per Aparajitprichha (1200-1300 AD) suitable soil (white, red or yellow) is

mixed with cow’s milk, linseed oil, floor of wheat and barley. A decoction is
prepared by boiling barks of Kshir and Bakul in water. Clay balls are
prepared and allowed to dry. Further lime and gum is added to dry
11 Engineering Applications of Botany
pulverized clay balls are allowed to mature for one month. Lime in 1:2 parts
is added and the mixer is used for coating the idols.

1d-Adobe floors

Fig. 2.11-Isabgol plants, seeds and mud floor prepared with Isabgol

Floors are made from poured and toweled mud mixed with psyllium hulls
(Isabgol).The mud is easy to work and acts as a binder when the floor dries.
It reduces cracking and increases strength.

2.4 Pottery

A- Earthen pots: Prepare a mixture of Swesha, Guggul and Kunda grass

(one sixteenth of clay) and curd (one eleventh of clay). Apply this mixture
to clay pot before baking in a furnace.

Mix floor of Satu, powder of Amaksh , Tatwasi and coconut water to clay in a
proportion of 8 parts of clay and 1 part of admixtures. Ref. Shilparatna
1.14.48

B- Glazing of earthen pots: Apply a mixture of Ghee, honey and Herb

powder (Kapittha, Bilwa and Niryas) to clay pots. This process imparts
glazing to the china clay pots.

Apply a mixture of milk ghee, honey and Herb powder (churni, Pipli,Marichi
and Rasani ) to clay pots. This process imparts glazing to the ceramic pots.
Ref. Shilparatna 1.14.15

12 Engineering Applications of Botany

C- Coloring of Clay pots: Mix sesame powder and resins of Kapittha and
Beal trees. Add desired coloring agent (Kushta, Red ochre, orpiment etc).
Polish the pot with the mixture to impart suitable color. Alternatively take
equal parts of Sandlewood, Karpur, Gorochan and Agaru . Add clay 6 parts
to the mixture in linseed oil. Apply this oil paint to earthen pots.Ref.
Shilparatna 2.19.18

1g. Ceramic pots

Prepare a mixture of Shraveshat, Guggul and Kunda grass (one eleventh of

clay) and curd . Apply this mixture to clay pot before baking in a furnace.
Ref. Shilparatna 2.19.11

A. Gadhi soils –white soil

13 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.2.12- Mud fort in Rajasthan

The main constituents are local soil, fine sand, cow dung, quick lime,
extracts of Belphal , fibers of jute and water for mixing.

The mixture is allowed to mature for a minimum period of 30 days and

kneaded every day.

2.5 Lime Mortars

Shilparatna mentions different techniques for lime mortars. Annexure 2

shows additives for lime plasters.

a-Lime Mortar

Grind ripe bananas, fibers of cotton and pulp of cactus and mix in slaked
lime to make a good quality lime mortar. Alternatively add decoction of
barks of trees (Pipal. Amla, Kadamb) and paste of black gram are added to
the slaked lime.

b-Sudha - Molding Lime for sculpturing

14 Engineering Applications of Botany

Lime prepared by burning conches (Shankha) or oysters (Shipi) is called
Sudha. Fine sand, decoction of moog, jiggery water and Banana powder is
added to lime.

The recommended proportions are, Lime - 4 parts, Fine sand- 2 parts,

Banana powder – 1 part and jiggery -1 part. All ingredients are mixed by
rolling again and again.

c-Sunla

Curd, milk, black gram paste, gud, ghee, ripe bananas, coconut and mango
pulp are added to slake lime. Plaster made of these materials is non-
shrinking .

d-Waterproof lime mortar

Mix Ghee, coconut water, black gram paste , extract of barks(Pipal), milk,
curd, decoction of Trifala, and Pichhit, in proportion of 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and
11 parts to 100 parts of slaked lime.

E -Base coat for Cave Paintings

 Ajanta caves: Clay, cow dung, stone powder, rise husk and lime.
 Sirgirea caves: Tempered kaolin clay, rice husk, Coconut shell fibers and
lime.
 Bagh caves: Red clay, green gram, lime and jute. Mansoullas recommends
use of powder of conchs, katha, pulses, molasses, and boiled bananas.
Mix 3 parts of slaked lime and 1 part of powder of dry unripe banana. Add
water to make butter like mixture. Such leveling coat gives a marble finish
to the wall surface. Repeat the procedure and store the liquid color in an
earthen pot.

Shilparatna (Part 1 and 2) mentions different techniques for lime mortars.

Many natural polymers are mentioned in this text.

15 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Table2.2- Natural Polymers - for Lime mortar & plasters

1 Ash 9 Cow dung 17 Mahuwa flowers

2 Bark of Neem 10 Egg white 18 Milk, curd or ghee

3 Bark of Pakar tree 11 Flowers Silk cotton 19 Mustard cake

tree
4 Bee wax 20 Linseed oil
12 Green gram (Moog)
5 Belgiri (aegle pulp) 21 Powder of Cattle horn
13 Guggul
6 Black gram (Udad) 22 Resin of Sal tree
14 Hemp fiber
7 Brick powder 23 Rice husk
15 Jaggery
8 Clay 24 Saaf flower oil
16 Juice of Cactus

b- Sudha - Molding Lime for sculpturing

Lime prepared by burning conches (Shankha) or oysters (Shipi) is called

Sudha. Fine sand, decoction of moog, jiggery water and Banana powder is
added to lime.

The recommended proportions are, Lime - 4 parts, Fine sand- 2 parts,

Banana powder – 1 part and jiggery -1 part. All ingredients are mixed by
rolling again and again. Ref.Shilparatna 1.14.68-69

Fig.2.13- conches and oysters

c-Sunla

16 Engineering Applications of Botany

Curd, milk, black gram paste, gud, ghee, ripe bananas, coconut and mango
pulp are added to slake lime. Plaster made of these materials is non-
shrinking . Ref.Shilparatna 1.14.70

8d-Waterproof lime mortar

Mix Ghee, coconut water, black gram paste , extract of barks(Pipal), milk,
curd, decoction of Trifala, and Pichhit, in proportion of 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and
11 parts to 100 parts of slaked lime. Ref. Shilparatna 1.14.70

8f- Leveling coat of lime plaster

Mix 3 parts of slaked lime and 1 part of powder of dry raw banana. Add
water to make butter like mixture. Such leveling coat gives marble finish to
the wall surface.

Shilpdeepak" Ref. Fig. 3.6 also gives procedure to prepare lime mortars. The
steps are;

1. Take two parts of coarse sand,

2. Take two parts each of honey, ghee, banana pulp, coconut water,
black gram power mixed in water, decoction of barks of Rudrakshya
trees, Jagaery and decoction of Trifala
3. Mix the above materials to 100 parts of white powdered lime.
4. The mortar thus prepared is kneeded and pounded to prepare lime
mortar
Briquettes of soil and lime mixture should be made. After four months these
briquettes should be fired and then powdered. Such mortar is useful for
waterproof plaster for terraces. Ref. Fig. 3.7

2.6 Colors and Paints

17 Engineering Applications of Botany

The main purpose of colors and paints is to enhance the aesthetics of any
structure and to improve the durability. The related ancient Indian texts are,
Vishnudharmottara Purana ,Chitrasutra and Manosollas.

