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Chapter 1 Topics for Today Computer Startup

ì Computer System Organization ì A bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
ì Interrupts ì Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as
firmware
ì I/O Structure
ì Initializes all aspects of the system
ì Storage Structure
ì Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
ì Types of Computer Systems:
ì Mainframe Systems
ì Desktop Systems
ì Multiprocessor (or Parallel) Systems
ì Distributed Systems
ì Real-time Systems
ì Handheld Systems

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Computer System Organization Interrupts

ì Computer-system operation ì We want the I/O devices and the CPU to be able to
ì One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through a execute concurrently
common bus providing access to shared memory ì The CPU shouldn’t have to wait for the MUCH slower I/O
device
ì The I/O device signals an interrupt when it is ready
ì When an interrupt occurs, the operating system must:
ì

ì
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Interrupts: Controllers vs. Handlers Processing an Interrupt

ì A device controller (hardware / firmware) is 1. User program has control

responsible for moving data between the media and 2. I/O interrupt occurs
its own local registers
ì
ì An interrupt handler (software) is responsible for
moving data between the controller registers and
3. User program no longer processed by the CPU
memory (so it can be accessed by the user program)
ì
ì

4. Control transferred to interrupt handler

ì

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Processing an Interrupt I/O Structure

5. Data transferred from controller to memory or from ì The CPU and device controllers operate in parallel.
memory to controller depending on whether input or ì Two types of I/O operations:
output operation
ì synchronous: user program waits until I/O operation
6. CPU registers restored completes
7. Control returned to user program ì asynchronous: user program allowed to continue while I/O
operation is in progress
ì
ì Asynchronicity is essential for multiprogramming
ì
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I/O Structure – I/O Structure –

Device Status Table Direct Memory Access (DMA)
ì A device status table keeps track of which devices are ì Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit
busy, what they are doing for which program, and information at close to memory speeds.
which programs are waiting for access to devices.
ì Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention.
ì

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Storage Structure –
Storage Structure
Magnetic Disks
ì Typical (von Neumann) instruction-execution cycle ì Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered
ì instruction loaded from main memory into CPU with magnetic recording material
ì Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can ì Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
access directly subdivided into sectors.
ì instruction decoded ì The disk controller determines the logical interaction
between the device and the computer.
ì

ì instruction executed, repeat

ì Secondary storage – extension of main memory that

provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.
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Storage Structure – Storage Structure –

Magnetic Disk Architecture Solid-State Drives
ì Solid-State Drives use NAND Flash
technology
ì Bits stored as charges in cells
made of transistors
ì SLC, MLC, and TLC
drives differ in how many
bits are stored per cell
ì Organization:
8 channels, 4 dies per
channel

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Storage Structure - Caching Storage Hierarchy

ì Caching is the use of a smaller, but faster, memory
system to speed up a bigger, but slower, memory system
ì The cache holds the data most recently accessed by the CPU
ì

ì Cache management is an important design problem. A

well chosen cache size and replacement policy can
result in 80+% of all accesses being in the cache.
ì Problem:
ì
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How a Modern Computer Works Mainframe Systems

ì Mainframes are large, powerful computers designed

to handle large numbers of users and jobs
ì The first operating systems appeared in mainframes
ì Similar jobs batched together to reduce
set-up time
ì

ì The OS (called a monitor) transfers

control to the job, when the job is done
control is returned to the OS

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Mainframe Systems Mainframe Systems

The next step up is the Multiprogrammed Batch System Some of the OS features needed for Multiprogramming:
ì Several jobs are kept in main ì I/O routine supplied by the system
memory at the same time, and the ì Memory management
CPU is multiplexed among them
ì

ì ì CPU scheduling
ì

ì Allocation of devices (storage devices, etc.)

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Desktop Systems Multiprocessor Systems

ì Personal computers – computer system dedicated to a ì Multiprocessor systems are systems with more than
single user one CPU in close communication.
ì I/O devices – keyboards, mice, monitors, printers ì E.g. multi-core CPUs

ì User convenience and responsiveness ì This is a tightly coupled system –

ì Can adopt technology developed for larger operating
systems
ì Advantages of parallel system:
ì
ì Increased throughput

ì May run several different types of operating systems ì Economical

(Windows, Mac OS/X, UNIX, Linux) ì Increased reliability

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Types of Multiprocessor Systems Symmetric & Multi-core Processors

ì Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) Symmetric Multiprocessor:

ì Many processes can run at once without performance

deterioration
ì Most modern Oses support SMP
Dual-core processor
ì Asymmetric multiprocessing
ì Each processor is assigned a specific task
ì
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Distributed Systems Real-Time Systems

ì Another idea is to distribute the computation among ì A real-time system is one where there are well-defined
several physical processors fixed-time constraints
ì This is a loosely coupled system – ì I.e. things need to happen in a reasonable amount of time
and in the correct order
ì Each processor has its own local memory

ì Some examples:
ì

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Handheld Systems OS Feature Migration

Some examples: Operating system features tend to migrate over time
from older systems to newer systems.
ì Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
ì Smartphones
Some of the issues when designing handheld systems:
ì