Vector Analysis (Part 1)

Introduction

The initial work on Vectors was covered in detail in Programmed 6 of Engineering

Mathematics and, if you are in any doubt, spend some time reviewing that section of the
work before proceeding further.
The current programmes on Vector Analysis build on these early foundations, so,
for quick reference, the essential results of the previous work are summarised in the
following list.

Summary of prerequisites

1. A scalar quatity has magnitude only; a vector quatity has both magnitude and direction.

2. The axes of reference, OX,OY,OZ, form a right-handed set. The symbols I,j,k
denote unit vectors in the direction OX,OY,OZ, respectively.

If D = (B × C ) then OP = r = ax2 + a y2 + az2

3. The direction cosines [l , m, n ] are the cosines of the angels between the vector
r and the axes OX,OY,OZ, respectively.For any vector r = axi + a y j + az k
ax a a
l= ;m = y ;n = z
r r r

And l 2 + m2 + n 2 = 1

4. Scalar product (‘dot product’)

A.B = AB cos 0 where 0 is the angle between A and B

If A = axi + a y j + az k and B = bx i +by j +bz k then

A.B = a x bx +a y by + a z bz

5. Vector product (‘cross product’)

A × B = AB sin 0 in a direction perpendicular to A an B

So that A, B ( A ×B ) form a rifht-handed set

Therefore A ×B =AB sin 0

1
 i j k
Also A × B = ax ay az
bx by bz

6 Angle between two vectors

cos 0 = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2

Where l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are the direction cosines of vectors r1 and r2

respectively

For perpendicular vectors l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0

For parallel vectors l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 =1

One or two examples will no doubt help to recall the main points.

Example 1 (Direction cosines)

If i, j , k are unit vectors in the directions OX,OY,OZ, respectively, then any position
vector OP ( = r ) can be represent in the form

OP = r = a xi +a y j +a z k

Then r =
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r = a x2 + a y2 + a z2

2
The direction of OP is denoted by stating the direction cosines of the angles made by OP
and the three coordinate axes.

OL a x
l = cos α = =
OP r

cos α, a
∴l , m, n, =OM cos β, cos γ
m = cos β =
y
=
OP r
So, if P is the point (3,2,6), then
ON a z
=
r n= cos
 γ; = =
OP r
l =  ; m = ; n =

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_

r =7;
l = 0.429 ; m = 0.286 ; n = 0.857

Since ( r )2 = 9 + 4 + 36 = 49 ∴r =7

3
l = cos α = = 0.4286
7
2
m = cos β = = 0.2857
7
6
n = cos γ = = 0.8571
7

Example 2 (angle between two vectors)

If the direction cosines of A are l1 , m1 , n1 and those B are l2 , m2 , n2 , then the angle
between the vectors is given by

cos 0 = l1l2 + m1m2 +n1 n2

If A = 2i + 3 j + 4k and B = i − 2 j + 3k , we can find the direction cosines of each and

hence 0 which is……….
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_

3
 0 = 66 36 '

For A : r1 = 4 +9 +16 = 29
2 3 4
∴l1 = ; m1 = ;n =
29 29 29

For B : r2 = 1 + 4 +9 = 14
1 −2 3
∴l2 = ; m2 = ; n2 =
14 14 14

1
Then cos 0 = {2 − 6 +12 } = 0.3970
14 × 29

∴0 = 66 36 '

Let us now look at the question of scalar and vector products.

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Example 3 (scalar product)

If A and B are two vectors, the scalar product of A and B is defined as

A.B = AB cos 0

Where 0 is the angle between the two vectors.

If we consider the scalar products of the unit vectors i,j,k which are mutually
perpendicular, then

i. j = (1)(1) cos 90  = 0 ∴i. j = j.k = k .i =0

and i.i = (1)(1) cos 0 =1

∴i.i = j. j =k .k =1

in general, if A = axi + a y j + az k and B = bx i +by j +bz k then

A.B = a x bx +a y by + a z bz which is, of course, a scalar quantity

so, if A2i − 3 j + 4k and B = i + 2 j + 5k , then

A.B = 
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4
 A.B = 2 − 6 + 20 = 16

Also, since A.B = AB cos 0 ,we can determine the angle between the vectors. In this
case 0 =.......... .......... .
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0 = 57 9'

A = 2i − 3 j + 4k ∴A = A = 4 +9 +16 = 29
B = i + 2 j + 5k ∴B = B = 1 +4 +25 = 30
We have already found that A.B =16 and A.B = AB cos 0

∴16 = 29 30 cos 0 ∴cos 0 = 0.5425 ∴0 = 57 9'

So , the scalar product of A = a xi + a y j + az k and B = bxi +by j +bz k

Is A.B = a x bx +a y by + a z bz
And A.B = AB cos 0 where 0 is the angle between the vectors. It can also
be shown that
(i ) A.B = B. A
And ( ii ) A.( B + C ) = A.B + A.C
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Example 4 (vector product)

If A = axi + a y j + az k and B = bx i +by j +bz k the vector product A × B is defined as

A × B = AB sin 0 in the direction perpendicular to A and B such that A, B and
A × B form a right-handed set.

We can write this as

A × B = ( A sB i0n)
Where n is defined as a unit vector in the positive normal direction to the plane of A and
B, i.e forming a right-handed set.

i j k
Also A × B = ax ay az
bx by bz

If we consider the vector products of the unit vectors, i,j,k, then

i × j = (1)(1) sin 90  = 1 ∴i × j = j ×k = k ×i =1

5
Note that j ×i = −( i × j ) = −1 ∴ j ×i = k × j = i ×k = −1
Also i × i = (1)(1) sin 0 = 0 ∴i ×i = j × j = k × k = 0
It can also be shown that
( i ) A ×( B + C ) A × B + A ×C

And ( ii ) A × B = −( B × A)
Make a note of these result (3) , ( 4 ) and (5)
Then, if A = 3i − 2 j + 4k and B = 2i − 3 j − 2k
A × B = 
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A × B =16 i +14 j −5k

We simply evaluate the determinant

i j k
A ×B = 3 −2 4
2 −3 −2

= i ( 4 +12 ) − j ( −6 −8) + k ( −9 + 4 ) =16 i +14 j −5k

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_

We have seen therefore that

The scalar product of two vectors is a scalar

But that the vector product of two vectors is a vector.

We know also that A ×B =AB sin 0

Therefore, the angle between the vectors A and B given in Example 4 is

0 = 
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0 = 79 40 '

For A = 3i − 2 j + 4k ; B = 2i − 3 j − 2k ; and A × B =16 i +14 j −5k

∴A ×B = 16 2 +14 2 +52 = 477 = 21 .84
A = A = 32 + 2 2 + 4 2 = 29 = 5.385

6
 B = B = 2 2 +32 + 2 2 = 17 = 4.123
∴21 .84 =(5.385 )( 4.123 ) sin 0
∴sin 0 = 0.9838 ∴0 = 79 40 ' 

So, to recapitulate:

If A = axi + a y j + az k and B = bx i +by j +bz k and 0 is the angle between them

(i) Scalar product = A.B = axbx + a y by + az bz
= AB cos 0
i j k
(ii)vector product A × B = a x ay az
bx by bz

And A ×B =AB sin 0

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Triple products

We now deal with the various products that we form with three vectors.
Scalar triple product of three vectors.

