51

2 Expansion Joints
2.1 Introduction
As mentioned in chapter 1.1, movements in old stone and timber bridges were small
and no additional devices were necessary to close the gaps between bridges and abut-
ments due to bridge movements. The first expansion joints were built for steel railway
bridges because their movements were not negligible. With the increase of road traf-
fic and of its speed, closing the gaps became necessary for safety reasons, especially
at the moveable bearings. Initially, cover plates were used for expansion joints. For
longer bridges these cover plates were not sufficient, so that finger joints and sliding
plate joints were used. All these types of expansion joints were not watertight and so
the water ran down to the bearings and to the abutments. The first watertight expan-
sion joints were built using steel rails between rubber tubes to absorb the movements.
This principle led to a lot of different multisealed expansion joints which differed in
the means of supporting the steel rails, in the rubber profiles and in controlling the gap
widths. Another type of watertight expansion joint is the cushion joint, consisting of a
rubber cushion with vulcanised steel plates which transfer the traffic loads. In spite of
continuous amendments of all constructions for expansion joints, these still remain
wearing parts, especially in bridges with high traffic density and high traffic loads.
The following chapters give a short survey of expansion joints for different move-
ments used in the construction of bridges.

2.2 The role of expansion joints

The role of expansion joints is to carry loads and to provide safety to the traffic over the
gap between bridge and abutment or between two bridges in a way that all bridge
displacements can take place with very low resistance or with no resistance at all.
A further requirement is a low noise level especially in an urban environment. The
expansion joints should provide a smooth transition from the bridge to the adjacent
areas. The replacement of an expansion joint is always combined with a traffic inter-
ruption - at least of the affected lane. Therefore expansion joints should be robust and
suitable for all loads and local actions under all weather conditions, moisture and de-
icing agents. The replacement of all wearing parts should be possible in a simple way.

2.3 Calculation of movements of expansion joints

Movements of expansion joints depend on the size of the bridge and the arrangement
of the bearings. Normally the form of construction depends on the horizontal transla-
tion orthogonal to the joint. But it is necessary to consider all translations and rotations
to ensure that the displacements will not reach the limits of the joint construction.
To describe the movements of an expansion joint in detail we have to consider three
translations and three rotations (fig. 2.3- 1).
52 2. Expansion Joints

Fig.2.3-1:Possible movements

These movements result from temperature, displacements due to external loads, and
creep and shrinkage in concrete and composite bridges. We may obtain the move-
ments (displacements and rotations) from the structural analysis of the system. Move-
ments due to loads depend on the location of the loads. The controlling deformations
can be determined with influence lines (fig. 2.3-2 and fig. 2.3-3). The influence line of
a deflection is the bending line due to a unit load acting in the direction of the con-
sidered movement.

.-

Fig.2.3-2:Influence line for a translation

I"

Fig.2.3-3:Influence line for a rotation

To obtain the displacement caused by a rotation it is also possible to calculate the

rotations; the displacements can be determined from the known rotations.

2.3.1 Horizontal translation in the direction of the bridge axis u,

A change of the environment temperature, creep under normal force and shrinkage
lead to a uniform extension or shortening of the bridge (fig. 2.3.1 -1).
The thermal expansion coefficients of steel and concrete have approximately the same
value ( a , = 1,0...1,2. / K ). A uniform change of temperature about the cross
section causes only a horizontal translation of the joint. This applies to composite
bridges, too.
2.3 Calculation of movements of expansion joints 53

Fig.2.3.1- I : Uniformly extension or shortening

n
Temperature: UXt.”= UT ’ C l i ’ ATi
i=l

Creep and shrinkage of concrete bridges

N,, Permanent normal force

(compression > 0)
n

Shrinkage: u,,., = -EcbW ’ li E,, Shrinkage coefficient

i=l

A possible problem is the change of the location of the fixing point or the unknown lo-
cation of the fixing point. On arch bridges the superstructure is usually fixed at the
crown of the arch. The fixing point is moved by the deformation of the arch due to the
asymmetrical load.
Buried expansion joints are often used for short bridges (Chapter 2.4). If the fixing
point is situated on longer piers, it acts as a horizontal spring bearing. Due to a movement
in the joint a plastic deformation of the asphalt layer occurs and the construction has a
certain rigidity. A different rigidity of the expansion joints on the right and left abut-
ment and a possible longitudinal deformation can lead to the cracking of the asphalt
layer at one abutment. As the rigidity of this joint is higher than the rigidity of the piers
the new fixing point is situated near the undamaged expansion joint (fig. 2.3.1-2).

Cracking of the asphalt layer of Fixing point after cracking

the buried expansion joint
I

Fig.2.3.1-2: Change of the fixing point

54 2. Expansion Joints

In the case of an elastic fixing point there are additional movements at expansion
joints due to acceleration and braking forces.
The actual rigidity of piers can differ from the planned rigidity. Moreover, if the bridge
is fixed on more than one pier, the position of the fixing point can differ from the
planned position.

Creep and shrinkage in composite bridges (acting in the concrete parts of cross-
section only) mainly lead to deflections which result in rotations above the y-axis (fig.
2.3.1-4). Creep can be considered using a reduced section area and a reduced moment
of inertia, shrinkage by a substitute tensile force Nshacting on the free shrinking con-
crete. N\,, is a compression force acting on the composite cross-section.

-1 -I- - E,, Shrinkage coefficient

A, Area of concrete

E, Reduced modulus of elasticity of

concrete to consider creep
Fig.2.3.1-3: Equivalent shrinking force

Fig.2.3.1-4: Deflection under load

Horizontal movements of expansion joints can also be caused by vertical movements

of the abutments. They are caused by foundation settlements or by replacement of
bearings (fig. 2.3.1-5). Statically indeterminate steel and composite bridges can be
prestressed by intentional lifting and/or lowering at the bearings.

yr+ -+
positive definition: cp u x
2.3 Calculation of movements of expansion joints 55

'xd 1

(bn Tn

e _ r C 1 ~

F Y I
Fig.2.3.1-5: Displacement of bearings

UXd1 = 44 ' (e" +e,>

Uxd n = $1 ' e, + @" .e ,

If a fixing point is located on a high pier the additional movements due to pier defor-
mation must be considered in the structural analysis. The movements can result from
acceleration, braking forces, uniform and non-uniform temperature actions.