Basic Colors: White, yellow, red, black and blue are five basic (pure) colors.
All other composite colors are made from these colors. Ref.
Vishnudharmottar PuraN, Ch.27.

White color: White color is prepared from lime made of shells or mother of
pearls or from white clay (pottery clay-Kaolin). White color is prepared by
mixing resins of Neem or Wood Apple tree with white soil or lime. The
mixture is pulverized and dissolved in hot water. Ref. Fig.2.6.2

Fig.2.14 - Ingredients for white color

Yellow color: Yellow color is prepared from pounding yellow wood trees
(Haridra) and yellow soil (from hills or river banks) together. The mixture is
poured in clear water for two hours. The top yellow solution is stored in
earth pot till it dries. The dry powder is used for preparing yellow color.

Fig.2.15- Ingredients for yellow color

18 Engineering Applications of Botany

Red color: Red color is prepared from Sindur (Vermilion), Gaierik (Red
ochre), Hingul (Cinnabar) or Laksharus (Shellac) to get light, medium, dark
and very dark shades respectively. Red ochre is finely pulverized and sieved
through a muslin cloth. The powder is cleaned by mixing with water.
Vermillion is mixed in water and stirred for 12 hours. All these colors are
mixed with resin of Neem.

Fig.2.16 - Ingredients for red color

Black color: -Oil lamp is ignited in a mud pot. Inner surface of another mud
pot is smeared with powder of dry cow dung. This pot is place on the first
pot such that lamp black is coated inside the top pot. The lamp black is
cleaned with water before application.

Blue color: Blue color is prepared by drying a mixture of blue minerals or

indigo and resin of wood apple.

19 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.2.17 - Ingredients for blue color

Composite colors: Composite colors are made by mixing two or more basic
colors.

Organic Colors for Textile printing: wood of suitable color is selected

from forest. It is crushed into clean water and the mixture is filtered. The
process is repeated till desired consistency is achieved. The liquid color is
stored in an earthen pot.

Fig.2.18 - Organic Colors for Textile printing

C-Ajantha paintings

Ancient techniques mentioned in Shilparatna was successfully used for

restoration of Ajantha paintings Ref. Singh & Arbad, 2014

20 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.2.19- Restoration of cave painting

a - ingredients for the preparation of mud mortar, b - preparation of

adhesive extract, c - Preparation of soil + lime + aggregates mixture, d -
final step showing the preparation of mud mortar)

Fig.2.20- cave painting before and after restoration

Consolidation of paintings with newly prepared mud mortar

Experimental Studies

Research workers in different parts of world conducted experimental studies

on natural polymers and found positive results as claimed in ancient Indian

21 Engineering Applications of Botany

literature. These are summarized below. (Ref. Satishchandra 2003, ch. 12,
page 537-567).

Table 2.3-Research Details

Year Name Product Purpose Ingredients

1983- Chandra & Aavik Cement plasticizers- Black Gram+

mortar linseed oil

1985 Gangopaddhyay Light weight Heat insulation - CNSL, Cinder

concrete

1986 Jain water water proofing Belgiri, black

repellant gram ,CNSL

1990 Singh et al Lime mortar Restoration

1990 Singh et al plasters and Restoration Belgiri, black

mortars gram, Jaggery

Brushes and Hide glue : Ancient texts also mention about preparation of
golden color, brushes and hide glue but it is not included here.

2.7 WATER DIVINING

2.7.1-By Surface Indicators

Varahmihir (505 C.E- 587 C.E), the famous astronomer, mathematician and
astrologer of India, compiled a treatise "Brihat Samhita". Many modern
translations and commentaries on this text are available. This text is based
on the text "Krishi Parashar" of Sage Parashar. The title of chapter 54 is
Dakargala. (Daka is short form of Udaka or water and Argal means
obstruction). This text describes how the presence of some surface
indicators can be used to predict presence of underground water both in
quality and quantity. The indicators are

22 Engineering Applications of Botany

  Specific trees, plants, herbs and grasses
 Hibernating animals (Enjoying winter sleep- frogs, lizards, snakes,
alligators and tortoises)
 Anthills (Terrariums)

The chapter 54 contains 124 verses. For example few verses are quoted
below;

 Verse 6: If a Rotang tree is seen flourishing in a waterless tract,

there will be water at a depth of 7.5 cubits at a distance of 3
cubits to the west of the tree.
 Verse 9: If a fish or blue soil is met at a depth of 2.5 cubits,
there will be abundant water source.
 Verse15: If there is a Nirgundi plant excessively grown near a
anthill, then there will be sweet water at a depth of 11.25 cubits.
 Verse.85: Among a group of termite mounds, a water vein is
sure to be found below the taller of the mounds.

The simple rules mentioned by sage Parashar are as below;

1. The surface water or its flow does not indicate the underground
water conditions.
2. Many ant hills in a particular area suggest of good source of
water.
3. If certain types of trees (Country Fig, Shami or Pipal) are grown
in close proximity, then good water storage at that spot can be
predicted.
4. No site is completely devoid of water, but depth of water table
changes from place to place. If a hard rock stratum is met
during the digging well, water table cannot be expected till
bottom of this stratum.

23 Engineering Applications of Botany

 5. If a white clay or sand stratum is met, one can expect good source of
water'

There are certain ground symptoms which indicate availability of ground

water. Ref. Table 2.7.1

Table 2.4 - Ground symptoms and underground water

Type A B C

Branches Long Medium Small

Fruits Juicy Non juicy -

leaves Without holes Small -

Soil color White or bluish Black Red

Species of trees Date palm, Arjun,Guava - Teak,

Shisum

Types of grass Munj, kush - -

Water quantity Abundant Moderate Less, at

great depth

Water quality Sweet Salty Bitter

A place where five trees (Vat, Oudumber, Pipal, Shami and Bel) exist side by
side is termed as Panchwati (a place of five trees). Abundant water is
available at such site at a shallow depth. Ref. Table 5.3 for botanical names.

24 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.2.22-Panchwati (a place of five trees)

2.7.2-water divining by herbal paste

Fig.2.21- Water Diviner

Dowsing is a method to locate underground water sources. Dowsing

technique includes use of pendulums, Y rods etc, to find metals, ores,
gemstones, oils and lost articles.

Breach child: If during birth of a child, feet appear first, such child is called
Breach child. Such person possesses some magnetic powers which are
25 Engineering Applications of Botany
useful for water dowsing. A person born as a Breach child person possesses
some magnetic powers which are useful for water dowsing.

If such person (born as breach child) is not available, dowsing can be done
by any person with the help of herbs mentioned in ancient Indian text
Mantrashastra

An herbal paste is prepared by grinding ten types of seeds or roots in cow’s

urine. Such paste is applied to the feet of a person who wishes to do
dowsing. This paste helps in locating underground water. Ancient Indian text
“Mantrashastra” describes the constituents of this herbal paste. Ref. Table
below.