If A,B,C are three vectors, the scalar formed by the product A.( B ×C ) is called the
scalar triple product.

If A = axi + a y j + az k B = bxi +by j +bz k C = cx i +c y j +cz k ;

i j k
Then B ×C = bx by bz
cx cy cz

i j k
∴A.( B ×C ) = (a i + a j + a k ). bx by bz
cx cy cz

Multiplying the top row by the external bracket and remembering that

i. j = j.k = k , i = 0 and i.i = j. j =k .k =1

ax ay az
We have A.( B ×C ) = bx by bz
cx cy cz

Example If A = 2i − 3 j + 4k ; B = i − 2 j − 3k ; C = 2i + j + 2k

7
 2 −3 4
Then A.( B ×C ) = 1 −2 −3
2 1 2

= 
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A.( B ×C ) = 42

2 −3 4
For A.( B ×C ) = 1 −2 −3
2 1 2

= 2( − 4 + 3) + 3( 2 + 6 ) + 4(1 + 4 ) = 42

As simple as that.

Properties of scalar triple products

bx by bz ax ay az
(a) B.( C × A) = cx cy c z = − cx cy cz
ax ay az bx by bz

Since interchanging two rows in a determinant reverses the sign. If we now interchange
rows 2 and 3 and again change the sign, we have

ax ay az
B.( C × A) = bx by bz = A.( B ×C )
cx cy cz

∴A.( B ×C ) = B.( C × A) = C.( A × B ) (7 )

i.e. the scalar triple product is unchanged by a cyclic change of the vectors involved

bx by bz ax ay az
(b) B.( A ×C ) = a x ay a z = − bx by bz
cx cy cz cx cy cz

∴B.( A ×C ) = −A.( B ×C ) (8)

i.e. a change of vectors not in cyclic order, changes the sign of the scalar triple product.

8
 ax ay az
(c) A.( B × A) = bx by bz = 0 since two rows are identical
ax ay az

∴A.( B × A) = B.( C × B ) = C .( A ×C ) = 0 (9)

Example If A = i + 2 j + 3k ; B = 2i − 3 j + k ; C = 3i + j − 2k

A.( B ×C ) = C.( B × A) =

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A.( B ×C ) = 52 ; C.( A × B ) = −52

1 2 3
For A.( B ×C ) = 2 −3 1 =1( 6 −1) −2( −4 −3) +3( 2 +9 ) = 52
3 1 −2

C.( B × A) = −A.( B ×C ) = − 52

Coplanar vectors

The scalar triple products provides a test to show whether three given vectors lie in the
same plane.

By definition, B ×C is a vector product of B and C , of magnitude B C acting in a

direction perpendicular to the plane of B and C and forming a right-handed set.

9
The scalar product of two vectors A and D is A.D where A.D =A D cos 0,0
being the angle between A and D

π π
If 0 = , A.D = A D cos =0
2 2

∴A.D = 0

Therefore, if D = ( B × C ) , combining the two results above, we have this conclusion:

If A is third vector
Perpendicular to B ×C , then

A,B and C are coplanar

A.( B ×C ) = 0

Therefore, three vectors A,B,C are coplanar if A.( B ×C ) = 0

Example 1 Show that A = i + 2 j − 3k ; B = 2i − j + 2k ; and C =3i + j − k are coplanar.

We just evaluate A.( B ×C ) = and apply the test

10
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A.( B ×C ) = 0

1 2 −3
For A.( B ×C ) = 2 −1 2 =1(1 −2 ) −2( −2 −6 ) −3( 2 +3) = 0
3 1 −1

Therefore A,B,C are coplanar

Example 2

If A = 2i − j + 3k ; B = 3i + 2 j + k ; C = i + pj + 4k
are coplanar, find the value of p .

The method is clear enough. We merely set up and evaluate the determinant and solve the
equation A.( B ×C ) = 0
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p = 

p = −3

Since A.( B ×C ) = 0 ∴7 p = −21 ∴p =−3

One more.

Example 3 Determine whether the three vectors A = 3i + 2 j − k ; B = 2i − j + 3k ;

C = i − 2 j + 2k are coplanar.

Work through it on your own. The result shows that…..

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_

A,B,C are not coplanar

3 2 −1
In this case A.( B ×C ) = 2 −1 3
1 −2 2

∴ A.( B × C ) =/ 0
∴A, B, C are not coplanar

11
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Vector triple products of three vectors

If A,B and C are three vectors, then

A × ( B ×C )
And are called the vector triple products (10 )
( A × B ) ×C

Consider A ×( B ×C ) where A = a xi + a y j + az k ; B =bxi +by i +bz k ; and

C = cxi + c y j + cz k
Then is a vector perpendicular to the plane of B and C and A ×( B ×C ) is a vector
perpendicular to the plane containing A and ( B ×C ) ,i.e coplanar with B and C.

Now

i j k
by bz b bz bx by
( B ×C ) = bx bx bx = i −j x +k
cy cz cx cz cx cy
cx cy cz

i j k
Then A ×( B ×C ) = ax ay az
by bz b bz bx by
− x
cy cz cx cz cx cy

i j k
= ax ay az
by bz bz bx bx by
cy cz cz cx cx cy

In symbolic form, further expansion of the determinant becomes somewhat tedious.

However a numerical example will clarify the methods.

Example 1 If A = 2i − 3 j + k ; B = i + 2 j − k ; C = 3i + j + 3k ;
Determine the vector triple product A ×( B ×C )

We start off with B ×C = 

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12
 B × C = 7i − 6 j − 5k

i j k
=i ( 6 +1) − j (3 +3) +k (1 −6 )
For B ×C = 1 2 −1
= 7i −6 j −5k
3 1 3

Then A × ( B × C ) = 
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A × ( B × C ) = 2li +17 j + 9k

i j k
For A ×( B ×C ) = 2 −3 1
7 −6 5

= i (15 + 6) − j ( −10 −7 ) + k ( −12 + 21 )

= 2li +17 j +9k

That is fundamental enough. There is, however, an even easier way of determining a
vector triple product. It can be proved that

A ×( B ×C ) = ( A.C ) B − A.B )C 11
And ( A × B ) ×C = ( C. A) B − ( C.B ) A

The proof of this is given in the Appendix. For the moment, make a careful note of the
expressions: then we will apply the method to the example we have just completed.

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_

A = 2i − 3 j + k ; B = i + 2 j − k ; C = 3i + j + 3k and we have
A ×( BXC ) = ( A.C ) B − ( A.B )C
= ( 6 − 3 + 3)( i + 2 j − k ) − ( 2 − 6 −1)( 3i + j + 3k )
= 6( i + 2 j − k ) + 5( 3i + j + 3k ) = 2li +17 j + 9k

Which is, of course the result we achieved before.