2.3.2 Horizontal translation in direction of the cross-section u,

A horizontal translation in the crosswise direction results if the angle between the
joint and the moving direction of the bearing is not 90 O (e. g. in skew bridges). The
magnitude of the movement depends on the magnitude of the movement in the direc-
tion of the bridge axis and on this angle (fig. 2.3.2-1 and fig. 2.3.2-2).

u, = sincp. ueff

uy = C0Scp~Ueff

Fig.2.3.2-1: Skewed bridge

56 2. Expansion Joints

Fig.2.3.2-2: Skewed bearing conditions

2.3.3 Vertical translation u,

Vertical translations u, can be caused by the replacement of bearings (fig. 2.3.3-3) and
the geometrical conditions on the abutment (fig. 2.3.3-1 and fig. 2.3.3-2).

u, = u x .tan€)

Fig.2.3.3-1: Sloping bridge with horizontal bearings

h
Fig.2.3.3-2: Bridge with short cantilever on the abutmen2
2.3 Calculation of movements of expansion joints 57

SN+ I /
...............

I - .............
7 Hydraulic jack
Fig.2.3.3-3: Vertical displacement of bearings (due to bearing replacement)

2.3.4 Rotation around the bridge axis cpx

In the case of a replacement of one single bearing at one side a rotation cpx occurs (fig.

Tr-
2.3.4-1). However, it is possible to avoid this movement by uniform lifting over the
cross-section.

........

- ........

Hydraulic jack
Fig.2.3.4-1: Lijting on one side

2.3.5 Rotation around the y-axis cpr

This deformation is caused by vertical loading and non-uniform temperature. The
controlling load positions of the traffic loads can be determined with influence lines.

Fig.2.3.5-1: Rotation due to deflections

2.3.6 Rotation around the z-axis cpz

The deformation cpz is caused by non-uniform temperature action in the horizontal
direction, and by wind loads (fig. 2.3.6-1).
58 2. Expansion Joints

'PZ
....~~..........~....

Fig.2.3.6-I: Non-uniform temperature action

2.4 Construction of expansion joints

2.4.1 General
The construction of expansion joints has to fulfil the following requirements:
- movement capacity

- bearing capacity for static and dynamic loading,

- watertightness to save bearings, substructure and possible linkage of expansion

joints from deterioration,

- low noise emission,
- traffic safety.

To fulfil the last two requirements a limitation of gap widths is essential. Additional-
ly, it is recommended to avoid slopes exceeding about 3 % and vertical steps between
joined surfaces exceeding 8 mm (fig. 2.4.1- 1).

Fig.2.4.I-I: Recommended safety requirements

Expansion joints are exposed to pollution. The sealing should not be damaged by
inclusions of bigger external bodies. If the gap width is reduced due to a movement
of the superstructure the joint must be able to expel grit and silt to the carriageway
surface.
2.4 Construction of expansion joints 59

In particular, all elastomeric components must be readily accessible and easily re-
placeable.

2.4.2 Small movements (up to 25 mm)

For movements up to 15 mm it is possible to construct a continuous asphaltic car-
riageway pavement with a supporting element covering the gap of the superstructure.
This kind of joint is also called a buried expansion joint (fig. 2.4.2-1). Up to 10 mm a
flat metal plate is sufficient; for movements above 10 mm an elastomeric pad is nec-
essary to avoid pavement cracks at the edges of the supporting plate. An additional re-
inforcement of the pavement is advisable to provide a uniform strain distribution. The
thickness of the pavement should be at least 80 mm and should be equal to the thick-
ness of the corresponding parts of the superstructure and the abutment. To fulfil this
requirement the cover of the gap is usually extended into a niche.
The asphaltic pavement does not provide sufficient watertightness. An additional seal-
ing is recommended to protect bearings and substructure from deterioration.

Flexible filler .

Fig.2.4.2-I: Buried expansion joint

There are covering elements fulfilling the requirements of support, strain distribution
and watertightness without additional sealing, e.g. the following kind of joint con-
struction (fig. 2.4.2-2 and fig. 2.4.2-3).

Flexible filler

Fig.2.4.2-2: Buried expansion joint sealed by a rubber profile

60 2. Expansion Joints

Flexible filler
// Reinforcement

Fig.2.4.2-3: Buried expansion joint with continuous sealing and additional rubber
projile

For movements between 15 and 25 mm the asphaltic material above the joint can be
replaced by a specially modified asphaltic material. Constructions of this kind are
called asphaltic plug joints (fig. 2.4.2-4 and fig. 2.4.2-5).The thickness should be at
least 80 mm, while the length should not exceed 700 mm.
Though movements exceeding 25 mm could be managed in laboratory tests the influ-
ence of temperature and of deformation velocity is not known adequately. Incorrect
placement of material results in tearing of the adjacent carriageway pavement. Further
problems are yielding of asphaltic material under the wheels of standing vehicles,
brake and acceleration forces combined with high environment temperatures, and the
development of rutting.
Because of their low lifetime (though combined with low relative costs) asphaltic plug
joints are recommended for temporary purposes.

,Flexible matenal

Fig.2.4.2-4: Asphaltic plug joint

2.4 Construction of expansion joints 61

Fig.2.4.2-5: Asphaltic plug joint additional sealed by a rubber profile

2.4.3 Medium movements (over 25 mm, up to 80 mm)

The absorption of medium movements requires an elastic expansion element or an ex-
pansion gap across the carriageway surface. For traffic safety, gaps below 5 mm or
over 65 mm are not recommended. Thus, the expansion movement of a simple gap
construction is limited to 60 mm.
Expansion joints for medium movements consist of a sealing element, edge elements,
and fixing elements. The sealing element can be replaced by a cushion element that
absorbs movements caused by shear deformation (fig. 2.4.3-1).