Table 2.5- Constituents of herbal paste

Sanskrit Name English/ Latin
1 Vanhi Marking nut Tree-Prosopis cineraria
2 Koshataki Wild ribbed gourd -Luffa operculata
3 Vajri / Snuhi Holy Milk Hedge-Euphorbia neriifolia Linn
4 Swetark White_variety of Madar plant
Calotropis_gigantea
5-Girikarnika/ Shankhapushpi Butterfly pea -Clitoria ternatea
6 Vacha Vacha- Calamus -root
7 Patha / Phadvel Patha creeper -False pareira brava
8 Nirgudi Nirgundi Vitex negundo
9 Katutumb Bitter Pumpkin- lagenaria siceraria
10 Nimba Lemon Citrus × lemon
11Keshar / Nagkeshar Mesua Ferrea
12 Gomutra Cow’s Urine

26 Engineering Applications of Botany

Figures below describe the ingredients.

Fig.2.22a- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

Fig.2.22b- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

27 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.2.22c- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

Fig.2.22d- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

Fig.2.22e- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

28 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.2.22f- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

2.8 Adamantine Glues Ashtabandha and Vajralepa

The subject of preparation of adamantine glue is closely connected with that

of construction of temples, mansions etc., because that was very essential
for fixing idols, in constructing walls and the like when cement and other
modern materials were unknown. Even now these glues known as
Ashtabandha are prepared in temple premises for fixing or re-fixing images
of Gods. Only one authority viz. Maya, is mentioned by our author
Take the unripe fruits of Tinduka and Kapittha , flowers of silk cotton, seeds
of Sallaki , bark of Dhanvana, and Vaca ; boil all of them in a Drona (256
Palas )and reduce the decoction to an eighth of its original volume (i.e. 32
Palas). Mix the sediments with the following substances, viz. Sriviisaka (a
secretion of a tree used as incense, Turpentine?), Raktabola, Guggulu
,Bhallataka, Kundurilka, resin, Atasi and Bilva fruit . The resulting paste is
termed Adamantine Glue.
When this glue, being heated, is used in the construction of temples,
mansions, windows, walls and wells as well as in fixing Siva's Emblems and

29 Engineering Applications of Botany

idols of Gods, it will last for ten million years. Next he gives another
composition of this glue.
A bonding agent mortar or glue was very essential for fixing idols, in wall
construction, when cement and other modern materials were unknown.

Even now these glues, known as Astabandha, are prepared in temple

premises for fixing or re-fixing images of gods. Five prescriptions for such
glues are described in Shilpashastra

Ancient Indian texts such as Brhatsamhita of Varaha-Mihira and Mayamatam

of Sage Maya describes the materials and methods of cementing material in
chapter Vajralepa.

First formula:
The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka and Kapittaka, flowers of silk
cotton seeds of Sallaki, barks of Dhanavana and Vaca root. (Refer Table 1)

Table 2.6 - Ingredients for Adamantine glues

First formula mentioned in Brihat Samhita

SN Sanskrit English/ Latin

1.1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata

1.2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum

1.3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton

1.4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata

1.5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root

1.6 Vacha Barks of Orris root

1.7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense

30 Engineering Applications of Botany

 1.8 Raktabola Myrrh

1.9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii

1.10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium

1.11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin

1.12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum

1.13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos

All these ingredients (SN 1.1 to 1.6) are boiled 256 parts of water till the
decoction reduces to an eighth of its original volume (i.e.32 Parts).
The sediments are mixed with substances, such as. Shrivasaka , Raktabola,
Guggulu, Bhallataka, Kunduruka resin , Atasi and Bilva fruit.(SN 1.7 to 1.13)
The resulting paste is termed as adamantine glue. This glue is heated and
then used in construction of temple, and fixing Siva’s emblems and idols of
gods. It was expected to last for a million years. Ref. Brihatsamhita ch.56. v-
210-213
Second Variety -Adamantine Glue

Mayamatam

Ingredients-Lac, Kunduru, soot (lamp black), Guggulu, wood-apple,

Manjiostha resin, Bilva fruit kernel, fruits of Naga, neem,Tinduka , Madana ,
Madhuka, myrrh and Ambalaka.

Formula Explained in Shilparatnakar

The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka (Diospyros malabarica) and

Kapittaka (Feronia elephantum), flowers of silk cotton (Morus Acedosa)

31 Engineering Applications of Botany

seeds of Sallaki (Boswellia serrata), barks of Dhanavana and Vaca (Orris
root).

Table shows the ingredients for adamantine glue.

Table 2.7-Terminology

Sanskrit name Botanical Common

name name/parts
used

Gruhdhooma - Soot
Amlaka Emblica Amla, anwla
officinalis (fruit)
Atasi Linum Linseed oil
usikatissimum
Bhallataka Semecarpus Marking ink
anacardium tree

Bilva Aegle Holy tree fruit

marmeJos
Dhanvana Dhawda Tree
Drona A leaf cone
Guggulu Commiflora Guggul
mukul (resin)

Kapittha tree Feronia Wood apple

elephantum
Kundurilka exudation of
Deodar
Laksha Lakh, lac
(resin)
Madanfal Randia Madan fala
spinosa (fruit)
Madhuka Cynometra Mahua, Moha
ramiflora (fruit)
Manjistha Rubia Manjistha
cordifolia (stem)
Nagfala Canthium Bagbala (bark
parviflorum of the shrub)
Neemba Azadirachta Neem
indica (leaves)

32 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Rasa Raktabol,
Hirabol
(resin)
Sallaki Boswellia tree
serrata
Sarjarasa
Shalmali Morus silk cotton
acedosa tree
Sriviisaka a tree-resin
Tinduka Diospyros Tendu tree
paniculata fruit
Vaca Orris root Aris root

One of the disciplines in Brhatsamhita is adamantine glue called Vajralepa.

Brhatsamhita describes several preparations of Vajralepa, which means
coatings as strong as thunder bolt. The subject of preparation of adamantine
glue is closely connected with that of construction of temples, mansions, etc.
as it was very essential for fixing idols, and in constructing walls when
cement and other modern materials were unknown. Even now, the glue
known as Astabandha is prepared in temple premises for fixing images of
God. The ancient scripture on engineering and technology refers three main
formulations of adamantine glue, i.e. using metals and alloys, animal
matters and herbal.

There is another adamantine glue of excellent qualities already mentioned

which is also used for the same purpose. It is composed of lac, Kunduru,
Guggulu, soot (collected in the house), wood-apple , Bilva Kernel, fruits of
Naga Neem, Tinduka and Madana, Madhuka , Manjistha, resin, myrrh and
Amalaka.
[There is another reading Nagabalatinduk in the place Nagaphalnimb. The
method of preparation is the same as before
third variety of glue Hide Glue

33 Engineering Applications of Botany

A hide glue (Sirus or Shirus) is prepared from fresh skin of a buffalo cooked
in water till it becomes soft as butter. Water is allowed to evaporate. The
material is cut into small pieces are dried in sunlight. When needed the dried
piece is boiled in water. This is a substitute for resins of tree. This glue is
called Vajralep.