13
Here is another.

Example 2 If A = 3i + 2 j − 2k ; B = 4i − j + 3k C = 2i − 3 j + k determine ( A × B ) ×C
using the relationship.

( A × B ) ×C = ( C. A) B − ( C.BA )
( A × B ) ×C = 
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−50 i − 26 j + 22 k

For ( A × B ) ×C = ( C. A) B − ( C.B ) A
= ( 6 − 6 − 2 )( 4i − j + 3k ) −8 + 3 + 3( 3i + 2 j − 2k )
= −2( 4i − j + 3k ) −14 ( 3i + 2 j − 2k )
= − 50 i − 26 j + 22 k

Now one more.

Example 3 A = i + 3 j + 2k ; B = 2i + 5 j − k ; C = i + 2 j + 3k
A × ( B × C ) = 
( A × B ) × C = 

Finish them both.

A × ( B × C ) =11i + 35 j − 58 k
( A × B ) ×C =17 i + 38 j − 31k

For A ×( B ×C ) = ( A.C ) B − ( A.B )C

= (1 + 6 + 6 )( 2i + 5 j − k ) − ( 2 +15 − 2 )( i + 2 j + 3k )
=13 ( 2i + 5 j − k ) −15 ( i + 2 j + 3k )
=11i + 35 j − 58 k

And ( A × B ) ×C = ( C. A) B − ( C.B ) A
= (1 + 6 + 6 )( 2i + 5 j − k ) − ( 2 +10 − 3)( i + 3 j + 2k )
=13 ( 2i + 5 j − k ) − 9( i + 3 j + 2k ) =17 i + 38 j − 31k

As these two result clearly show

A × ( B × C ) =/ ( A × B ) × C so beware!
Before we proceed, note the following concerning the unit vectors.

14
(i )(i × j ) = k
∴i ×( i × j ) = i ×k = − j
∴i ×( i × j ) − j
(ii )( i ×i ) × j = ( 0 ) × j = 0
∴( i ×i ) × j = 0

And once again, we see that i × ( i × j ) =/ ( i × i ) × j

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Finally, by way of revision:

Example 4 if A = 5i − 2 j + 3k ; B = 3i + j − 2k ; C = i − 3 j + 4k ; determine

(a) the scalar triple product A.( B ×C )

(b) the vector triple products

(i ) A ×( B ×C )
(ii )( A × B ) ×C.

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( a ) A.( B ×C ) = −12
(b ) A ×( B ×C ) = 62 i + 44 j − 74 k

( A × B ) × C =109 i + 7 j − 22 k
Here is the working.

5 −2 3
(a) A.( B ×C ) = 3 1 −2
1 −3 4

15
 = 5( 4 − 6 ) + 2(12 + 2 ) + 3( − 9 −1) = −12

(b)(i) A ×( B ×C ) = ( A.C ) B − ( A.B )C

= ( 5 + 6 +12 )( 3i + j − 2k ) − (15 − 2 − 6 )( i − 3 j + 4 )
= 23 ( 3i + j − 2k ) − 7( i − 3 j + 4k ) = 62 i + 44 j − 74 k

(ii) ( A × B ) ×C = ( C. A) B − ( C.B ) A
= 23( 3i + j − 2k ) − ( − 8)( 5i − 2 j + 3k )
=109 i +7 j −22 k

Differential of vectors

In many practical problems, we often deal with vectors that change with time, e.g.
velocity, acceleration, etc. If a vector A depends on a scalar variable t, then A can be
represented as A(t ) and A is then said to be a fuction of t .
If A = a xi + a y j +a z k then ax , a y , a z will also be dependent on the parameter
t.
i.e. A( t ) = a x ( t )i + a y ( t ) j + a z ( t ) k

Differentiating with respect to t gives…..

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_

d  
{ A( t )} = i d { ax ( t )} + j d d
a y ( t ) + k { az ( t )} 
dt dt dt  dt 

dA da da da
In short =i x + j y +k z .
dt dt dt dt

The independent scalar variable is not, of course, restricted to t. In general, if u is the

paramater, then
dA
= 
du
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dA da da da
=i x + j y +k z
du du du du

If a position vector OP moves to OQ when u becomes u + δu , then as δ u → 0 , the

direction of the chord PQ becomes that of the tangent to the curve at P , i.e. the
dA
direction of is along the tangent to the locus of P .
du

16
Example 1 If A = (3u 2 + 4)i + ( 2u − 5) j + 4u 3k , then
dA
=.......... ......
du

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dA
= 6ui + 2 j + 12 u 2 k
du

d2A
If we differentiate this again, we get = 6i + 24uk
du 2
dA d2A
When u = 2 = 12 i + 2 j + 48 k and = 6i + 48uk
du du 2

Then

dA d2A
=.......... .. and =.......
du du 2

dA d2A
=49 .52 ; and = 48 .37
du du 2

For
dA
du
{
= 12 2 + 2 2 + 48 2 }
12
= {2452 }
12
= 49 .52

17
And
d2A
du 2
{
= 62 + 48 2 }12
= {2340 }
12
= 48 .37

Example 2 If , F = i sin 2t + je 3t + k (t 3 − 4t ) then when t =1

dF d 2F
=  ; =.......... .
dt dt 2

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dF
= 2 cos 2i + 3e3 j − k
dt
d 2F
2
= −4 sin 2i + 9e3 j + 6k
dt

dF d 2F
From these, we could if required find the magnitudes of and
dt dt 2
dF d 2F
=...... =.......... ...
dt dt 2
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dF d 2F
= 60 .27 ; =180 .9
dt dt 2

For dt = {( 2 cos 2 ) + 9e +1}

dF 2 6 12

= {0.6927 + 3631 +1}

12
= 60 .27

And
d 2F
dt 2
{
= ( − 4 sin 2 ) + 81 e 6 + 36
2
} 12

= {13 .23 + 32678 + 36 }

12
= 180 .9

One more example.

Example 3 If A = ( u + 3)i − ( 2 + u 2 ) j + 2u 3k determine

dA d2A dA d2A
(a) (b) (c) (d) at u =3
du du 2 du du 2

18
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_

Here is the working. A = ( u + 3)i − ( 2 + u 2 ) j + 2u 3k

(a) dA = i − 2uj + 6u 2 k at u = 3, dA = i − 6 j + 54 k
du du

2 2
(b) d A = −2 j + 12uk at u = 3, d A2
= −2 j + 36 k
du 2 du

(c) dA = {1 + 36 + 2916 }1 2 = ( 2953 )1 2 = 54 .34

du

2
(d) d A2
= {4 +1296 } = (1300 ) = 36 .06
12 12

du
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Example 4 A particle moves in space so that at time t its position is stated as

x = 2t + 3, y = t 2 + 3t , z + t 3 + 2t 2 . We are required to find the components of its velocity
and acceleration in the direction of the vector 2i + 3 j + 4k when t =1

First we can write the position as a vector r

r = ( 2t + 3) i + ( t 2 + 3t ) j + (t 3 + 2t 2 )k

Then, at t =1

D = ( B × C) d 2r
dt 2
= ........

