Chapter 3

Using Computer Simulations to Enhance

Science Teaching and Learning
Randy L. Bell and Lara K. Smetana

H
ave you ever been able to have your students vary the force of gravity and
determine the effects on an object’s motion? Explore nuclear fission at the
molecular level and discover whether the daughter atoms are always the
same? Move tectonic plates while investigating the differences between divergent
and convergent boundaries?
Computer simulations make these types of interactive, authentic, meaningful
learning opportunities possible. Learners can observe, explore, recreate, and receive
immediate feedback about real objects, phenomena, and processes that would oth-
erwise be too complex, time-consuming, or dangerous.
Broadly defined, computer simulations are computer-generated dynamic mod-
els that present theoretical or simplified models of real-world components, phe-
nomena, or processes. They can include animations, visualizations, and interactive
laboratory experiences.
In a simulated environment, time changes can be sped up or slowed down;
abstract concepts can be made concrete and tacit behaviors visible. Teachers can
focus students’ attention on learning objectives when real-world environments are
simplified, causality of events is clearly explained, and unnecessary cognitive tasks
are reduced through a simulation.
Technological advances have increasingly brought instructional digital tech-
nologies into the science classroom. Teachers may have greater access to Internet-
connected classroom computers, wireless laptop carts, computer projectors, and
interactive whiteboards than ever before. As you consider how these resources can
be used to enhance science teaching and learning, you may find yourself turning
often to computer simulations, especially since they are tools frequently used by
scientists in their daily work.

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3 Using Computer Simulations to Enhance Science Teaching and Learning

You are likely to find at least one simulation for any science concept repre-
sented in the National Science Education Standards. Many of these simulations can
be accessed online (some for a fee, like at www.ExploreLearning.com; others at no
cost, such as on the PBS You Try It site, www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit). Other more
complex simulations with large underlying databases (like Starry Night) are avail-
able as commercial software. This chapter seeks to describe how computer simula-
tions can support student learning in science as well as strategies for choosing and
appropriately incorporating them in the classroom.

What the Research Says

Simulations have been around practically since the advent of computers, and research-
ers have been looking at classroom uses of simulations for over 20 years. The following
two sections describe what is known about the effectiveness of computer simulations
for supporting science teaching and learning and highlighting ways that simulations
can be best used to do so. The overview of the literature provides a summary of the
past two decades of research, including a discussion of several seminal pieces. Finally,
a set of guidelines presents best practices drawn from this body of literature.
Researchers studying the use of simulations in the classroom have reported positive
findings overall. The literature indicates that simulations can be effective in developing
content knowledge and process skills, as well as in promoting more complicated goals
such as inquiry and conceptual change. Gains in student understanding and achieve-
ment have been reported in general science process skills and across specific subject ar-
eas, including physics, chemistry, biology, and Earth and space science (Kulik 2002).
Although conventional instructional materials such as textbooks present two-
dimensional representations, simulations can offer three-dimensional manipula-
tives that bring the subject matter to life. Visualization results in the development
of mental constructs that allow one to think about, describe, and explain objects,
phenomena, and processes in a more true-to-life form. These are just the habits of
mind scientists rely upon in their daily work. For example, after comparing simu-
lated and hands-on dissection labs, Akpan and Andre (2000) concluded, “The flex-
ibility of these kinds of environments makes learning right and wrong answers less
important than learning to solve problems and make decisions. Simulations pro-
mote learning about what-ifs and possibilities, not about certainties” (p. 18).
Studies assessing the impact of simulations on process skill development, such
as identifying variables, measuring, graphing, interpreting data, and designing
experiments, have shown computer simulations to be equally as or more valuable


The ExploreLearning site at the time of this writing offers a free 30-day trial period for the entire
collection of science and mathematics simulations. In addition, individuals may use any simulation
for five minutes a day at no charge.