Adamantine glue using animal matter:

This type of glue is called as Vajratala (Adamantine Surface), which is

constituted by horns of cows, buffaloes and goats, hair of donkeys, buffalo-
hide, cowhide, Neem fruits, apples and myrrh. This mixture is boiled and
reduced to eighth of its original volume.

Fig.2.23- Hide Glue (Sirus)

Forth Variety of Adamantine glue using metal by Maya (mentioned in Brihat

Samhita).

The cement, Vajra-sanghata is to be compounded of 8 parts of lead, 2 parts

of bell metal and 1 part of brass, melted and poured hot. It is stated that
when this type of cement is applied to temple, etc. they last for around
thousand years. Vajra-sanghata means, composition as hard as thunderbolt.

According to Sage Utpala this compound may includes other materials as

well, but they are to be used in equal quantities.

34 Engineering Applications of Botany

Fifth Kerala Variety Astabandha (Compound of eight materials)

Preparing the mixture is a 41-day long procedure and the ingredients are;

1. Finely powdered conch,

2. gall-nut (Mayphal)
3. sealing wax ,
4. Fruits of gooseberry
5. Resin of pinus damar,
6. Cotton fibers
7. Medium sizes gravels #
8. Small sizes gravels #

# From the river Bharatapuzha in Kerala, India

The mixture is hammered by four or five men alternatively. During this

process one turns it with an iron spatula. For hammering, only wooden
hammers made of tamarind wood are used. The weight of the hammer
would be 8 to 10 kilos. The lump is very soft and malleable. It becomes hot
during the hammering and becomes hard like stone when the hammering is
stopped. An estimated 0.1 million hits of hammering are needed for a
kilogram of adhesive.

2.9 Stone Softening or crack detection Herbal paints

Microscopic defects in stones, which were invisible to eyes, were detected

by applying some herbal paints so that the defects were clearly visible.

Herbal paints for stone softening

• Mix powder Atis root, Hiracus and red ochre in milk. Apply this paint to
the stone and keep it overnight. OR

• Grind Jatamasi,Koshta, Gayaratri Hirkus and chor in milk add coconut

water. Apply the solution to the stone. OR

35 Engineering Applications of Botany

 • Grind and mix Jatamasi,Rog and Aswamari in rain water. Apply the
solution to the stone. Ref. Shilparatna Ch.14 and Varahsamhita.
• Dowsing is a method to locate underground water sources. This technique
includes use of pendulums, Y shaped tree branch.

CASE STUDIES

Brick temple at Sirpur M.P.

(7th century A.D.)

Fig.2.24 – Laxman Temple Sirpur

This temple is among the best examples of brick temples of ancient India.

B. Mud flooring.

36 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.2.25 – The flooring of palace

The floors of Padmanabhapurum palace (1601 A.D) in Kerala were made of

a material that is unique blend of burnt coconut shells, quick lime, palm
toddy, the whites of eggs and extracts of certain herbs.