Sealing element
Cushion element
Fixing element /Edge element ( steel laws

Fig.2.4.3-I: Construction methods of expansionjoints for medium movements

Seals of expansion gaps can be constructed as V-shaped sealing strips (fig. 2.4.3-2)
or hollow sections (fig. 2.4.3-4). Movements are absorbed by the folding of these
elements.
There are special seals for pavements and cyclist areas to decrease the width of the gap
to avoid accidents (fig. 2.4.3-3). Traditional cover-plates are prone to rattling and cor-
rosion and hinder the accessibility of possible seals, but they provide the best comfort
for pedestrians with high heel shoes (fig. 2.4.3-6).
62 2. Expansion Joints

Fig.2.4.3-2: V-shaped sealing Fig.2.4.3-3: Special sealing for sidewalks

El Fig.2.4.3-4: Hollow section

Fig.2.4.3-5: Expansion joint with V-shaped sealing

Fig.2.4.3-6: Expansion joint with cover plate

Fig.2.4.3-7: Expansion joint for sidewalks

2.4 Construction of expansion joints 63

The use of seals made from cellular neoprene extrusion has the advantage of a closed
carriageway surface. In addition to the function as sealing, they are able to transfer
traffic loads. Movements up to 80 mm can be accommodated (fig. 2.4.3-8).

Fig.2.4.3-8:Seals made from cellular neoprene extrusion

Elastomeric cushion joints (fig. 2.4.3-9) are made from neoprene reinforced with steel
plates. Thus, traffic loads can be transferred without significant deflections. The
movements are absorbed by increasing and decreasing of the widths of the two gaps
on the upper side. The maximum movement is limited by the gap width.
The rubber cover of the bearing plate can wear away under traffic or can be damaged
(e.g. by snow ploughs) which lowers the skid resistance.

I
I

Fig.2.4.3-9:Elastomeric cushion joint

Especially when using elastomeric cushions and neoprene extrusion seals, the
restraining actions can exceed 20 kN/m which in some cases is not negligible.

2.4.4 Large movements (over 80 mm)

For large movements, sealing elements and rail elements are coupled. Additionally to
the components of a single gap construction, intermediate elements (also called rails),
supporting elements and linkage elements are needed (fig. 2.4.4- 1). Linkage elements
cause equal gap widths saving the seals from overextending. They must be able to
sustain acceleration and braking forces.
64 2. Expansion Joints

Intermediate e l e y t S,,eanilg element

Fixing element Edge,element ( steel jam

Linkage element Support element

Fig.2.4.4-1: Construction method of expansion joints for large movements

The following figure shows the coupling of cushion elements. In this case a special
linkage mechanism is not necessary due to the high deformation resistance of the
single elements which actually act as a spring linkage.

Fig.2.4.4-2: Coupled elastomeric cushion joint

A typical construction is the coupling of V-shaped and hollow section sealing ele-
ments. It is called multiple seal expansion joint. These expansion joints can be classi-
fied by the kind of supporting and linkage. The folding trellis linkages (fig. 2.4.4-3)
satisfy a l l supporting and linkage purposes.
2.4 Construction of expansion joints 65

-7
I
1
I
I
Fig.2.4.4-3: Rails supported by folding trellis linkage
- - I
An additional linkage is needed if the rails are supported by parallel beams. One pos-
sibility is the spring linkage (fig. 2.4.4-4). Springs are made of an elastic material. The
portion of the resisting force resulting from friction depends on the number of rails
and supporting beams whereas the portion of spring force is independent at the num-
ber of springs because of the series connection. A disadvantage of this kind of linkage
is that acceleration and braking forces cause non-uniform spring deformations. If the
gaps are opened near to the maximum value the seals can be overextended.
Another possibility of linkage of parallel supporting beams is the use of horizontal
parallel linkages (fig. 2.4.4-5).
66 2. Expansion Joints

Fig.2.4.4-4: Rails supported by Fig.2.4.4-5: Rails supported by beams.

beams, spacing controlled by Spacing controlled by horizontal parallel
springs linkages

Fig.2.4.4-6: Rails supported by hinged Fig.2.4.4- 7: Linkage

arranged beams (Swivel System)
2.4 Construction of expansion joints 67

If the supporting beams are skew (Swivel System, fig. 2.4.4-6) they control the gap
width by means of the kinematic characteristic of the mechanism (fig. 2.4.4-7). The
number of supporting beams does not depend on the number of rails. The higher the
number of rails the more economical becomes the application of hinged supporting
beams.
As an alternative to the application of multiple seal expansion joints, special non-
watertight constructions like cantilever-toothed joints or rolling leaf joints (also called
roller shutter plate expansion joint) are used. Both the cantilever-toothed joint and the
rolling leaf joint are as a rule not watertight, so that an additional drainage system is
necessary.

The cantilever-toothed joint (fig. 2.4.4-8), also called finger joint, is a very robust con-
struction but with several disadvantages. The deformation capacity in the crosswise
direction is severely limited and vertical deformations of the joint can prejudice traf-
fic safety. To accommodate small vertical deformations without hazard the free finger
ends should be rounded. Finger joints with supported fingers (fig. 2.4.4-9) have
proved to be not as good as with cantilever fingers.
The rolling leaf joint (fig. 2.4.4-10) consists of a tongue plate, a rocker plate, and
sliding plates. The acceptable movement depends on the size and number of sliding
plates.
Rolling leaf joints can exhibit the following disadvantages:
- broken hinges (falling shutter plates cause gaps in the motorway),

- wear of the bearing surface,

- breaking of the restraining spring elements.

Some manufactures have carried out important improvements by:

- stronger hinges,

- use of specially designed bearings for the shutter plates,

- stronger restraining elements with elastomeric springs,

- rubber seals between the plates (it makes the joint watertight to a great extent).

Fig.2.4.4-8:Cantilever-toothedjoint or finger joint

68 2. Expansion Joints

Steel fingers with an

elastomeric encasing
\

Fixing’
Fig.2.4.4-9: Finger joint with supportedfingers

Fig.2.4.4-10: Rolling leaf joint

2.4.5 Expansion joints for railway bridges

For the expansion joints for railway bridges it is necessary to consider two elements:
- the rails themselves,
- the bridge.
Nowadays, a continuous track without expansion joints is preferred, due to the com-
fort of the passengers. Therefore, many modern railway bridges have no expansion de-
vices for the track. Eurocode 1, part 3 (ENV 1991-3), gives rules for the maximum ex-
pansion lengths for continuous tracks. The expansion length (i.e. the distance between
the “thermal centre” and the opposite end of the deck) should not exceed 60 m for steel
structures with a ballast bed and 90 m for concrete and composite structures, again
with a ballast bed. If the expansion length exceeds these values expansion devices
should be used.
2.4 Construction of expansion joints 69

Two different types of railway expansion joints are in use by the railway authorities.
The first type consists of a parallel joint in the rail and works according to fig. 2.4.5-1.