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 Using Computer Simulations to Enhance Science Teaching and Learning 3

than traditional methods. For example, a study by Geban, Askar, and Ozkan (1992)
investigated the effects of a computer-simulated experiment on chemistry achieve-
ment and process skills. The researchers found greater student achievement with
simulated labs than with hands-on labs.
A study by Mintz (1993) found that students were successful in designing, im-
plementing, and analyzing the results of three ecological problems, noting improve-
ment even as the inquiry tasks became increasingly complex. Students also began
employing more formal analytical strategies, rather than relying on trial and error.
Trundle and Bell (2005) described students’ conceptual understandings about
lunar concepts before and after instruction with planetarium simulations. Results
indicated that students learned more about moon shapes and sequences, as well as
causes of moon phases, by using the computer simulations than by making actual
nightly observations and studying nature alone. The ability to make many more
observations using the program, the ease of making and testing predictions, and
the consistency and accuracy of student measurements contributed to the dramatic
improvements in student understanding.
The past 20 years of research indicates that students’ misconceptions in science
are prevalent and tenacious. Thus, the process of conceptual change is an ongo-
ing challenge in science education. Computer simulations have demonstrated the
potential to facilitate this process by highlighting students’ misconceptions and pre-
senting plausible scientific conceptions. For instance, using computerized interac-
tive laboratory simulations, learners can confront their beliefs by working with real
data, experiencing discrepant events preselected by the program, or forming and
testing multiple hypotheses of their own (Gorsky and Finegold 1992; Tao and Gun-
stone 1999; Trundle and Bell 2005).
Overall, the research shows that interaction with computer simulations resulted in
measurable achievement gains and indicates that simulations are equally, if not more,
effective than traditional methods. Access to multiple representations of phenomena,
the ability to manipulate the environment, ease of posing and testing multiple hypoth-
eses, and ability to control variables are consistently cited in the research as contribut-
ing to the effectiveness of computer simulations. Other noted benefits to consider when
comparing instructional approaches include cost and time efficiency, student enthusi-
asm, high engagement, and on-task behavior while working with simulations. Effec-
tiveness, however, varies based on design features, support measures, and sequencing
of simulation activities within the curriculum (Bayraktar 2002; Kulik 2002).

Guidelines for Best Practice

Effective uses of computer simulations in the science classroom are abundant and
as varied as the teachers who use them. You might incorporate a simulation of cel-

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3 Using Computer Simulations to Enhance Science Teaching and Learning

lular mitosis into a lecture to illustrate the new concept; a dissection simulation may
serve as a precursor to a hands-on dissection lab; student pairs may build atoms of
elements in the alkali metals family while deducing periodic trends; ChemBalancer
(a program for balancing chemical equations, available at http://funbasedlearning.
com/chemistry/chembalancer/default.htm) may serve as an interactive homework re-
view. As teachers respond to increased access to digital technologies such as inter-
active whiteboards, more and more creative uses of simulations appear. However,
students can benefit from simulations even with a basic classroom setup of a single
teacher computer connected to a projector.
Remember that technologies like computer simulations are tools to support learn-
ing. As with any other educational tool, the effectiveness of computer simulations is
limited by the ways in which they are used. Certainly, instructional strategies proven to
support meaningful learning should be adhered to when using computer simulations
or any other digital technologies. Students should be actively engaged in the acquisi-
tion of knowledge and encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning; con-
tent should be placed in the context of the real world and connected to their own lives.
In order to maximize the potential of computer simulations to enhance meaningful
science learning, we have proposed the following guidelines, representing a synthesis
of the recommendations from science educators, researchers, and developers.

(1) Use computer simulations to supplement, not replace, other instructional modes.
Computer simulations should be used in conjunction with hands-on labs and ac-
tivities that also address the concepts targeted by the simulation. Indeed, one study
has indicated that simulations used in isolation were ineffective (Hsu and Thomas
2002). When preceding a hands-on activity, a simulation may familiarize students
with a concept under a focused environment.
For example, chemistry students might become familiar with titration virtual-
ly (using a titration simulator like the one created by Yue-Ling Wong at www.wfu.
edu/~ylwong/chem/titrationsimulator/index.html) before doing a hands-on titration lab.
When an interactive simulation is used as a follow-up, students can continue inves-
tigations of questions and manipulations of variables that would otherwise be im-
possible under the constraints of the lab equipment or class schedule. For example,
after gaining a basic understanding of the Doppler effect through real-life examples,
a Doppler simulation allows students to visualize the movement of sound waves and
even develop an explanation of a sonic boom (see, for example, the Absorb Physics
courseware site: www.crocodile-clips.com/absorb/AP5/sample/040103.html)
When planning for instruction using simulations, ask yourself: “How can this
simulation be used to extend what I am doing in the classroom?” “What can I do with
this simulation that I would not otherwise be able to do?” “Can using this simulation