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_

dr d 2r
= 2i + 5 j + 7 k ; = 2 j + 10 k
dt dt 2

For
dr
dt
(
= 2i + ( 2t + 3) j + 3t 2 + 4t k)
dr
∴at t =1, dt
= 2i + 5 j + 7k

19
 d 2r
And 2 = 2 j + ( 6t + 4) k
dt

d 2r
∴At t =1,
dt 2
= 2 j + 10 k

Now, a unit vector parallel to 2i + 3 j + 4k is ……………………..

2i + 3 j + 4k 1
= ( 2i + 3 j + 4k )
4 + 9 + 16 29

dr
Denote this unit vector by I. Then the component of in the direction of I
dt

d
r d
r
= c
os 0 = .I
dt dt
1
= (2i +5 j +7 k )(
. 2i +3 j +4k )
29
=.......... .......... ..

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_

8.73

1
Since ( 2i + 5 j + 7k ).( 2i + 3 j + 4k ) = 1 ( 4 + 15 + 28 )
29 29

47
= = 8.73
29

d 2r
Similarly, the component of in the direction of I is
..........
dt 2
..........
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_

8.54

d 2r d 2r 1
For 2
cos 0 = 2
.I = ( 2 j +10 k ).( 2i + 3 j + 4k )
dt dt 29

20
 1 46
= (6 + 40 ) = = 8.54
29 29

Differentiation of sums and products of vectors

If A = A( u ) and B = B( u ) ,then
d
(a) {cA} = c dA
du du

d
(b) { A + B} = dA + dB
du du du

d
(c) { A.B} = A. dB + dA .B
du du du

d
(d) { A × B} = A × dB + dA × B.
du du du

These are very much like the normal rules of differentiation.

However, if A( u ) = axi + a y j + a z k (ai )

const .

A(u ). A( u ) = a x2 + a y2 + a z2 = A = A2
2

i.e. constant

d
Also { A( u ). A( u )} = A( u ). d { A( u )} + A( u ). d { A( u )}
du du du

= 2 A( u ).
d
{ A( u )} = d { A2 } = 0
du du

Assuming that A( u ) =/ 0 then since A( u ). dud { A( u )} = 0 it follows that A(u ) and

d
{ A( u )} are perpendicular vectors because…….
du

d d
A(u ). { A(u )} = A(u ) { A(u )} cos 0 = 0
du du

∴cos 0 =0
π
∴0 =
2
Now let us deal with unit tangent vectors.

21
Unit tangent vectors

We have already established in frame 30 of this programme that if OP is a position

d
vector A(u ) in space, then the direction of the vector denoting { A( u )} is………
du

_______________________________________________________________________
_

Parallel to the tangent to the curve at P

Then the unittangent vector T at P can be found from

d
{ A( u )}
T = du
d
{ A( u )}
du

In simpler notation, this becomes:

If r = axi + a y j + az k then the unit tangent vector T is given by

dr / du
T =
dr / du

Example 1 Determine the unit tangent at the point (2,4,7) for the curve with parametric
equations x = 2u; y =u 2 + 3; z = 2u 2 + 5

First we see that the point (2,4,7) corresponds to u = 1

The vector equation of the curve is

( ) ( )
r = a x i + a y j + a z k = 2ui + u 2 + 3 j + 2u 2 + 5 k

dr
∴ =.......... .
du
_______________________________________________________________________
_

22
 dr
= 2i + 2uj + 4uk
du
dr
And at u =1, = 2i + 2 j + 4k
du

dr
Hence du = T = 
_______________________________________________________________________
_

dr 1
=2 6 ; T= { i + j + 2k }
du 6

dr
For du = {4 + 4 +16 } = 24 = 2 6
12 12

dr
2i + 2 j + 4k 1
T= du = = { i + j + 2k }
dr 2 6 6
du

Let us do another.

Example 2 Find the unit tangent vector at the point ( 2,0, π ) for the curve with parametric
equations x =2 sin 0; y =3 cos 0; z = 20.

We see that the point ( 2,0, π ) corresponds to 0 =π 2

Writing the curve in vect0r from r = 
_______________________________________________________________________
_

r =2 sin 0i +3 cos 0 j +20k

Then, at dr
0 =π 2, =.......... ...
d0

dr
=
d0

T =  Finish it off

23
 dr dr
= −3 j + 2k ; = 13
d0 d0
1
T = ( − 3 j + 2k )
13
And now

Example 3 Determine the unit tangent vector for the curve

x = 3t ; y = 2t 2 ; z = t 2 + t

At the point ( 6,8,6)

On your own. T =.......... .......
_______________________________________________________________________
_

1
T= ( 3i + 8 j + 5k )
98

The point ( 6,8,6) corresponds to t = 2

r = 3ti + 2t 2 j + (t 2 + t )k
dr
∴ = 3i + 4tj + ( 2t +1)k
dt

At t = 2, r = 6i + 8 j + 6k and dr = 3i + 8 j + 5k
dt

dr
= ( 9 + 64 + 25 ) = 98
12
∴
dt

dr dt 1
∴T = = ( 3i + 8 j + 5k )
dr dt 98
_______________________________________________________________________
_

Partial Differentiation Of Vectors

If a vector F is a function of two independent variables u and v , then the rules of

differentition follow the usual pattern.

24
 If F = xi + yj + zk then x,y,z will also be function of u and v
∂F ∂x ∂y ∂z
Then = i+ j+ k
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u

∂F ∂x ∂y ∂z
= i+ j+ k
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v

∂2 F ∂2 x ∂2 y ∂2 z
= 2i+ 2 j+ 2k
∂u 2 ∂u ∂u ∂u

∂ 2 F ∂2 x ∂2 y ∂2 z
= i + j + k
∂v 2 ∂v 2 ∂v 2 ∂v 2

∂2 F ∂2 x ∂2 y ∂2 z
= i+ j+ k
∂u∂v ∂u∂v ∂u∂v ∂u∂v

And for small finite changes du and dv in u and v , we have

∂F ∂F
dF = ∂u + ∂v
∂u ∂v

Example If F = 2uvi + (u 2 − 2v ) j + (u + v 2 )k

∂F ∂F ∂2 F ∂2 F
=  ; =  ; 2 =  ; = 
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u∂v

∂F ∂F
= 2vi + 2uj + k ; = 2ui − 2 j + 2vk
∂u ∂v

∂2 F ∂2 F
= 2 j ; = 2i
∂u 2 ∂u∂v

This is straightforward enough.