Sanskrit Verses

अर्जन
ु ोमजस्तोशीरै ् सरार्कोशामककचूर्णै ॥

कनकफऱसमायजक्तैयोग्ग् कूपे
प्रदातव्य्॥१२१॥

वराहसंहहता अ५४

SV2.1-Treatment of Well water

कर्णामजस्तकसंयजक्तमेऱोशीरकचंदन् ।

महदु तं मृत्तिकापोण्डं खहदरांगारपचचतम ्॥१८००॥

चनक्षऺपेक्षननमुऱे तोये सवुदोपरे शजभे ।

कचित् त्तपण्डवासोऽपं सचऱऱपज त्तवचऺर्णै ॥१८०१॥

अचभऱत्तषतािु चचंतामर्णी

SV2.2-Purification of drinking water

37 Engineering Applications of Botany
 तत्ऺीरागरै रीषत्वकक्कक्ककित्तिफऱांबजचभ् ।

मदु येनमासमािंतज तत्कमुकजशऱैनरै ्॥

वयगोिाममाऺंच तत्वसीचूर्णस
ु ंक्षऻतं।

वास्तजत्तवद्या १९-६ , चशल्परत्न १-१४-४८

SV2.3-Bricks and Roofing tiles

कापाुस्तंतवश्चात्तपसजक्ष्मं कृ त्वा सजपेषयेद्।

त्तियबंकल्कचभननतज कदऱीचभस्तदर्ुवद्।

ऺीरदृममऱाऺर्णा कदं बाभययोरत्तप ।

त्वग्र्ऱैक्षिफऱातोयं माषर्जषं च तत्समं ॥२॥

SV2.4-Clay Mortar

मृदेष्टांशंसमायोज्य नाररकेरफ़ऱोदकै् ॥२॥

श्रवेष्टग
ं जग्गऱंचव
ै कजंदरु
ज ष्कं तिैवच।

चशल्परत्न २-१९-१२

SV2.5-Earthen pots

मर्जऺीरघृतेनैवं मृदपािेर्ण योर्येद्॥

कत्तपत्ित्तबल्वं चनयाुसं चूर्णौ व्दौ समभाचगनौ ॥१६॥

चशल्परत्न २-१९

SV2.6-Glazing of earthen pots

मृदे पंचदशांशेवा चतऱचूर्णं समंत्तवत ॥

मदु येत्रमसाम्याकु कजष्ठगेररकताऱकं ॥

चंदनागरुकपूरु गोषजगोरोचनंसमं ॥

38 Engineering Applications of Botany

 सजण्मचूर्णत
ं जकव्यं गोषजगोरोचनंसमं ॥

अतसीस्नेहसंयजक्तं मद्येद्देचशकोिम् ॥

चशल्परत्न २-१९-१८

SV2.7-Coloring of Clay pots

तिासर्ुरसाचूर्णं मृत्कऱाशं चशवांशकं।

पािे मृदासमायोज्यं दचर्ना मदु येतसजर्ी् ॥३॥

चूर्णॉचचमष्पऱी मरीची रसनी तिा ॥

चशल्परत्न २-१९-१३

SV2.8-Ceramic pots

दचर् दग्ज र्ं माषर्ूषं गजडाज्य कदऱी फऱै ।

नाररकेराम्र फऱयोर्ऱैश्चैतत्प्रकल्पयेत ॥३॥

आज्यं च कदऱीपंकनाररकेरांबजमाषयजक ।

चशल्परत्न १-१४-६०

SV2.9-Sunla or Lime Putty

काऱाक्षग्न पक्कव कदऱीफऱ त्तपष्टंतज योर्येत ्॥

तत्तपष्टस्य प्रमार्णं हह सजर्ा वेदां शकं स्मृतं ।

नवचनतचमवयाचत याविावत्सजपेषमेत ्॥

SV2.10-Leveling coat of lime plaster

ऺीरांगंत्वक्ककषामं च ऺीर दचर् ततो गजडं ।

त्तपक्षछिऱंत्तिफऱांभश्च त्र्यंशाहदकचमदं रमात ्॥४॥

SV2.11-Waterproof lime mortar

39 Engineering Applications of Botany

 संग्राह्य शकुरासजक्ष्मा तस्या् प्रऺाऱनंकजरु।

चतऱादकसमंत्तपंड सजक्ष्मचजरर्णाचतिैवच ॥

कापाुसतंतजवश्चात्तप मृदंकृत्वासजपेषयेत ्।

त्तियंबकल्कचभननंच कदऱीचभस्तदर्ुवत ्॥

नवनीतचमवायचत याविवस्सजपषेयेत ्।

भृगजसंहहता अ ४८

दचर्दग्ज र्ं माषर्जषं गजडाज्य कदऱी फऱै।

नाररकेराम्र फऱयोर्ऱैश्चतत्प्रकल्पयेद्।

आज्यं च कदऱीपंकनाररकेरांबजमाषयजक् ॥

दग्ज ्वाशंखाहदकंकाष्ठैरचूक्षर्णुतंहहसजर्ाभवेत ्।

सजर्ाचूर्णच
ु तजिश
ं मजग्कक्कवािऱवै् सह॥

गजऱतोयेनसंचसचेत ् तछचूर्णव
ु ऱजकांत्तवतं

गजऱतोयिमार्णंहह सजर्ातजयंचशमानत्॥

दोव्याक्षऺप्त्वाचसंमर्ु चचिकमाुक्षर्णयोर्येत ्।

SV2.12-Materials for Lime Plasters

चतजक्षिव्दयमासांते मजहिका यजत्तक्तचनचमुता ।

श्रेष्टम्योिमाऻेया सजर्ा सौर्हदं बचर्नी ॥

चशल्परत्न अ १४

SV2.13-Lime mortar for terrace

चसतवर्णु पीतवर्णु रक्तवर्णंच कज्र्ऱं।

एताचन शज्दवर्णाुचन नीऱवर्णाुचतिैनच॥

40 Engineering Applications of Botany

 त्तवष्र्णजर्मोिर पजरार्ण अ २७

SV2.14-Basic four colors

शंखशंक्कत्याहदकंवािजचसतमृदर्वऱेभवेत ्।

कत्तपत्िाचऱंबचनयाुस तोमैराऱोड्यबजक्ष्दमान ्॥

त्तपष्ठवापून्पून् सनमग्मजसऱनउऱखऱे ।

ताक्षत्पसष्तमजष्र्णतोयेनसनमगा ऱोड्यगाऱयेत ्॥

SV2.15-White color

अिदारूनपीतवर्णाुन ् ररनद्याहदसंभवान ्।

आदायशज्दतायेन सऺाल्यादै त्तवचूर्णय

ु ेत ्॥

मंद हकंचचतचशऱापृष्टे षचयत्वात्तवऱोड्यच।

शज्दतोयैमद्द
ु ोपािे मजहजतु प्रचतपाऱयेत ्॥

तदध्र्ू वशसारतोय मर््पंकक्षक्कवक्षर्ुतं।

पािांतरे त्तवचनक्षऺप्य पजन्कजयाुदमजंत्तवचर्॥

एवं पजन्पजन् कृ त्वा वाक्षननमुऱताभवेत ्।

तत्सारं नवमृभ्दांडे मंदमाचऱनय शोषयेत ्॥

SV2.16-Yellow color

मृदरज क्तंतजचसंदरू ं गैररकंम्यरक्तके ।

अचतरक्तेतजहहं गजऱं हकंवाऱाऺारसंबजर््ै ॥

गैरहककंतजचशऱापृष्ठे हदनयेकंसजपेषयेत ्।

तत्कोत्तषतंशज्दतोयै् संग्रहे नमजग्दराहदषज ॥

हदनार्ुपेषयेतब्द क्षत्संदरू तजमन्चशऱं।

41 Engineering Applications of Botany

 चनमुऱंपेषयेछचेवपेषण्य ॥

एतेषांचनंबचनयाुसतोयंसंयोज्य यजत्तक्तत्।

समर्ुऱेपेनहरयाद्रव्येषजचप्रयोर्येत ्॥

SV2.17- Red color

अितैऱसमाचसछय वर्ुमानेछिवचतुकां।

त्तवनयस्यप्रज्वऱे द्दीपं र्िमादायमृण्मयं॥

शजष्कगोमयचूर्णन
े समृज्र्ोदरमस्यच ।

तद्दीपोपररदीपस्य संमजखत्तं वनयसेत्पजन् ॥

तिदीपाचशखोद्भतं कज्र्ऱंत्दिे दरू े ।

आऱग्नंसम्यगादाय मृद्घिादौत्तवऱेपयेत ्॥

मदु येक्षग्नर्हस्तेन भजयेदं र्यू पजन

ु स्तिा ।

शज्दांबजचमश्रंसमर्ु बहजदा् योषयेत्पजन् ॥

SV2.18- Black color

श्यामर्ातूनयवमािं शज्दतोयेनपेषयेत ्

पजन्कत्तपत्िचनयाु तोयै्समर्ुयेत ्॥

SV2.19 - Blue color

अनयोनययोगात ् संज्रात वण्भेदोऽयकिते । श्वेतस्यक्षव्दगजर्णं पीतं चमश्रंख्यातंतजत्तपंगऱं ।

चसतंरक्तेनसंयजक्त गौरछचात्तवहहदृशते ॥१॥ कृ ष्र्णस्य हिगजर्णंपीते चमचश्रतंत्वबजसंचमतं ॥५॥

श्वेतं कृ ष्र्णंचपीतंच समभागत्तवचभचश्रतं । तदे तर्ण

ृ ावर्णु्स्यात ् कृ ष्र्णंपीतंसमतजयत ्।

शािछचवीचतत्तवख्यातं वर्णुकारसजखप्रदं ॥२॥ हररताऱं नीऱयजतं शजकपऺाचनभंभवेत ्॥६॥

श्वेतंकृष्र्णंसमंचमश्रं गर्वर्णुमजदाहतं । ऱाऺारसेन संयजक्तं हहं गजऱंत्वचतरक्तकं ।

42 Engineering Applications of Botany

रक्तं पीतं समंचमश्रं बकजऱस्यकाऱाकृ चत॥३॥ ऱाऺारसेन संचमश्रं कृ श्र्णाबकजऱाकृ चत ॥७॥

पीतस्यक्षव्दगजर्णंरक्तं चमचश्रतंत्वचत रक्तकं । कृ ष्र्णनीऱेन सचमश्रं केशवरर्णुमजदाहतं ।

ज्वऱनाभचमदं ख्यातं अक्षग्नवर्णुचनभंपरं ॥४॥ एवंचमश्रकवर्णाुचन यजक्तासंयोज्यसंचऱखत ्॥८॥