Fig.2.4.5-I: Paralleljoint in the rail

The second type is normally used for high speed railways (fig. 2.4.5-2). It consists of
an ending rail with a slope of 1 : r, with r = 70 to 100, and a tapered rail which is ma-
chined in the same slope. This expansion joint has the advantage that there is no gap
between the rails and that the wheel load is carried by a full profile section, but the
disadvantage that the rail gauge will be widened by the expansion, according to the
slope:

2
AS = A1 . ~

E. g., for an expansion of A1 = 200 mm and with r = 70 m the gauge is widened by

As = 6 mm. The expansion joints of the rails should not be located directly over the gap
because of the rotation angle (py of the bridge. It is better to adjust the expansion joint
on the embankment, at a short distance from the bridge.

Fig.2.4.5-2: Feathered joint

70 2. Expansion Joints

For bridges without a ballast bed the gap between the bridge and the abutment nor-
mally stays uncovered. For bridges with a ballast bed there are two possibilities:

a) to enclose the ballast within the bridge and on the embankment, bridging the gap
only by the rails. This construction causes problems to the automatic track ballast
tamping machine.
b) to build a continuous ballast bed by means of elastic rubber (neoprene) joints or by
sliding cover plates. In this case there is no interruption of the ballast bed and no
problem for the tamping machine. On the other hand the compactness of the ballast
increases and decreases with the expansion in the area of the expansion joint of the
rails.

A completely different design philosophy is to install no special expansion devices on

bridges with a continuous ballast bed as described above (and, sometimes, with nor-
mal bolted rails joints). If high forces caused by temperature-induced expansion or
shortening of the bridge occur in the rail, the track will move in the longitudinal di-
rection and will become settled by itself, especially under the vibrations of the passing
trains.

The forces between the track and the bridge have to be considered especially for the
design of the longitudinally fixed bearing(s) of the bridge. ENV 1991-3 gives the lon-
gitudinal action per track FT, = f 8 [kN/m] (LTI-LT*), where LTi are the expansion
lengths from the fixed bearing.

2.5 Materials for expansion joints

2.5.1 Steel parts
Normally, the supporting members such as edge elements, rails and cross beams are
made of mild steel protected by coating or of corrosion-resistant steel. The stirrups of
the fixing are curved reinforcing bars. Stainless steel is used for moveable parts like
the bolts of a folding trellis linkage and sliding plates connected with PTFE. Members
that are difficult to access, e.g. niches for linkage elements, also are made of stainless
steel or corrosion-resistant steel.
Steel parts embedded in concrete outside of the zone of carbonation, corrosion-resis-
tant steel and stainless steel do not need any protection against corrosion. Parts made
of mild steel must be protected. Coatings must have a sufficiently high resistance
against mechanical stress, temperature actions, oils, and de-icing salt. The coating
should be chosen in accordance with the appropriate national standards. However, a
coating consisting of a two-component epoxy priming coat with zinc dust and a two-
component epoxy final coat with micaceous iron ore is recommended. Steel parts em-
bedded within the zone of carbonation need only a priming coat. A protection against
corrosion by means of an elastomeric sheathing is possible if the elastomeric material
satisfies the requirements of resistance and durability. In the case of protection by gal-
vanising, hot-dip galvanising is the normal case. Spray galvanising is expensive but
also possible.
2.5 Materials for expansion joints 71

2.5.2 Elastomeric parts

Elastomeric parts must be resistant to environmental influences, de-icing salt, alkaline
and acidic water. They are classified in two categories (load transferring and non-load
transferring).
Load transferring elements (e.g. cushion elements or elastic bearings of the rails) are
made from polychloroprene or from natural caoutchouc. The material must be age-
resisting, despite the presence of de-icing salt.
Non-load transferring elements (e.g. sealings) are made from polychloroprene or from
ethylene-propylene-caoutchoucwith high resistance to tearing and to crack propaga-
tion. The thickness should not be below 4 mm.
The following table gives the recommended characteristics of applied elastomers.

Characteristic

I Resistance to tearing
Tearing strain min. 350 % min. 400 %
Resistance to crack min. 1 0 N / m m min. 15 N / m m
propagation
Behaviour after a
temperature stress
(1 4 d; 70 "C)
Change of hardness max. +7 Shore A max. +5 Shore A
Change of resistance to max. -20 % max. -15 %
tearing
Change of tearing strain max. -20 % max. -20 %
Resistance against
potassium chloride
(solution: 4 %; 14 d; 23 " C )
Change of volume max. +10 % max. +10 %
Change of hardness max. -5 Shore A max. -5 Shore A
Resistance against hot
asphaltic bitumen
(30 minutes; 220 "C)
Change of resistance to
tearing max. -20 % max. -20 %
Change of tearing strain max. -20 % max. -20 %
Bond with steel - Failure within the
elastomeric material

Tah.2.5.2-I : Recommended characteristics qf the elastomeric parts

The springs of spring-linked multiple seal expansion joints are made of polyurethane
with a high resistance to crack propagation. The material is able to withstand high
strains. It can be compressed down to 20 % of the original length. A further advantage
is the good damping characteristics.
72 2. Expansion Joints

Asphaltic plug joints are made of a special modified asphaltic material. This must
have a sufficient flexibility to absorb the movements of the gap, combined with a suf-
ficient load bearing capacity. The exact composition of the material depends on the
producer.
However, the binder material usually consists of bitumens modified with plasticizers
and polymers. The aggregates, usually, belong to the basalt group.

2.6 Analysis and design of expansion joints

2.6.1 Buried expansion joints and asphaltic plug joints
Expansion joints have to satisfy the requirements of ultimate limit state and fatigue
strength design. A buried expansion joint or an asphaltic plug joint must only fulfil the
construction requirements given in chapter 2.4. The most important rules are:
- The thickness of the asphaltic layer should be at least 80 mm.