Intergration of vector functions

The process is the reverse of that for differentiation. If a vector F = xi + yj + zk where

F , x, y , z are expressed as functions of u , then

25
 b b b b
∫ Fdu
a
= i ∫ xdu + j ∫ ydu + k ∫ zdu
a a a

Example 1 if F = (3t 2 + 4t )i + ( 2t − 5) j + 4t 3k , then

∫ Fdt = i ∫ (3t + 4t )dt + j ∫ ( 2t −5)dt + k ∫ 4t 3dt
3 3 3 3
2
1 1 1 1
= 

42 i − 2 j + 80 k

[
Fdt = i (t 3 + 2t 2 ) + j (t 2 −5t ) + kt 4 ]
3 3
For ∫1 1

= ( 45 i − 6 j + 81 k ) − ( 3i − 4 j + k ) = 42 i − 2 j + 80 k
Here is slightly different one.

Example 2 If F = 3ui + u 2 j + ( u + 2) k

And V = 2ui − 3uj + ( u − 2 ) k

∫ ( F ×V )du
2
Evaluate 0

First we must determine F ×V in terms of u

F ×V = 

F ×V = (u 3 + u 2 + 6u )i − (u 2 − 10u ) j − ( 2u 3 + 9u 2 )k

i j k
For F ×V = 3u u 2
(u + 2)
2u −3u (u − 2)

Which gives the results above.

∫ ( F ×V )du
2
Then =.......... .......
0

4
{14 i +13 j − 24 k }
3

u 4
u3   u3   u4 
∫ ( F ×V )du =   4
+
3
+ 3u 2 i −  − 5u 2  j − 
 3   2
+ 3u 3 k


26
  8  8 
∴∫ ( F ×V )du =  4 + + 12 i −  − 20  j − ( 8 + 24 ) k
2

0
 3   3 

4
= {14 i +13 j − 24 k }
3

Example 3 If F = A × ( B × C ) where
A = 3t 2i + ( 2t − 3) j + 4tk
B = 2i + 4tj + 3(1 − t ) k
C = 2ti −3t 2 j − 2tk

1
Determine ∫ Fdt
0

First we need to find A ×( B ×C ).

The simplest way to do this is to use the relationship
A × ( B × C ) = 

A ×( B ×C ) − ( A.C ) B − ( A.B )C

So A.C = 
And A.B = 

A.C = 6t 3 −6t 3 +9t 2 −8t 2 = t 2

A.B = 6t 2 +8t 2 −12 t +12 t −12 t 2 = 2t 2

Then F = A × ( B × C ) = t 2 { 2i + 4tj + 3(1 − t ) k } − 2t 2 {2ti − 3t 2 j − 2tk }

1
∴∫ Fdt =
0

Finish off the simplification and complete the intergration

1
{− 20 i +132 j + 75 k }
60

For F = A × B × C = ( 2t 2 − 4t 3 )i + ( 4t 3 + 6t 4 ) j + (3t 2 + t 3 )k
Intergration with respect to t then gives the result stated above.

27
Scalar and vector fields

If every points P( x, y, z ) of a region R of space has associated with it a scalar

quantity o/( x, y, z ) then o/( x, y, z ) is a scalar function and a scalar field is said to exist
in the region R

Examples of scalar fields are temperature, potential, etc.

Similarly, if every point P( x, y, z ) of a region has associated with it a vector quantity

F ( x, y , z ) , then F ( x, y , z ) is avector function and a vector field is said to exist
in the region R

Examples of vector fields are force, velocity,acceleration, etc. F ( x, y , z ) can be defined

in terms of its components parallel to the coordinate axes, OX , OY , OZ . That is,
F ( x, y , z ) = Fxi + Fy j + Fz k

Grad (gradient of a scalar function)

If a scalar function o/( x, y, z ) is continuosly differentiable with respect to its variables

x,y,z throughout the region, then the gradient of o / written grad o / , is defined as the
vector

28
 ∂o
/ ∂o
/ ∂o
/
/=
grad o i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z

Note that, while o

/ is a scalar function, grad o
/ is a vector function. For example, if o
/
depends upon the position of P and is defined by o/ = 2 x 2 yz 3 , then

/ = 4 xyz i +2 x z j +6 x yz k
3 2 3 2 2
grad o

Notation The expression (12) above can be written

 ∂ ∂ ∂
/ = i
grad o +j +k o
/
 ∂x ∂y ∂z

 ∂ ∂ ∂
Where   is called a vector differential operator and is denoted by
i ∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z 
 
the symbol ∇ (pronounced ‘del’or sometimes ‘nabla’)

 ∂ ∂ ∂
i.e. ∇=
i ∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z 
o/
 

Beware! ∇cannot exist alone:it is an operator and must operate on a stated scalar
function o/( x, y, z )
If F is a vector function, ∇F has no meaning.

So we have:
 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇o / =
/ = grad o i ∂x + j ∂y +k ∂z /
o
 
∂o
/ ∂o
/ ∂o
/
=i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z

/ at the point P (1,3,2 )

Example 1 If o/ = x 2 yz 3 + xy 2 z 2 , determine grad o
/ ∂o
/ ∂o
/ ∂o
By the definiton, grad o/ = ∇o/ = ∂y i + ∂y j + ∂z k .
All we have to do then is to find the partial derivatives at x =1, y = 3, z = 2 and insert
their values.
∴∇/ =..........
o

4( 2li + 8 j +18 k )

∂o
Since o/ = x 2 yz 3 + xy 2 z 2 ∴ / = 2 xyz 3 + y 2 z 2
∂x
∂o/ ∂o/
= x 2 z 3 + 2xyz 2
= 3x 2 yz 2 + 2 xy 2 z
∂y ∂z

29
 ∂o/ ∂o
Then at (1,3,2 ) = 48 + 36 ∴ / = 84
∂x ∂x
∂o
∴ / = 32
∂o
/
= 8 + 24
∂y ∂y
∂o/ ∂o
= 36 + 36 ∴ / = 72
∂z ∂z

∴grad o/ =∇o/ =84 i +32 j +72 k = 4( 2li +8 j +18 k )

Example 2 if A = x 2 zi + xyj + y 2 zk
And B = yz 2i + xzj + x 2 zk

Determine an expression for grad ( A.B ).

This we can soon do since we know that A.B is a scalar function of x, y and z
First then, A.B =.......... .........

A.B = x 2 yz 3 + x 2 yz + x 2 y 2 z 2

Then ∇( A.B ) =

2 xyz ( z 2 +1 + yz )i + x 2 z ( z 2 +1 + 2 yz ) j + x 2 y (3z 2 +1 + 2 yz )k

For if o/ = A.B = ( x 2 zi + xyj + y 2 zk ).( yz 2i + xzj + x 2 zk )

o/ = A.B = x 2 yz 3 + x 2 yz + x 2 y 2 z 2
∂o/
∂x
(
= 2 xyz 3 + 2 xyz + 2 xy 2 z 2 = 2 xyz z 2 +1 + 2 yz )
∂o/
∂y
(
= x 2 z 3 + x 2 z + 2 x 2 yz 2 = x 2 z z 2 +1 + 2 yz )
∂o/
∂z
(
= 3 x 2 yz 2 + x 2 y + 2 x 2 y 2 z = x 2 y 3 z 2 +1 + 2 yz )

( ) ( ) (
∴∇( A.B ) = 2 xyz z 2 +1 + yz i + x 2 z z 2 +1 + 2 yz j + x 2 y 3 z 2 +1 + 2 yz k )
Now let us obtain another useful relationship.