SV2.20-Composite colors

अि दारुन ् इष्ट वर्णाुन ् चगररनद्याहद संभवान ् ।

आदाय शज्दतोयेन संऺाल्यादौ त्तवचूर्णय

ु ेद्॥

शज्दतोयेन महापािे मजहजतु प्रचतपाऱयेद् ।

पािांतरे त्तवचनक्षऺप्य पजन् कजयाुदमजंत्तवचर्ं ॥

तत्सार नव मृद्भांडे मंद माचऱप्य शोर्येद्।

SV2.21-Natural Colors

ऱाऺारसं र्ाचत चऱंग चसतवर्णंच ॥२॥

नयघ्रोर्ंदब
ज र वि त्तपप्पऱ त्तबल्व दे वदारु वृऺार्णां ।

क्कवािस्तैऱ समेत् काष्ठ पीठ शयनेषज ॥

SV2.22a- Varnish

वक्षनहकोषातकी श्वेताकु चगररकक्षर्णुका ।

वचापाठाचचनगजड
ं ी किज तजंब्याश्वमजऱकं ।

चनंबकेशबॉर्ाचन गौमजि्ै पेषयेतशनै् ।

अनेन पादऱेपेन पश्येत भूचमगतं र्ऱं ॥

मंिशाि

SV2.22-Ingredients of herbal foot paint

43 Engineering Applications of Botany

 प्रासादहम्र्यवऱभीचऱंगप्रचतमासज कजड्यकजपेषज।

सम्तप्तो दतव्या वषुसहिाययजतस्िायो ॥४॥

बृहतसंहहता अ ५६

SV2.23-Uses of adamantine glues

आमं चतंदक
ज मांस कत्तपत्िकं पजष्पमत्तप च शाल्मल्या् ।

बीर्ाचन शल्ककीनां र्नवनवल्को वचा चेचत ॥२१०॥

एतै् सचऱऱा द्रोर्ण् क्कवािचयतव्योऽष्टभागशेषश्च।

अवतायोऽस्य च कल्को द्रव्यैरेतै् समनजयोज्य्॥२११॥

श्रीवसकरसगजग्गजऱजभल्ऱातककजंदरूकसर्ुरसै् ।

अतसीत्तबल्वैश्च यजत् कल्कोऽयं वज्रकेपाख्य् ॥२१२॥

प्रासादहम्र्यवऱभीचऱंगप्रचतमासज कजड्यकूपेशज ।

संतप्तो दातव्यो वषुसहिाय तस्यायज ॥२१३॥

SV2.24-Brihat Samhita formula

ऱाऺागजऱमर्ूक्षछिष्ट गजग्गजऱूनां समांशका् ॥६४॥

एतेषां हिगजर्ण भागं ग्राह्यं सर्ुरस तदा ।

गैररकचूर्णक
ु ं तस्मादर्ंतज घनचूर्णक
ु म ्॥६५॥

सवेषामर्ंतस्तैऱं चनक्षऺपेल्ऱोहभार्ने।

ऱोहद्रव्या चं कजयाुत पाचयेनमृदव

ज हहना ॥६६॥

अष्टबंर्चमचत प्रोक्तम्श्मवद् दृडबंर्नम ्।

मयमत अ ६४

44 Engineering Applications of Botany

 SV2.25-Mayamat formula

ऱाऺकजंदरू
ज गजग्गजऱजगह
ृ र्जमकत्तपत्ित्तबल्वम्याचन ।

नागफऱचनम्बचतंदक
ज मदं फऱमर्जकमंक्षर्ष्ठा् ॥५॥

सर्ुरसामऱकाचनचेचत कल्क् कृ तो क्षव्दतीयोऽयम ्।

वज्राड्य् प्रिमगजर्णैरयमत्तप तेष्वेव कायेषज॥६॥

बृहतसंहहता अ ५६

SV2.26- Brihat Samhita formula

गोमहहषार्णै् खररोम्र्णा महहषचमुगव्येश्व ।

चनंबकत्तपत्िरसै: सह वज्रतऱोनाम कल्कोऽनय् ॥७॥

बृहतसंहहता अ ५६

SV2.27-Hide glue

अष्टौ सीसकभागा: कांसस्र्यव्दौ तजरीचतका भाग् ।

मयकचितो योगोऽयं त्तवऻेयो वज्रसंघात् ॥८॥

बृहतसंहहता अ ५६

SV2.28- Vajrasanghata

संगह्य
ृ ाष्ठौ सीसभागात ् व्दौ तिाशकंम।

रीचतकायास्तज संतप्तो वज्राख्य् पररकीचतुत् ॥

SV2.29-Utpala’s formula

45 Engineering Applications of Botany

 तजल्यांशऺीरत्तपष्टैस्तज त्तवसकासीसगैररकै्।

दृषदाचऱप्य चन्शेषमेकरािोत्तषतं भवेत ्॥१-१४-२२॥

कासीतचोरौगोऺीरे त्तपष्टवाचाऱेपयेत चशऱा ।

मांसीकजष्टगयारात्तिं त्तिफऱावाररदांबजचभ् ॥१-१४-३४॥

मासीरोगहवाररयादर्ऱै् सार्ुपऱनांियं ।

त्तपष्टवामत्तवऱोचनास्तनभजवा ऺीरे र्ण तां ऱेपतेद्॥१-१४-३५॥

चशल्परत्न भाग १ अ १४

SV2.30-Stone softening

46 Engineering Applications of Botany

 3 MISCELLANEOUS
3.1 Mining -Breaking of stone blocks: The steps involved are;

1-Heating: The stone block is heated by make a pyre of wooden logs of

Palash or Tinduk trees. The heating is continued till the color of wooden logs
becomes bright red or orange.

2-Cooling: The fire is moved to adjacent area of rock surface. The preheated
surface is cooled down quickly by pouring certain types of liquids listed
below.

 Solution of quick lime in cold water

 Solution prepared by mixing buttermilk with rice paste, ripe berries.

 Solution prepared by boiling Neem leaves and some tree barks.

Ref. Brihat Samhita

3.2-Detection of Defects In Rocks

Microscopic defects in stones, which were invisible to eyes, were detected

by applying some herbal paints so that the defects were clearly visible. Ref.
Shilparatna 1.14.33-36 . Ref. Fig .x and Picture below.

• Mix powder atis root 1, Hiracus 2 and red ochre 3

in milk. Apply this
paint to the stone and keep it overnight. OR

• Grind Jatamasi 4,Koshta, Gayaratri Hirkus and chor in milk add

coconut water. Apply the solution to the stone. OR
5
• Grind and mix Jatamasi,Rog and Aswamari in rain water. Apply the
solution to the stone.

47 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.3.1a- Ingredients of herbal paint

Fig.3.1b- Ingredients of herbal paint

3.3- Wood Varnish: Extract of barks of milky trees (Vat,Pipal,Umber, Beal

and cedar trees) is mixed in water. Mixture is boiled. sealing wax, Jatuling,
oil and Hingul is added. Such varnish is applied to wood for polishing and
preservation. Ref. Shilparatna 1.14

Fig.3.2- Wood varnish

3.4- Preservation of Ropes:Soak the freshly woven rope in coconut oil

mixed with ripe bananas and hide glue.