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give me more time to spend on something else?” Integrating simulations into the cur-
riculum also ensures that connections to domain knowledge and real-world applica-
tions are made explicit. As with any instructional technology, computer simulations
should be chosen to meet your objectives and teach the content (Flick and Bell 2000).

(2) Keep instruction student centered.

By exposing complex concepts and abstract phenomena, computer simulations of-
fer the opportunity to engage students in higher-level thinking and challenge them
to struggle with new ideas. Lessons involving computer simulations should remain
student-centered and inquiry-based to ensure that learning is focused on mean-
ingful understandings, not rote memorization. Depending on your instructional
objectives and classroom arrangement, the student groupings and computer setups
will vary. You may choose to integrate simulations such as Stellarium (a free open-
source virtual planetarium available at www.stellarium.org) into your lectures as a
teacher-led demonstration, or students may work in a lab setting individually or
in small groups with programs such as Net Frog (an interactive virtual dissection
available at http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/frog).
When simulations are teacher led, students should be actively engaged through
questioning, prediction generation and testing, and conclusion drawing (Soderberg
2003). Connections made to their own lives make the learning more authentic and
meaningful. Closure to the lesson is as important for simulated activities as for con-
ventional activities; have students restate their understandings and consider real-
world applications.
When students work with simulations individually or in small groups, discus-
sion and collaboration among teachers and peers should be fostered. Regardless of
the implementation you choose, students should be prompted to form and test their
own hypotheses and justify their decisions. By encouraging reflection on their ac-
tions and decision-making, you can help expose student misconceptions, allowing
for conceptual change and development. Students can then begin to monitor and
take responsibility for their own learning.

(3) Point out the limitations of simulations.

By definition, simulations are simplified models of the real world. Although it is nec-
essary for students to accept the simulated environment as an intelligible and plausible
representation of reality, it is also critical that students realize the differences between
the simulation and reality. Without understanding a model’s limitations, students may
form misconceptions. This distinction is particularly important when dealing with
submicroscopic objects or invisible phenomena. For instance, it is important to stress
that protons, neutrons, and electrons are not actually red, blue, and yellow as they may

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3 Using Computer Simulations to Enhance Science Teaching and Learning

be depicted in a simulated model of the atom. Attention should also be given to scale
and timeframe when they are altered for the sake of simplification. For instance, stu-
dents should understand that, in reality, volcanoes take hundreds of years to form, not
a matter of seconds (as it appears in simulations like the following on the PBS You Try
It site: www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/tectonics). A discussion of why scientists use models
and the role they have in scientific inquiry would be a valuable component of any les-
son involving simulations (Harrison and deJong 2005).

(4) Make content, not technology, the focus.

When it comes to computer simulations, the range of accessibility is as wide as the
topics spanned. Although some simulations are extremely user friendly and self-
explanatory, others require a good deal of time to become familiar with. If stu-
dents are to be using them on their own, they must understand how the program
operates. Otherwise, they may get bogged down with logistical issues rather than
remaining focused on the educational objectives. To avoid this dilemma, you may
choose to lead the class through the simulation as a demonstration, ensuring the type
of student engagement described previously. Even when the program is designed
for independent student use, be sure to familiarize your students with its features,
discuss its limitations, model its use, and provide access to any additional domain
knowledge and tools that might facilitate their work. This is particularly important
when using highly open-ended simulations that do not provide support structures,
such as tutorials, guided questions, or help menus. For example, begin by working
through an initial problem as a class, allowing students to steer you through ma-
nipulations of parameters. Then, students can work through subsequent problems
independently, with your scaffolding. Certainly the most effective type of support
and means of providing it are dependent upon the ability and needs of your students
and the specific learning goals.