If OP is a position vector r where

r = xi + yj + zk and is a small displacement
corresponding to changes dx , dy , dz in x, y , z
respectively, then
dr = dxi + dyj + dzk

30
If o/( x, y , z ) is a scalar function at P , we know
∂o
/ ∂o
/ ∂o
/
/ =∇o
grad o /= i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z

Then / dr =
grad o.

∂o
/ ∂x + ∂o
/ ∂y + ∂o
/ ∂z
/.dr =
grad o
∂x ∂y ∂z

 ∂o/ ∂o ∂o 
/ j + / k .( dxi + dyj + dzk )
For grad o/.dr =  i +
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  
∂o ∂o ∂o
= / dx + / ∂y + / ∂z
∂x ∂y ∂z
= the total different d o/ /
of o

∴ /=
do dr . grad o
/

Directional derivatives

We have just that

If ds is the small element of are between

P ( r ) and Q ( r + dr ) then ds = dr

dr dr
=
ds dr
dr
and is thus a unit vector in the direction
ds
of dr .
If we denote this unti vector by â, i.e
dr
= â, the result becomes
ds

do/ =a
ˆ.grad o
/
ds

do/
/ on the unit vector â and is called the directional
is thus the projection of grad o
ds
derivative of o
/ in the direction of â . It gives the rate of change of o
/ with distance
do/
measured in the direction of â and =a ˆ.grad o / be a maximum when â and
ds
/ have the same direction of ,since then
grad o

31
 aˆ.grado/ = aˆ grado/ cos0 and 0 will be zero
/ gives the direction in which the maximum rate of changes
Thus the direction of grad o
of / occurs
o

Example 1 Find the directional derivative of the function o/ = x 2 z + 2 xy 2 + yz 2 at the

point (1,2,−1) in the direction of the vector A = 2i + 3 j − 4k .

We start off with o/ = x 2 z + 2 xy 2 + yz 2

∴∇/ =..........
o .

∇o/ = ( 2 xz + 2 y 2 )i + ( 4 xy + z 2 ) j + ( x 2 + 2 yz )k

∂o/ ∂o
/ = 4 xy + z 2 ; ∂o/
Since = 2 xz + 2 y 2 ; = x 2 + 2 yz
∂x ∂y ∂z

Then at (1,2,−1)
∇o / = ( − 2 +8)i + (8 +1) j + (1 − 4 )k = 6i +9 j −3k

Next we have to find the unit vector â where A = 2i + 3 j − 4k

aˆ = .......... ....

1
aˆ = ( 2i + 3 j − 4k )
29

For A = 2i + 3 j − 4k ∴A = 4 +9 +16 = 29

A 1
aˆ = = ( 2i + 3 j − 4k )
A 29

1
So we have ∇o/ = 6i + 9 j − 3k and aˆ = ( 2i + 3 j − 4k )
29
do/
∴ = aˆ.∇o
/ =.......... ..
ds

do/ 51
= = 9.47
ds 29

do/ 1
Since = aˆ.∇o/ = ( 2i + 3 j − 4k ).( 6i + 9 j − 3k ) )
ds 29

1
= (12 + 27 +12 ) = 51 = 9.47
29 29

32
That is all there is to it
(i) from the given scalar function o/ , determine ∇ /
o
(ii)Find the unit vector â in the direction of the given vector A
/ = aˆ.∇o
do
(iii) Then /
ds

Example 2 Find the directional derivative of o/ = x 2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x at the point (1,−1,2 )

in the direction of the vector A = 4i + 2 j − 5k . Same as before.Work through it and check
the result with the next frame.

do/ − 23
= = −3.43
ds 3 5

For o/ = x 2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x
( ) ( ) (
∴∇o/ = 2 xy + z 2 i + x 2 + 2 yz j + y 2 + 2 zx k )
∴ at (1−, 1,2) , ∇o/ = 2i − 3 j + 5k
A = 4i + 2 j − 5k ∴A = 16 +4 +25 = 45 =3 5
1
∴aˆ = ( 4i + 2 j − 5k )
3 5

do/ 1
∴ = aˆ.∇o/ = ( 4i + 2 j − 5k ).( 2i − 3 j + 5k )
ds 3 5
=
1
( 8 − 6 − 25 ) = − 23 = − 3.43
3 5 3 5

Example 3. Find the direction from the point 1,1,0 which gives the greatest rate of
increase rate of increase of the function o/ = ( x + 3 y ) 2 + ( 2 y − z ) 2

/
This appears to be different, but it rests on the fact that the greatest rate of increase of o
with respect to distance is in…..

The direction of
∇ /
o
All we need then is to find the vector ∇/ , which is
o

∇o/ = 4( 2i + 8 j − k )

For o/ = ( x + 3 y ) 2 + ( 2 y − z ) 2
∂o ∂o/ ∂o/
∴ / = 2( x + 3 y ); = 6( x + 3 y ) + 4( 2 y − z ); = −2( 2 y − z )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂o/ ∂o/ =32 ; ∂o /
∴At (1,1,0), ∂x
=8;
∂y ∂z
= −4
∴∇o/ = 8i + 32 j − 4k = 4( 2i + 8 j − k )

33
Unit normal vectors
If o/( x, y, z ) = constant, this relationship represents a surface in space, depending on
the value ascribed to the constant.

If dr is a placement in this surface, then do/ = 0 since o

/ is constant over the surface.
Therefore our previous relationship d r . grad /
o =d o/
/ =0
dr .grad o

For all such displacements dr in the surface.But d r.g rado/ = dr g ra do/ co s0 = 0

π
∴0 = / is perpendicular to dr , i.e. grad o
∴grad o / is a vector perpendicular to
2
the surface at P , in the direction of maximum rate of change of o
/ . The magnitude of
that maximum rate of change is given by grado/
The unit vector N in the direction of grad o
/ is called the unit normal vector at
P.

∴unit normal vector

∇/
o
N =
∇/
o
Example 1 Find the unit normal vector to the surface
x 3 y + 4 xz 2 + xy 2 z at the point (1,3,−1)
Vector normal =∇o/ =.......... .

( ) ( ) (
∇o/ = 3 x 2 y + 4 z 2 + y 2 z i + x 3 + 2 xyz j + 8 xz + xy 2 )
Then, at (1,3,−1) ∇o/ = 4i − 5 j + k
And the unit normal at (1,3,−1) is

1
( 4i − 5 j + k )
42
Since ∇o
/ = 16 +25 +1 = 42
/ ∇o 1
And N = ∇o/ = 42 ( 4i − 5 j + k )

34
One more
Example 2 Determine the unit normal to the surface
xyz + x 2 y − 5 yz − 5 = 0 at the point ( 3,1,2 )
All very straightforward. Complete it.