Fig.3.3-Preservation of ropes

48 Engineering Applications of Botany

Home Remedies

1-Hot decoction of Trifala is substitute of Drainex, to clean the chocked drain

water pipes.

2. Double boiled linseed oil prevents rusting of iron, can substitute under
coat for automobiles.

3. Double boiled linseed oil protects wooden doors and windows from white
ants. Second coat (oil paint) to be applied after one year.

तजल्यांशऺीत्तपुष्टस्
ै तजत्तवसकासीसगैररकै् ॥

दृषदाचऱप्य चन्शेषमेकरािोत्तषतं भवेत ्।

कासीतचोरौगोऺीरे त्तपष्टवाचाऱेपयेतचशऱा ।

मांसीकजष्टगयारात्तिं त्तिफऱावाररदांबजचभ् ॥३॥

मासीरोगहवाररयाररदर्ऱै्सार्ुपऱानांियं ।

त्तपष््वावामत्तवल्प्चनास्तनभजवा ऺीरे र्णतं ऱेपतेद्॥४॥

चशल्परत्न अ १४

SV3.1 – Detection of cracks in stone

..ऱाऺारसं र्ाचत चऱंगं चसतववं च हहगजदं॥२॥

नयघ्रोर्ंदब
ज र वि त्तपप्पऱ त्तबल्व दे वदारू वृऺार्णां ।

क्कवािस्तैऱ समेत् काष्ठ पीठ शयनेषज ॥

SV3.2- Varnish for wood

नाररकेऱफऱै तैऱ चमुसार गृहीत्वातज सारादनयािवाहता ॥

नाड्य्स्वहह संकल्य पश्चदावृता नाहडका । चशल्परत्न २-१८-१२

SV3.3 -Preservation of Ropes

49 Engineering Applications of Botany

 4- Mining & Metallurgy
4.1 Gold or Silver plating

An ancient text on botany mentions that “if juice of Palash flowers (Flame of
forest), treated with sulfur, is rubbed on copper surface, the surface shines
as gold”. Similarly, decoction of mixture of flowers juice and Hartal
(Orpiment) is used to make silver like lead metal. Ref. “Vanaushadhi
GunAdarsh” by Pade

Fig.4.1-Palash and Hartal

4.2 Lost-wax casting technique for metal casting

Dhokra also spelt Dokra) is non–ferrous metal casting using the lost-wax
casting technique. This sort of metal casting has been used in India for over
4,000 years and is still used. One of the earliest known lost wax artefacts is
the dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro. The tribal people of Bastar still use this
technique.

50 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Fig.4.2- Metal statue

The steps in this technique are;

 The first task in the lost wax hollow casting process consists of developing a
clay core which is roughly the shape of the final cast image.
 Next, the clay core is covered by a layer of wax composed of pure bee’s wax,
resin from the tree Damara orientalis, and nut oil.
 The first layer, the closest to the wax sculpture, is the river bed soil, water
and coal powder applied with brush.
 The wax is then shaped and carved in all its finer details of design and
decorations.
 A paste of red soil with rice husk is applied to first dry solidified layer.This is
applied with hands. It is then covered with layers of clay, which takes the
negative form of the wax on the inside, thus becoming a mould for the metal
that will be poured inside it.
 A final coating of rice husk, sand and clay is applied to the entire surface of
the piece.
 Drain ducts are left for the wax, which melts away when the clay is cooked.
The wax is then replaced by the molten metal, often using brass scrap as
basic raw material.
 The liquid metal poured in hardens between the core and the inner surface of
the mould.
 The metal fills the mould and takes the same shape as the wax. The outer
layer of clay is then chipped off and the metal icon is polished and finished as
desired.

Fig.4.3- Ingredients for metal casting

51 Engineering Applications of Botany
4.3 Tempering or hardening of tools

The steps involved are;

Ref. Brihat Samhita Ref. Brihatsamhita ,ch.53. V 116-117

1. Heating the tool in fire until it becomes red hot.

2. Application of paste* of certain materials and / or dipping the red-hot

tool in a specific solution**.

3. Sharpening the tools.

*Paste is made of excreta of pigeon and rat, powder of horns of a buffalo,

milk extract of a plant (Mandar)

** Solution is mixture of buttermilk and ash of banana plant.

Sanskrit Verses

आकु पयो हजडजत्तवषार्णमशीसमवेत ्।

पारवताखजशकृ ता च यजतं पऱेप् ॥

िं कस्य तैऱमचितस्य ततोऽस्य पानम ्।

पश्चात ् चशतस्य चशऱासज भवेद् त्तवर्ात् ॥११६॥

बृहतसंहहता अ ५४

ऺारे कदल्या मचितेन यजक्ते हदनोत्तषते पाचयतमायसं यत ्।

सम्यक्षक्कशतं नाश्मचन चैचत भंगं न चानयऱोहे ष्वत्तपतस्य

कौठयम ्॥

बृहतसंहहता अ ५९

SV4.1 -Tempering of tools

52 Engineering Applications of Botany

 5-AERONAUTICS

5.1 Air balloons

A- Waterproof cloth for air balloons: The juice of certain coreless trees
contains water retarding substances. The procedure for making a cloth
water/air proof is described in Agastya Samhita .Ref. SV5.1 and SV5.2 The
steps involved are;

 Apply three coats of decoction of barks of milky trees (Umber, Kadamb,

Mango, Hirda and Behda) to the cloth.
 Then apply three coats of black gram paste Soak the cloth in solution of
sugar and powders sea shells.
 Allow the cloth to dry to make it water tight.

B-Light weight wood: For seats of air balloons extracts of few trees are
specified in Agastsamhita.

ऺीरद्रम
ज कदं बाम्रा गवाऺत्वगऺैरत्तप ।

त्तिफऱांबजक्षऺराचसतक्तं आपयजषैस्िस्तत् कौषेकं

र्ऱबंर्कं॥

अगत्यसंहहता

SV5.1 - Waterproof cloth

पऱाशोरर्क् पीडचंदन् सजखा उछचते ।

Fig.5.1 Palash tree बकजऱस्तजशजभ् प्रोक्त पनस्तारक् स्मृत्

अगत्यसंहहता

SV5.2-Light weight wood

53 Engineering Applications of Botany

 6-EPILOGUE

It can be concluded that;

• Ancient Indian engineers had adequate knowledge of Indian botany

and knew how to implement this knowledge for strength, durability
and aesthetic purposes.

• With the advent of modern materials, organic materials were replaced

by synthetic materials.

• However secret of endurance of Indian heritage structures lies in

building materials and the construction techniques.

54 Engineering Applications of Botany

 7 REFERENCES
A-Ancient References

• Aparajitprichha- (12th to 13th Century A.D.), Bhuvanadev Acharya,

Ed.P.A.Makkad,Gaikwad Oriental Series No. 65,(1950)

• Brihatitasamhita (Varahsamhita),Pub. Khemraj Shrikrishnadas,

Mumbai (1945) and many others

• Kadambini (1999),Ed. And Pub. By P.S.Oza,Jaipur,

• Manasollas of King Someshwara,Ed. By Shirgondekar, G.K.,Pub.