- The asphaltic layer over the supporting construction must have the same thickness

as over the superstructure and over the abutment.

- The length of asphaltic plug joints shall not exceed 700 mm.

Thin cover plates should be verified by a calculation. The spread of the load can be
considered by an angle of 45 O (fig. 2.6.1-1).

Fig.2.6.1-I: Loud spread under a wheel

2.6.2 Single seal and multiple seal expansion joints

In most cases the ultimate limit state of a single seal and of a multiple seal expansion
joint is analysed correctly, while the fatigue was only considered empirically. How-
ever, damage is usually caused by fatigue. Therefore a correct analysis is essential
[ 18; 191. The loading acts for a very short time. The probability that the axles of two
vehicles are at the expansion joint at the same time is relatively small and only one
axle need be considered.
As a rule, standards contain a design load of the following type to analyse single
members of a bridge.
2.6 Analysis and design of expansion joints 73

q * Rv k stat

LR Contact length wheel - carriageway surface

R Static load

cp Dynamic factor

Fig.2.6.2-I: Design wheel loud

One rail of an expansion joint carries only the portion Fv.k.,tat

of the load, depending on
the rail width b, the gap width s and the contact length LR(fig. 2.6.2-4).

a,[-I
I no
0 Y5
n yo
0 85
0 80
0 75
n 70
0 65
0 60
n 55
n 50
Yn 80 70 a 50 40 ?n a [ D E G ]

Fig.2.6.2-2: Factor a, Fig.2.6.2-3: Arrangement of the wheel loads

n
L, = L , - ~ S ,
i=l

Fig.2.6.2-4: Loadper rail

 2. Expansion Joints

Effective contact length

Gap width

Number of gaps within the contact length

Rail width

Portion of wheel load

Factor of the influence of the angle between expansion joint and driving
direction (fig. 2.6.2-2)

If a f 90 O the two wheels of the axle do not cause the maximum loading on the rail at
the same time. This fact can be considered by reducing the influence of both wheel
loads by the factor a,.
Horizontal wheel loads result from rolling friction, acceleration and braking forces,
and from the slope of the bridge. Accelerating and braking of a lorry at the expansion
joint cause maximum loads but this is a comparatively rare case and, thus, is consi-
dered only for the ultimate limit state analysis. Horizontal forces due to rolling friction
act at each overrunning and exert an influence on the fatigue of the material.

Ultimate limit state

The ultimate limit state is analysed with the single wheel loads of an axle and consid-
ering the dynamic factors given in the relevant standards.

The acceleration and braking force are determined from the vertical loading. Edge
profiles and their fixing are designed for a horizontal force due to the full wheel load.

Intermediate profile: = 5 . (P,, . Fv.k,stat

Fh,k,dyn

5 Coefficient of static friction of the standard

cpV, ( P ~ Vertical and horizontal dynamic factor

Contrary to the fatigue analysis, for ULS verifications a horizontally and vertically
fixed continuous girder is a suitable model of the rails. Rails and support beams can
be calculated with the E-P or P-P method because actually no yielding occurs due to
the high applicable design loads.
The ultimate limit state is analysed using the semiprobabilistic safety concept as
follows:
2.6 Analysis and design of expansion joints 75

Fatigue design
Failure due to fatigue is the main reason for the observed damage. Three types of
fatigue fractures have been observed (fig. 2.6.2-5):

1) Failure of the welded joint between rail and support beam

2) Failure of the support beam
3 ) Failure of the rail

Fig.2.6.2-5: Possible cracks due to fatigue

For the fatigue design, the stress range is of interest. At first it is determined by using
the loads given in the standards.
The horizontal forces due to rolling friction, slope of bridge and acceleration or de-
celeration must be considered. However, they are smaller than the horizontal force due
to acceleration and braking. The factor 5 consists of three parts:

5 = 5s + 5 R -k 6 E gs Factor due to slope

gR Factor due to rolling friction
gE Factor due to locomotive acceleration/deceleration

against driving dmcilon again~tdriving direction

Q
- 5 E [%I

tS,kRand cE
accelerat,O"

Fig.2.6.2-6: Determination of the factors

76 2. Expansion Joints

. The horizontal
The vertical load acting on an intermediate or edge profile is Fv.k.star
loads are determined as follows:

Intermediate profile: = 5. Fv,k,stat

Fh,k.stat

Fig.2.6.2-7:Dynamic loading of a rail

The contact time t, of the wheel depends on the contact length LR,the velocity v and
the width of the profile b.
b+L,
t, =-
V
T half period). The circular frequency is:
The impact load is sine-shaped (t, = -;
2

The impact causes a damped sinusoidal vibration (fig. 2.6.2-8). For the ultimate limit
state analysis the response in the fundamental mode of the system is of interest. It is
considered by the dynamic value given in the applicable standards. Fatigue of material
is caused by the stress range. Normally, only the first and second amplitude of Fv,k,dyn
exceed the constant amplitude fatigue limit.
2.6 Analysis and design of expansion joints 77

Fig.2.6.2-8: Dynamic loading and Fig.2.6.2-9: Dynamic model

response of system

The static bending moments in the vertical direction can be determined on the sup-
ported continuous beam. It depends on the stiffness of the springs if it has to be taken
into account or if the springs can be assumed to be rigid. In the horizontal direction the
consideration of the elastic fixing is essential (fig. 2.6.2- 10).

Fig.2.6.2-10: Vertical and horizontal static system

78 2. Expansion Joints

It is important to use the dynamic stiffness of the springs because it differs from the
static value. Both the spring stiffness and the damping coefficient are determined by
overrun-tests. The frequency fh and the damping coefficient can be determined from
the recorded time-deformation curve. The spring stiffness Ch,dyn in the model is varied
until the lowest natural frequency according to the experiments is observed.
The logarithmic decrement D of the damping coefficient of a spring-linked expansion
joint amounts to approximately 10 %.
Further possibilities to determine the lowest natural frequency are an analysis by FEM
or approximate methods. The following method leads to satisfactory solutions.