Examples of Best Practice

Activities using four highly interactive simulations are described in this section:
StarryNight and ExploreLearning simulations are commercial, and the Virtual
Optics Bench and Atom Builder are available free online.

Virtual Planetarium Software

Teaching an astronomy unit over the course of a few weeks during daylight hours
in a typical classroom setting is a formidable challenge. No wonder students have so
many alternative conceptions! Virtual planetarium simulations offer one solution.
They allow students to investigate astronomy from any perspective, from any place
on Earth, at any point in time, under the ideal conditions of a controlled environ-

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ment (i.e., no obstructions, clouds, or fog). For example, a commercial virtual plan-
etarium program called StarryNight can be used in a class demonstration to answer
the question “How do stars appear to move in the sky?” (Figure 1) Although it by
no means replaces the experience of an evening field trip to view the stars, you can
select your own location, current date, and time to keep the investigation authentic
and meaningful to students.
Students can make preliminary predictions, then view and review the motion

Figure 1.

Screen capture from Starry Night virtual planetarium software

of the stars through the sky. You can engage students in conversation about their
observations, having them generate additional questions and revise their predic-
tions, then develop their own definition of circumpolar stars. By further investigat-
ing Polaris, Ursa Major, and the Big Dipper from the equator and the North Pole,
for instance, students can notice differences in the apparent motion of the stars,
depending on their viewpoint. Discuss with students possible explanations, leading
students to understand that the apparent movement of the stars is due to the Earth’s
rotation. Then encourage students to make their own observations of the stars in
the night sky from home and share their findings in class over the course of the next
week. (Students should be made aware that distortions on the edges of the Moon
and other planetary bodies result from attempting to represent a three-dimensional
object on a two-dimensional computer screen.

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3 Using Computer Simulations to Enhance Science Teaching and Learning

Virtual Optics Bench

Virtual Optics Bench is a java applet that takes instruction using ray diagrams to a
new level. (This OpticsApplet is available free online at http://webphysics.davidson.
edu/Applets/optics4/default.html or in a larger format at www.hazelwood.k12.mo.us/
~grichert/optics/intro.html) You and your students have access to concave and convex
lenses and mirrors, point light sources, culminated light sources, and objects for
showing real and virtual images with the click of a mouse. In this dynamic environ-
ment, students are able to visualize and investigate the effects of changing param-
eters, such as the focal length of a lens or the location of a light source.
A lesson may begin with students experimenting with a variety of lenses, notic-
ing differences in the appearance of an image when viewed through lenses of various
curvatures (Figure 2). After introducing the term
Figure 2. focal length as a description of how curved a lens
Screen capture from the Virtual Optics Bench. is, pose the question, “What impact does focal
length have on the position and size of the image
formed?” Initial qualitative observations can be
extended to a more in-depth quantitative analysis
using the Virtual Optics Bench. Although doing
so with the traditional approach of drawing ray
diagrams is time-consuming and tedious for stu-
dents, this inquiry investigation is easily accom-
plished with the computer simulation. Students
can make and test their predictions using the Virtual Optics Bench.
Insert an object (shown as an arrow) and a convex lens on the workbench.
Draw students’ attention to how the lens refracts the light rays to form an image of
the object. At this point, it is important to ensure students understand that the ray
diagrams shown are only a simplification of reality and that light given off by an
object actually extends infinitely in all directions. Drag the lens to change the focal
length. The size and location of the object and image are measured by the program,
allowing for both quantitative and qualitative analysis. The investigation can be
easily extended to include concave lenses and mirrors. At the end of the unit, you
may choose to include screen shots of the virtual workspace in your assessments.