1
Unit normal = N = ( 8i + 5 j − 2k )
93

For o/ = xyz + x 2 y − 5 yz − 5
( )
∴∇o/ = ( yz + 2 xy )i + xz + x 2 − 5 z j + ( xy − 5 y ) k
At (3,1,2), ∇o/ =8i +5 j −2k ; ∇o/ = 64 +25 +4 = 93
∇o 1
∴unit normal = N = ∇o// =
93
(8i + 5 j − 2k )
Collecting our results so far, we have, for o/( x, y , z ) a scalar function
∂o
/ / ∂o / ∂o
(a) grad o/ = ∇o/ = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k

/ / ∂o
/ ∂o ∂o
/ =dr .grad o
(b) do /=
/ where do ∂x + ∂y + ∂z
∂x ∂y ∂z

do/
(c) directional derivative =a
ˆ.grad o
/
ds
/ ∇o
(d)unit normal vector N = ∇o/

Grad of sums and products of scalars

(a) ∇( A + B ) = i  ∂  ∂  ∂ 
 ( A + B) + j  ( A + B) + k  + ( A + B )
∂x  ∂y  ∂z 
∂A ∂A ∂A  ∂B ∂B ∂B 
= i + j+ k + i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∴∇( A + B ) =∇A +∇B

(b) ∇( AB ) = i  ∂  ∂  ∂ 
 ( AB )  + j  ( AB )  + k  ( AB ) 
∂x  ∂y  ∂z 

 ∂B ∂A   ∂B ∂A   ∂B ∂A 
= i A +B  + j A +B  + k A +B 
 ∂x ∂x   ∂y ∂y   ∂z ∂z 
 ∂B ∂B ∂B   ∂A ∂A ∂A 
= A i +A j +A k  + B i +B j +B k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂B ∂B ∂B  ∂A ∂A ∂A 
= A i+ j+ k + B i + j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z 

35
 ∴∇( AB ) = A(∇B ) +B (∇A)

Remember that in these results A and B are scalars. The operator ∇acting on a vector

Has no meaning

Example 1 If A = x 2 yz + xz 2 and B = xy 2 z − z 3 evaluate ∇( AB ) at the point

( 2,1,3)
We know that ∇( AB ) = A(∇B ) + B( ∇A)
At ( 2,1,3), ∇ B =.......... ..; ∇A =.......... ....;

∇B = 3i +12 j −25 k ; ∇A = 21 i +12 j +16 k

∂B ∂B ∂B
∇B =
∂x
i+
∂y
j+
∂z
(
k = y 2 zi + 2 xyzj + xy 2 − 3 z 2 k )
=3i +12 j −25 k at ( 2,1,3)

Now ∇( AB ) = A(∇B ) + B (∇A) =.......... ...

∇( AB ) = 3( −117 i + 36 j − 362 k )

∇( AB ) = A(∇B ) + B ( ∇A)
A = x yz + xz
2 2
∴at ( 2,1,3), A = 12 + 18 = 30
B = xy z − z 3
2
∴at ( 2,1,3), B = 6 − 27 = −21
∴∇( AB ) = 30 ( 3i + 12 j − 25 k − 21( 21i +12 j + 16 k ) )
= −351 i +108 j −1086 k =3( −117 i +36 j −362 k )

So add these to the list of results.

∇( A + B ) = ∇A +∇B
∇( AB ) = A∇B + B( ∇A)

Where A and are B scalars

Div (divergence of a vector function)

The operator ∇. (notice the ‘dot’; it makes all the difference) can be applied to a vector
function A( x, y, z ) to give the divergence of A, written in short as div A

If A = axi + a y j + az k

36
  ∂ ∂ ∂
A = ∇. A =  .(a xi + a y j + a z k )
i ∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z 
 
Div
∂a x ∂a ∂a
∴divA = ∇. A = + y + z
∂x ∂y ∂z

Note that
(a) The grad operator ∇acts on a scalar and gives a vector
(b) The div operation ∇. acts on a vector and gives a scalar

Example 1 If A = x 2 yi − xyzj + yz 2 k then

divA = ∇. A = .......... ...

divA = ∇. A = 2 xy − xz + 2 yz

We simply take the appropraite partial derivatives of the coefficients of i,j and k. It
couldhardly be easier.

Example 2 If A = 2 x 2 yi − 2( xy 2 + y 3 z ) j + 3 y 2 z 2 k determine ∇. A i.e. div A.

Complete it. ∇A
. =.......... .....

∇A
. =0

For ( )
A = 2 x 2 yi − 2 xy 2 + y 3 z j + 3 y 2 z 2 k
∂a x ∂a y ∂a z
∇. A = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
( )
= 4 xy − 2 2 xy + 3 y 2 z + 6 y 2 z
= 4 xy − 4 xy − 6 y z + 6 y 2 z = 0
2

Such a vector A for which ∇A . = 0 at all points, i.e for all values of x, y , z is called a
solenoid vector. It is rather a special case.

Curl (curl of a vector function)

The curl operator denoted by ∇x ,acts on a vector and gives another vector as a result.

If A = axi + a y j + az k then curl A = ∇ × A

 ∂ ∂ ∂
i.e. curl A = ∇× A = 
i +j +k  ×( axi + a y j + az k )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
ax ay az

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  ∂a z ∂a y   ∂a x ∂a z   ∂a y ∂a x 
∴∇× A = i
 ∂y − ∂z 
 + j  ∂z − ∂x  + k 
 ∂x − ∂y 

     

Curl A is thus a vector function. It is best remembered in its determinant form, so make a
note of it.
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_

Example 1 If A = ( y 4 − x 2 z 2 )i + ( x 2 + y 2 ) j − x 2 yzk , determine curl A at then point

(1,3,−2 ).
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
Curl A = ∇× A =
∂x ∂y ∂z
y 4 − x2 z 2 x2 + y2 − x 2 yz

Now we expand the determinant

∂ ∂ 2  ∂ ∂ 4
∇× A = i  (
− x 2 yz − ) (
x + y2 − j )
− x 2 yz − ( 
y − x2 z 2  ) ( )
∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂z 

All that now remains is to obtain the partial derivatives and substitute the values of
x, y , z

∴∇× A =.......... ........

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_

2i − 8 j −106 k

{ } { } {
∇ × A = i − x 2 z − j − 2 xyz + 2 x 2 z + k 2 x − 4 y 3 }
∴At (1,3,−2), ∇× A = i ( 2 ) − j{12 − 4} + k ( 2 −108 )
=2i −8 j −106 k

Example 2 Determine curl F at the point ( 2,0,3) given that

F = ze 2 xy i + 2 xz cos yj + ( x + 2 y ) k .

In determinant form, curl F = ∇× F = .......... ...

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_

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 i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
ze 2 xy 2 xz cos y x +2 y

Now expand the determinant and substitutethe values of x,y, and z, finally obtaining curl
F =.......... .......... ...
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_

Curl F = ∇× F = −2( i + 3k )

{ } {
∇ × F = i{ 2 − 2 x cos y} − j 1 − e 2 xy + k 2 z cos y − 2 xze 2 xy }
∴at ( 2,0,3) ∇× F = i ( 2 − 4 ) − j (1 −1) + k ( 6 −12 )
= −2i − 6k = −2( i + 3k )

Every one is done in the same way.