The fundamental vibration mode shape of the vertical direction can be described by
the static bending line of a continuous girder.

A sinusoidal loading causes the following bending deflection curve:

The following formula leads to the stiffness of the spring:

The application of the formulae of the frequency and the rotational frequency leads to
the natural frequency of the vertical system:
2= -c
(Jj
m

With known chdyn and equal span widths the frequency fh of the horizontal direction
can be determined in the same way. But the system is an elastically-supported contin-
uous girder. The following figures show some calculated results.
2.6 Analysis and design of expansion joints 79

fh F fh

450 450
L
-8 4
lh=lO@10 m L
400 400

350 350

300 300

250 250
1,80 rn
200 200
2.00 rn
150 2,20rn 150

100 100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 7 1

c 1 , . ~ ~ - 1[N/ml
0~ Ch,dyn l o6 “/mI

L L
4501 450
1,40 m 10 m
Ih= 300.108 m>1m45m 15 m
400 ,1.60 rn 4oo Ih=40@10 m Om
1,80 rn 350 I0 rn
I0 m
2.00 rn 300

2.20 rn
200

150

100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011

C h.dyn “/mI C h.dyn’ 1 o6 [N/m]

Fig.2.6.2- I I : Lowest natural frequencies of an elastically supported continuous gird-

er

m Massofrail [kg/m] L Single span [m]

Ih Moment of inertia [m4] Ch.dyn Dynamic stiffness of spring [N/m]

fh Lowest natural frequency [Hz]

The dynamic values cp, and cp2 of the first and second modes of the system are added
to the value Acp. With an assumed logarithmic damping coefficient of 10 %, the fol-
lowing diagrams give directly the impact factors Acp (fig. 2.6.2-12). Either the first or
second figure can be used. They are suitable for the vertical and horizontal direction.
80 2. Expansion Joints

Distance of
frequency
d

The horizontal axis of the diagram (b) contains the natural frequency of the system.
This version shows the frequency of resonance as the maximum of the graph of the de-
sign velocity. The values Acp of the resonance frequency are comparatively high. Nat-
ural system frequencies near the resonance must be avoided at least for the vertical
bending. The recommended distance from the resonance frequency is also indicated
in the diagram. With a known design velocity a maximum span of the rails can be de-
termined. Longer spans cause higher values Acp, leading to a higher stress range. An-
other disadvantage is an increasing number of stress cycles exceeding the cut-off lim-
it, which means that more than two modes of the system must be considered.
With the values Acpv and AT,, the dynamic difference moments can be calculated.

Mv.k.dyn = 'Vv . Mv.k.stat Mh.k.dyn = '(Ph ' Mh.k.stat

The stress range is determined as follows:

- k .dyn + AMh.k.dyn
'Ok.rnan.dyn -
WV wh

The design load of an axle is higher than the actual load. The nominal stresses should
be reduced by the factor fredto get the actual design loads.
The value of the factor depends on the ratio between design load and loading due to
the real traffic situation. The determination of the actual traffic situation requires
extensive data for the real loads and their frequency (fig. 2.6.2-13). Infrequent high
loads exert an advantageous influence on the fatigue behaviour (overloading effect).
The maximum load for fatigue design must be determined considering the real fre-
quency of the actual traffic loads (e.g. there may be load components occurring only
in one of a thousand cases).
Instead of the nominal stress also the design load could be reduced.
2.6 Analysis and design of expansion joints 81

In

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 7,O

A 5 i 1 Amax

Fig.2.6.2-13: Example of a typical loading sequence

The stress ranges up to the chosen limit are used to determine a constant amplitude
stress range that causes the same damage (fig. 2.6.2-15).

log 4 U R log Ao

4 4 R

, , D
+=2 MIO No= 5 Mi0 NL= i W MID log N N=
, 2 MIO No- 5 Mi0 NL=100 MIO
Ndarn*
log N

Fig. 2.6.2-14: Fatigue strength curve Fig. 2.6.2-15: Constant amplitude

stress range

This value when compared with the stress range A q m a dyn

x provides the factor that al-
lows the fatigue analysis with design loads given in the standards to be used. For in-
stance, [20] recommends the factor fred= 0.75 for the conditions of traffic in Germany,
to be applied to the loads of German Standard DIN 1072. A maximum stress deter-
mined in this way is exceeded in only one of a thousand cases.
The fatigue design has to fulfil the following equation:

YFt Partial safety factor of the fatigue loading (yFf= I .O)

?/Mf Partial safety factor of fatigue strength (yMf= 1.15)

, = a,,,,,.A
A o ~ 1110 o ~ Constant
. ~ ~amplitude
~ ~ stress
~ ~ range for 100 million cycles
82 2. Expansion Joints

Can be ascertained by the analyses of the real sequence us-

ing the Palmgren-Miner summation (aloe = 0.4).

AOL Fatigue strength for 100 million cycles

The construction members of the expansion joint are three-dimensional and compact.
The fatigue strength A q can be taken from the standard used if it contains a suitable
detail category, otherwise tests become necessary. The following testing arrangements
were recently used with success (fig. 2.6.2-16). The required number of tests is nor-
mally indicated by the standards.

Fig.2.6.2-16: Recommended arrangement of the tests

The lifetime of a construction can be calculated as a statistical value. It is only appli-

cable for the evaluation of that type of construction.
y - Ndarnage

365. DTLV . DAAL . p

Yd Design life - time in years
Ndamage The number of cycles exceeding the cut-off limit
DTLV The average of daily lorry traffic in one direction
DAAL = 4 The average number of axles of each lorry
P The distribution of the DTLV on several lanes
p = 1.O in case of one lane
p = 0.85 in case of two lanes
p = 0.80 in case of three or more lanes

2.6.3 Elastomeric cushionjoint

The loads for the ultimate limit state analysis and the reduced loads for the fatigue
analysis are determined in the same way as for the seal expansions joints. In the verti-
cal direction the analysed element transfers a portion of the wheel load, depending on
the zone of influence. Horizontal loads are determined from the vertical loads using
the factor 5.