ExploreLearning Mouse Breeding

Rarely do students have the opportunity to perform genetics experiments in the class-
room, due to lack of time and resources. Using the interactive online Mouse Breeding
simulation at www.ExploreLearning.com, students can perform virtual genetic experi-
ments. Students can use this simulation to explore questions like, “Can dark-haired

This site requires a subscription for long-term use, but you may take advantage of the free 30-day
trial period.
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parents produce light-haired offspring?” The Mouse Breeding simulation is appro-

priate for students to use on their own in the computer lab, individually or in small
groups. (You should provide guidance on how to operate the program’s features and
model a few preliminary crosses as a class
Figure 3.
demonstration.) Students should keep
track of their results, including parent Screen capture from ExploreLearning Mouse
genotypes, Punnett squares, and pheno- Breeding gizmo.
type ratios, in a lab notebook.
Students can breed various pairs of
mice, making predictions first and then
running simulated trials (Figure 3). Ex-
periments might include pairing two
black-fur mice, two white-fur mice, a
purebred black-fur mouse with a pure-
bred white-fur mouse, and two of the
resulting hybrid mice. Students will dis-
cover that the recessive white fur trait re-
turns, and you can discuss with them why
the experimental outcomes do not always
match those of the Punnett square and direct students back to the initial question.
For a more detailed description of this activity, see the TeacherLink website
(www.teacherlink.org/content/science/instructional/activities/genetics/home.html).

Atom Builder
Did you ever think you would be able to take your Figure 4.
class inside an atom? Atom Builder, an interactive Screen capture from Atom Builder
Bohr model (available free online at the PBS You Try simulation.
It site: www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/atom/#), challenges
students to build neutral atoms out of elementary par-
ticles (Figure 4).
You might begin an activity by asking students
what would need to be added in order to change a hy-
drogen atom into a helium atom. Raise questions such
as, “What do you think will happen if three up quarks
are put together in the Nucleon Assembly area?” or
“Could an electron be placed in the outer energy lev-
el?” Encourage students to pose and test their own questions as the class builds
other atoms. Throughout, students should explain their decisions, take notice of
and reflect on the consequences. As an assessment, have students explain how an

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3 Using Computer Simulations to Enhance Science Teaching and Learning

More Good Simulations on the Web

u Learning Science: A vast collection of animations, simulations, and web-based resources

for all subject areas (www.learningscience.org/index.htm)
u Visual Elements: A visual representation of the Periodic Table (www.chemsoc.org/
viselements)
u Virtual Chemistry Lab: A fully stocked virtual chemistry lab (www.chemcollective.org/
vlab/vlab.php)
u OhmZone: A virtual circuit board (www.article19.com/shockwave/oz.htm)
u Physics Education Technology: A collection of interactive simulations of physical
phenomena (www.colorado.edu/physics/phet/web-pages/index.html)
u Cell Biology Animations: A collection of animations for a variety of topics, from DNA
replication to photosynthesis (www.johnkyrk.com/index.html)
u Interactive Human Body: An interactive exploration of the human organs, muscles,
skeleton, and nervous systems (www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/
3djigsaw_02/index.shtml?skeleton)

atom changes from one element to another, what is the balance between protons
and electrons, and what constitutes a stable atom. Students should also be able to
compare the composition of neutrons and protons.
During the lesson closure, it is important to point out that the Bohr model has
been replaced by a more complex quantum model of the atom. Your students may
find it interesting to research how contributions of scientists like Werner Heisen-
berg, Louis de Broglie, Erwin Schrodinger, and Wolfgang Pauli working during
the 1920s marked a profound shift in the way scientists thought about the atom.

Conclusion
Computer simulations have the potential to enhance the way you teach and your
students learn. They allow you to bring even the most abstract concepts to life for
your students and incorporate otherwise impossible or impractical experiences into
your daily instruction. When used in conjunction with the guidelines presented
here, your students will be engaged in inquiry, further develop their knowledge
and conceptual understanding of the content, gain meaningful practice with scien-
tific process skills, and confront their misconceptions. Additionally, they will gain
scientific habits-of-mind (such as the ability to visualize, contemplate, and explain
complex concepts and phenomena) that are both encouraged in the recent reform
documents and necessary for future careers in science.

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