Summary of grad, div and curl

(a) Grad operator ∇acts on a scalar field to give a vector field
(b) Div operator ∇. acts on a vector field to give a scalar field
(c) Curl operator ∇× acts on a vector fields to give a vector field.
(d) With a scalar function o/( x, y, z )
/ ∂o/ ∂o
/ ∂o
grad o/ = ∇o/ = ∂x i + dy j + ∂z k

(e) With a vector function A = axi + a y j + az k

∂a x ∂a y ∂a z
(i) div A = ∇. A = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
(ii) curl A = ∇× A =
∂x ∂y ∂z
ax ay az
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_

By way of revision, here is one further example.

Example 3 If o/ = x 2 y 2 + x 3 yz − yz 2
And F = xy 2i − 2 yzj + xyzk

39
Determine for the point P (1,−1,2 )
(a) ∇ /,
o
(b)unit normal,
(c) ∇ .F
(d) ∇×F .
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_

Here is the working full. o/ = x 2 y 2 + x 3 yz − yz 2

/∂o / ∂o / ∂o
(a) ∇o/ = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k
( ) ( ) ( )
= 2 xy 2 + 3 x 2 yz i + 2 x 2 y + x 3 z − z 2 j + x 3 y − 2 yz k
∴at (1,−1,2) ∇o/ = −4i − 4 j + 3k

∇o/
(b) N = ∇o
/ = 16 +16 +9 = 41
∇o/

−1
∴N = ( 4i + 4 j − 3k )
41

∂a x ∂a ∂a
(c) F = xy 2i − 2 yzj + xyzk ∇.F = + y + z
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴∇.F = y 2 −2 z + xy
∴at (1,−1,2 ) ∇.F = 1 − 4 −1 = −4 ∴∇.F = −4

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
(d) ∇× F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
xy 2 − 2 yz xyz
∴∇× F = i ( xz + 2 y ) − j ( yz − 0) + k ( 0 − 2 xy )
= ( xz + 2 y )i − yzj − 2 xyk

∴at (1,−1,2 ), ∇× F = 2 j + 2k ∴∇×F =2( j +k )

Now let us combine some of these operations.

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_

Multiple operations

We can combine the operators grad, div and curl in multiple operations, as in the
examples that follow.

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Example 1 If A = x 2 yi + yz 3 j − zx 3k

∂ ∂ ∂  2
Then div A = ∇. A = 
 i+ j+
∂z 
(
k . x yi + yz 3 j − zx 3k )
 ∂x ∂y 
= 2 xy + z + x = o/ say
3 3

Then grad (div A) =∇(∇. A) = ∂o/ i + ∂o/ j + ∂o/ k

∂x ∂y ∂z
= ( 2 y + 3 x )i + ( 2 x ) j + (3 z )k
2 2

( )
i.e. grad div A = ∇( ∇. A) = 2 y + 3 x 2 i + 2 xj + 3 z 2 k
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_

/ at the point ( 2,4,1)

Example 2 If o/ = xyz − 2 y 2 z + x 2 z 2 determine div grad o

First find grad o

/ and then the div of the result.
At ( 2,4,1) div grad o/ =∇.(∇o/ ) =.......... .........
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_

div grad o/ = 6

We have o/ − xyz − 2 y 2 z + x 2 z 2
∂o/ ∂o
/ ∂o
/
Grad / = ∇o/ =
o i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= ( yz + 2 xz 2 )i + ( xz − 4 yz ) j + ( xy − 2 y 2 + 2 x 2 z )k

∴div grad ∇.( ∇o/ ) = 2 z 2

− 4z + 2x2

∴at ( 2,4,1), div grad o/ = ∇.( ∇o/ ) = 2 − 4 + 8 = 6

Example 3 If F = x 2 yzi + xyz 2 j + y 2 zk determine curl curl F at the point (2,1,1).

Determine an expression for curl F in the usual way, which will be a vector, and then the
curl of the result. Finally substitute values

Curl curl F =.......... .......... .

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_

Curl curl F = ∇× ( ∇× F ) = i + 2 j + 6k

41
 i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
For curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
x 2 yz xyz 2 y2z
(
= ( 2 yz − 2 xyz )i + x 2 yj + yz 2 − x 2 z k)

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
Then curl curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 yz − 2 xyz x2 y yz 2 − x 2 z

= z 2i − ( − 2 xz − 2 y + 2 xy ) j + ( 2 xy − 2 z + 2 xz ) k

∴at (2,1,1), curl curl F = ∇×( ∇× F ) = i + 2 j + 6k

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_

Remember that grad, div and curl are operators and that they must act on a scalar or
vector as appropriate. They cannot exist alone and must be followed by a function.
One or two interesting general results appear.

(a) curl grad o

/ where o
/ is a scalar

∂o
/ /∂o / ∂o
grad o/ = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∴curl grad /=
o
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂o
/ ∂o/ ∂o
/
∂x ∂y ∂z

 ∂2 o / − j  ∂ o
∂2 o 2
/ − ∂o
2
/ + k  ∂ o
2
/ − ∂o
2
/ =0
=i / −     
∂y∂ z ∂z∂ y  ∂z∂ x ∂x∂ z  ∂x∂ y ∂y∂ x
∴curl grad / =∇×(∇o
o / ) =0

(b)Div curl A where A is a vector. A = a xi + a y j + az k

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl A = ∇× A =
∂x ∂y ∂z
ax ay az

42
  ∂a ∂a   ∂a ∂a   ∂a ∂a 
= i z − y  − j  z − x  + k  y − x 
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂y 

 ∂ ∂ ∂
Then div curl A = ∇.( ∇× A) = 
i +j +k .( ∇× A)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∂2 a z ∂2 a y ∂2 a z ∂2 a x ∂2 a y ∂2 a x
= − − + + − =0
∂x∂y ∂z∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂z ∂z∂x ∂y∂z

∴ div curl A =∇.(∇×A) =0

/ where o
(c) Div grad o / is a scalar

/ ∂o / ∂o / ∂o
grad o/ = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k

Then div grad o/ =∇.(∇o/ )

 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂o/ ∂o
/ ∂o/ 
=
i ∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z 
.
 ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k 

  
∂2o/ ∂2 o/ ∂2o/
= + + 2
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z

∂2o/ ∂2o/ ∂2o/

∴div grad o/ = ∇.( ∇o/ ) = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
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_

This result is sometimes denoted by ∇2o

/

So these general results are

(a) curl grad o/ = ∇×( ∇o/ ) = 0
(b) div curl A = ∇.( ∇× A) = 0
∂2o/ ∂2o/ ∂2o/
(c )div grad o/ = ∇.( ∇o/ ) = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

43
That brings us to the end of this particular programme. We have covered quite a lot of
new material, so check carefully through the Revision Summary that follows; then you
can deal with the test exercise.

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