Intermediate profile: Fh.k.stat = 5 ’ Fv.k.~tat

Edge profile: Fh.k.stat = 5.Rv.k.stat

2.6 Analysis and design of expansion joints 83

The horizontal loading of edge profiles and their fixings are analysed considering the
complete wheel load. Edge profiles and fixings can be analysed in the same way as for
multiple seal joints. A possible intermediate profile can be treated as a single span
beam (fig. 2.6.3-1).
I

,213 ,113 , ,I13 213

1 4 4

Fig.2.6.3-1: Calculation of the intermediate profile

The elastomeric parts of elastomeric cushion joints have to withstand stresses and
stress ranges due to traffic loads. Their strength can be ascertained by tests. The fol-
lowing testing arrangement is recommended.

Fig.2.6.3-2: Recommended arrangement of the test

The specimen is of the same character as the planned construction and has a length of
at least 1200 mm. The loads are applied through an elastomeric disk of 50 mm thick-
ness which is situated in the middle of the cushion element. LR and BR are the dimen-
sions of the load area according to the applicable standard. If the width of sample is
smaller than LR, only a reduced load acts on the joint construction. It can be consi-
dered by a smaller disk and a force than P. The inclination of P depends on the factor
5. It considers the sliding friction or the roller friction, the slope of the bridge and the
locomotive’s acceleration and is different for the ultimate limit and fatigue tests.
The applied force P has the following value for the ultimate limit test:
84 2. Expansion Joints

Fvk 5tdf Wheel load of the standard

For the fatigue test the loads are reduced by the factor fred.
'red = fie, P
The construction is applicable if experiments prove that the full load P can be sup-
ported as a static load, the reduced load Predfor 2 millions of cycles.

2.6.4 Cantilever-toothedjoint and rolling leaf joint

The Bernoulli-Euler theory of bending gives correct results provided that the height to
length ratio of a beam is at least 1/5. Fingers of cantilever-toothed joints are often not
within this range. If this requirement is satisfied the ultimate load can be calculated
easily. Otherwise tests become essential.
The fatigue behaviour must be determined by tests anyway because of the three
dimensional character of the connection cantilever / edge element. The testing
arrangement and the applied loads are the same as for cushion joints (fig. 2.6.4-1).
Maximum stresses are caused when the joint expansion is maximum.

1 : Recommended arrangement of the test

Fig.2.6.4-

The behaviour of a rolling leaf joint should be checked in the same way. In most cas-
es neither the application of the Bernoulli-Euler theory of bending is possible nor do
the standards contain suitable detail categories for the fatigue design. The loads must
be placed in the most disadvantageous position.

2.7 Installation of expansion joints

The design of an expansion joint is performed by determination of the extreme values
of the expected movements and the position of installation. The installation data
depends on the planned construction sequence.
The expansion joint is adjusted by means of an auxiliary construction. For a spring
linkage prestressing is necessary (fig. 2.7-1). It is recommended to instal the expan-
sion joint in the early morning when the temperature is distributed almost uniformly
over the whole bridge.
2.7 Installation of expansion joints 85

Immediately before the installation the actual temperature of the bridge is measured.
If it is not within the considered tolerance the adjustment must be corrected. After that
the expansion joint is flushed and fixed temporarily. In the case of a steel bridge it is
provisionally bolted or tack-welded. The auxiliary construction must be removed im-
mediately. After carrying out the final fixing, the protection against corrosion is com-
pleted.
In concrete bridges the expansion joints are provisionally fixed by welding together
reinforcement and anchoring. The concrete pour should be at least of the same
strength as the adjacent material of the superstructure. While pouring the concrete the
joint construction should be protected by a cover.

......
Adjustable auxiliary
construction

;a-
’/

\ /
Reinforcement Reinfdcement ’
Fig.2.7-1: Possible auxiliary constructionfor the installation

In the case of a steel bridge the date of installing the expansion joints has no influence
on the expected range of movement. In the case of a concrete bridge or a composite
bridge, single unidirectional movements (shortening due to creep and shrinkage) oc-
cur. These movements begin with the erecting of the construction and stop within
some weeks / months / years. Creep is caused by compressive stresses, especially due
to prestressing. The movement due to prestessing forces occurs during the prestress-
ing work. The joint construction has to accommodate the movements which occur af-
ter the installation. Therefore, the dimension and, by this, the costs of a joint con-
struction can be reduced by a late installation.
The variation of creep and shrinkage is shown in the following figures by means of the
coefficient of creep cp(-,t,) and the shrinkage value E,, . In various standards,
t = 5 years (= 1800 days) to t = 20 years is set equal t o t = m.
86 2. Expansion Joints

0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000

Time [dl Time Id1
Fig.2.7-3: Variation of creep Fig.2.7-4: Variation of shrinkage

The maximum increments of shrinkage and creep occur immediately after completion
or after prestressing. For example after 100 days (about 3 months), about 50 % of the
expected creep deformations and 25 % of the shrinkage deformation have taken place.

2.8 Inspection and maintenance

Expansion joints should be checked regularly by means of visual inspection. The fre-
quency depends on the sensitivity of the construction. Before the inspection the joint
is cleaned, and cover-plates may need to be removed. The check should involve the
following items:
- Damage of the anticorrosive protection. This should be repaired before advanced
rust formations appear. The new coating must be compatible with the existing one.
- Visible cracks due to fatigue in the steel members.
- Damages to the seals. The soiled water of the carriageway can lead to the deterio-
ration and corrosion of the bearings, the substructure and possible the linkages.
- Workability of the linkage. If it does not fulfil its function, damage of the seals may

result.
- Obstruction or damage of the drainage system.
The adjacent carriageway pavement should also be checked. A jutting joint construc-
tion due to wheelers enhances the impact loading. If it is not possible to repair the
entire pavement, asphalt ramps should be erected to protect the joints.

Service-free expansion joints are often demanded by the manufacturers. Nevertheless,

it is recommended to clean the gaps from grit and silt to protect seals and linkage. The
drainage should also be cleaned regularly.
2.9 Replacement of expansion joints 87

2.9 Replacement of expansion joints

The lifetime of an expansion joint should be the same as the lifetime of the carriage-
way pavement. A complete replacement becomes necessary if the steel parts exhibit
advanced fatigue damage. On steel bridges only the bolted or welded connections are
removed. A replacement on concrete bridges is more expensive.
More frequent is the replacement of single members, especially of the elastomer com-
ponents. Seals should be replaceable from the carriageway site. Manufacturers offer
different systems for easy replacement (fig. 2.9-1).