Central Library, Vadodara, 1925.

• Mayamat,Ed.T.Ganapati Shastri, Pub. By Saraswati Mahal Library

Series No.113, Thajavur,(1968).

• Pade S.D. (1973), “Vanoushadhi Gunadarsh “ ,Pub. Gajanan Book

depot, Mumbai

• Rig Veda (3000-5000 B.C)

• Sakaladhikar, - by Sage Agasta Sakaladhikara – Ed by V.G. Iyangar,

Pub. By Saraswati Mahal Library, TSM Series No. 141 (1973),
Thajavur.

• Shatapath Bramhan (1400 A.D.),Ed.G.P.Upadhyaya, Pub. Oriental

Science research Institute, New Delhi.

• Shilpratna by Shrikumar, Ed. T.Ganapati Shastri,Pub.Anantshayan

Sanskrit Granthmala,No.75,(1929).

• Shukla-Yajurveda Samhita- - Hindi Edition, Ed. Pandit Jwalprasad

Mishra, Pub. By Khemraj Srikrushadas, New Delhi

• Shilpratna by Shrikumar, Ed. T.Ganapati Shastri,Gaikwad, Oriental

• Tantrasamuchhyaya-(1428 A.D.) of Narayan Nambudripad,Ed.

T.Ganapati Shastri,Pub. Ananta shayana Sanskruit Series No.
151(1919), Mysore.

• Vastuvidya Savyakhya,Ed. K.Mahadevshastri,Pub. Triverdram Sanskrit

Series No. 142,(1977),Tiruanantpuram.

55 Engineering Applications of Botany

• Vishnu-dharmottara Pooran of Ved Vyas, Ed.Madhusadna Sharma,Pub.
Khemraj krushnadas Mumbai(1911)

• Yajurved Samhita (B.C.2500),Pub. Khemraj Shrikrishnadas, Mumbai

(1945).

B-Modern References

 Atalkar P S et el (2006), “Preparation and testing of herbal adamantine

glue as described in Brhatsamhita”, Indian Journal of Traditional
Knowledge,Vol. 5(2), April 2006, pp. 259-262
 Nene, A.S. (2009),” Geotechnical engineering of ancient India”, Pub.
Pune Vidyarthi Gruha, Pune.

 Satish Chandra(2003),”Ancient Building Materials in India”, Tech

Books International, N.Delhi.

 Singh, M and, Arbad, B.R.(2014),” Ancient Indian painting

recipes and mural art technique at Ajanta”, International journal
of conservation science, volume 5, issue 1, January-march 2014:
35-

 Vaze, K.V. (1924), “Prachin Hindi Shilpasar” (Essence of ancient Indian

Engineering Philosophy) ,a Marathi Book, Pub. ,Varada Publications
Pune.

 Vaze, K.V. (1963),”Prachin Hindi Shilpashastrasar” Pub. Varda

Publishers, Pune.

56 Engineering Applications of Botany

 8-ANNEXURE
Annexure-1 Terms related to adamantine glues

Sn Sanskrit English/ Latin

1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum
3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton
4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata
5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root
6 Vacha Barks of Orris root
7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense
8 Raktabola Myrrh
9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii
10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium
11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin
12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum
13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos

Annexure 2-Organic Ingredient for Lime mortar & plasters

1 Ash 9 Cow dung 17 Mahuwa flowers

2 Bark of Neem 10 Egg white 18 Milk, curd or ghee

3 Bark of Pakar tree 11 Flowers Silk 19 Mustard cake

cotton tree

4 Bee wax 12 Green gram 20 oil

(Moog)

5 Belgiri (aegle'pulp) 13 Guggul 21 Powder of Cattle

horn

6 Black gram(Udad ) 14 Hemp fiber 22 Resin of Sal tree

7 Brick powder 15 Jaggery 23 Rice husk

57 Engineering Applications of Botany

 8 Clay 16 Juice of Cactus 24 Saaf flower oil

58 Engineering Applications of Botany

 9-ABOUT THE EDITOR
Dr. Ashok Nene

 Designation - Former Professor of Civil Engineering & Dean VNIT,

Nagpur.
 Specialization - Geotechnical Engineering.
 Qualifications -B.E., M.E. Ph.D. IIT Roorkee, MIGS, MISET
 Experience -Supervised more than 150 Consultancy projects involving
Soil Investigations, Quality Control Works, and Setting up Laboratories
etc.
 Award - Khosla Memorial Award (1987) by IIT Roorkee, for Technical
Paper published in ASCE.
 Nomination - Nominated by Indian Geotechnical Society to Tech.
Committee TC-19 of International Society of Soil Mechanics &
Foundation Engineering (ISSMFE) on "Preservation of Historical Sites"
for one term of 4 years.
 Software - Developed six CAL-CAD Self learning Software packages for
Civil Engineering students.
 Patent - One patent on “Use of Geo-foam Geo-synthetics for expansive
soils”
 Research Topics - Anchor foundations, Geo-synthetics, Software
development, Mnemonics, Shilpashastra, Erosion Control and Rural
roads.
 Guidance-Two Ph.D. and Two M. Tech. Dissertations Completed.
 Two Ph.D. dissertations under progress.
 Publications -Published more than 50 papers in National and
International journals and conference proceedings.
 Web Uploads - More than 40 Papers & PPT presentations on science
and technology in ancient India are available on web, (Search words –
ashoknene OR ancient India).

59 Engineering Applications of Botany

 Print Books -
1. Pride of India (1994), Pub. By Sanskrit Bharati , New Delhi.
2. Prachin Hindi Shilpa Shastra (2010) Pub. By Nachiket Prakashan,
Nagpur.
3. Geotechnical Engineering in Ancient India, (2011) Pub. By Pune
Vidyarthigruha Prakashan, Pune. (Included in a Time Capsule installed
at Paris 2013, as India’s contribution, submitted by Indian
Geotechnical Society, New Delhi).
 E-Books-Edited & Uploaded at the site Bookganga.com
1. Water Resources in ancient India.
2. Transportation engineering in ancient India.
3. Geotechnical Engineering in ancient India.
4. Building materials and construction techniques of ancient India.
5. Prachin Hindi Shilpashastra.
6. Shilpashastra -Engineering philosophy of Ancient India.
 Books under publication-
1. Engineering Techniques of ancient India.
2. Environmental Engineering in ancient India.
3. Khani Shastra –Mining and metallurgy of ancient India.
 Invited Lectures-Delivered many lectures. Last presentation at Indian
Science Congress, Mumbai, Jan 2015, on topic “Civil Engineering
applications of ancient Indian Botany.
 Mission - Efforts are being made to include an elective subject "Science
& Technology of ancient India" in the curriculum of Civil Engineering at
university level.
 Email ID - [email protected] or [email protected]

60 Engineering Applications of Botany