Edge or intermediate beam Edge or intermediate beam

Grooved
dowel

Clamping
strip ,-/'

ic Polychloroprene sealing element Polychloroprene sealing element

Fig.2.9-I: Possiblefixings to the seal

The gap width must be opened to at least 25 mm. In the case of an elastic linkage,
smaller widths are possible because the rails can be displaced. On the other hand the
seals must not be stretched fully. Expansion joints for large movements should be ac-
cessible from the underside to change members of the linkage like elastomeric
springs.
In the case of a road with several lanes it is desirable to change the seals of the expan-
sion joint in sections. It is possible to join the seals by vulcanization on site.
If a replacement of the rails becomes necessary they can also be joined on site. How-
ever, the joints should be situated in zones with minimal stress range and must be
welded very carefully because of the high fatigue loads.
88 2. Expansion Joints

2.10 References
Books about expansion joints for bridges:
Lee D.J.: Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joints. Second edition by E & FN Spon,
London, Glasgow, New York, Tokyo, Melbourne, Madras 1994.

Papers:
Price, A.R. (1982): The service performance of fifty buried type expansionjoints.
TRRL Report SR 740, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
Price, A.R. ( I 983): The performance of nosing type bridge deck expansion joints.
TRRL Report LR 1071, Transport and Road Research Laboratory Crowthorne.
Price, A.R. (1984): The performance in service of bridge expansionjoints. TRRL
Report LR 1 104, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
Department of Transport (1989): Expansion joints for use in highway bridge
decks. Departmental Standard BD 33/88.
Department of Transport (1989): Expansion joints for use in highway bridge
decks. Departmental Advice Note BA 26/88.
Koster W. (1969): Expansion Joints in Bridges and Concrete Roads. Maclaren
and Sons.
Busch, G.A. (1986): A review of design practice and performance of fingerjoints.
Paper presented to the 2nd World Congress on Joint Sealing and Bearing
Systems for Concrete Structures, San Antonio, Texas, September.
Watson, S.C. (1972):A review of past performance and some new considerations
in the bridge expansion joint scene. Paper presented to regional meetings of the
AASHO Committee on Bridges and Structures, Spring.
Koster W. (1986): The principle of elasticity for expansion joints. Paper present-
ed to 2nd World Congress on Joint Sealing and Bearing Systems for Concrete
Structures, San Antonio, Texas, September.
[ 101 Lee, D.J. (1971): The Theory and Practice of Bearings and Expansion Joints for
Bridges, Cement and Concrete Association.
[ I I ] Demers, C.E. and Fisher, J.W., Fatigue Cracking of Steel Bridge Structures, Vol-
ume I : A Survey of Localized Cracking in Steel Bridges - 1981 to 1988, FHWA
Publication No. FHWA-RD-89- 166, McLean, VA, 1990
[ 121 Standard Specifications For Highway Bridges. 15th edition, American Associa-
tion of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 1992
[ 131 Tschemmernegg, F., The Design of Modular Expansion Joints, Proceedings of
the 3rd World Congress on Joint Sealing and Bearing Systems for Concrete
Structures, Toronto, 1991.
[14] Dexter, R.J., Kaczinski, M.R., and Fisher, J.W.; Fatigue Testing of Modular Ex-
pansion Joints for Bridges, Proceeding of the 1995 IABSE Symposium, Volume
7312, San Francisco, CA, 1995.
[ 151 TL/TP-FU 92, Technische Liefer- und Priifvorschriften fur wasserundurchlassi-
ge Fahrbahnubergange von Strassen- und Wegbriicken. Bonn: Bundesministe-
rium fur Verkehr, Ausg. 1992
2.10 References 89

[ 161 Richtlinie - RVS 15.45, Briickenausriistung - Ubergangskonstruktion. Wien:

Forschungsgesellschaft fur das Verkehrs- und Strassenwesen, Arbeitsgruppe
c<Briickenbau>>, Arbeitsausschuss <cBruckenausriistung>>,Ausg. Januar 1995.
[ 171 Braun, Chr.: Verkehrslastbeanspruchungvon Ubergangskonstruktionen in Stras-
senbriicken. Bauingenieur 67 (l992), P. 229-237.
[ 181 Tschemmernegg, F. (a.0.): Ermudungsnachweis von Fahrbahnubergangen nach
ENV-1993-1. Stahlbau (1995), P. 202-210.
[ 191 Pattis, A.: Dynamische Bemessung von wasserdichten Fahrbahnubergangen-
Modulsysteme (Dynamic Design of Waterproof Modular Expansion Joints).
Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Universi-
ty of Innsbruck, Austria (Dec. 1993).
[20] Herleitung eines Lastmodells fur den Betriebsfestigkeitsnachweis von StraBen-
brucken. Forschung Strassenbau und Strassenverkehrstechnik Heft 430, 1984.
[2 11 Ramberger, G.: Bearings, expansion joints and hydraulic equipment for bridges,
IABSE, IS. Kongress-Bericht Copenhagen, 1996.
[22] Fisher, J.W., Kaczinski, M.R. and Dexter, R.J.. Field and Laboratory Experience
with Expansion Joints. IABSE, 15. Kongress-Bericht Copenhagen, 1996.
[23] Braun, C.: The Design of Modular Joints for Movements up to 2000 mm.
IABSE, 15. Kongress-Bericht Copenhagen, 1996.
[24] Nielsen, H.B.: The Storebaelt West Bridge. Railway Expansion Joints. IABSE,
15. Kongress-Bericht Copenhagen, 1996.
[25] Crocetti, Roberto: Modular Bridge Expansion Joints - Loads, Dynamic Behav-
iour and Fatigue Performance. Thesis for the degree of Licentiate of Engineer-
ing. Department of Structural Engineering, Division of Steel and Timber Struc-
tures. Chalmers University of Technology, 1998.
[26] Barnard, C.P., Cuninghame, J.R.: Practical guide to the use of bridge expansion
joints. Application guide 29, Transport research laboratory, UK 1997.