Electro Magnetic Interference & Compatibility

Name: Riya Biju Thomas Date: 23.04.2020

Class: EXTC D19B Roll No. : 67

1. Define the terms EMI and EMC. Why is EMC a vital problem? What are the criteria to be
satisfied by any system to become electromagnetically compatible?

EMI: Electromagnetic interference is the degradation in the performance of a device, or

equipment, or a system caused by an electromagnetic disturbance.

EMC: The ability of a receptor (a device, or equipment, or a system) to function

satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without at the same time introducing
intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to any other device/equipment/system in that
environment is called electromagnetic compatibility (EMC).

EMC is a vital problem because electromagnetic emissions cause interference in electrical

and electronic devices. An electronic system that is able to function compatibly with other
electronic systems and not produce or be susceptible to interference is said to be
electromagnetically compatible with its environment. For example, a strong transmission
from an FM radio station or TV station may be picked up by a digital computer, causing the
computer to interpret it as data or a control signal resulting in incorrect function of the
computer. It has serious forms also like when someone was talking over early versions of
mobile telephones, it had interfered with pacemakers of patients. Also, lightning strikes to
airplane while landing or while taking off were experienced. The branch of EMC owes a
great deal to the need for protection of airplane from lightning strikes.

A system is electromagnetically compatible with its environment if it satisfies three criteria:

1. It does not cause interference with other systems.
2. It is not susceptible to emissions from other systems.
3. It does not cause interference with itself.

2. Explain the different sources of EMI in detail. Give examples.

The sources of electromagnetic interference are both natural and human-made. Natural
sources include sun and stars, as well as phenomena such as atmospherics, lightning,
thunderstorms, and electrostatic discharge. On the other hand, electromagnetic interference
is also generated during the practical use of a variety of electrical, electronic, and
electromechanical apparatus. This interference, which is generated by various equipment
 and appliances, is human-made.

3. Explain the various mechanisms in which electromagnetic interference can travel from its
source to the receptor.

The various mechanisms are as follows:

[1] direct radiation from source to receptor (path 1)
[2] direct radiation from source picked up by the electrical power cables or the
signal/control cables connected to the receptor, which reaches the receptor via
conduction (path 2)
[3] electromagnetic interference radiated by the electrical power, signal, or control
cables of the source (path 3)
[4] electromagnetic interference directly conducted from its source to the receptor via
common electrical power supply lines, or via common signal/control cables (path 4)
[5] the electromagnetic interference carried by various power/signal/control cables
connected to the source, which gets coupled to the power/signal/control cables of the
 receptor, especially when cable harnesses are bundled (such interference reaches the
receptor via conduction, even when common power/signal/control cables do not
exist)

Fig 1. Mechanisms of electromagnetic interferences

4. Explain ESD in detail. What are all the remedial procedures?

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a natural phenomenon in which accumulated static electric

charges are discharged. This discharge produces electromagnetic interference. Static
electricity is generated when two materials of different dielectric constants, for example
wool and glass, rub against each other. Charging of a material body may also result from
heating (loss of electrons), or through contact with a charged body. This static charge is
discharged to another object which has a lower resistance to the ground. The effects of such
a discharge, which results in electromagnetic interference, could vary from noise and
disturbances in audio or measuring instruments to unpleasant electrical shocks to the
equipment or person involved.

The remedies to prevent ESD are as follows:

[1] Keep all materials in antistatic bags until you are ready to install them.
[2] Make use of grounded mats on workbenches and work areas.
[3] Make use of antistatic wrist straps while working on computer because the wrist strap
provides grounding.
 [4] Don’t wear clothing made of silk, polyester or wool because these fabrics are more
likely to generate static charges.

5. Explain in detail the conducted, radiated and common impedance ground couplings with
examples.

Conduction Coupling
The conduction coupling between an emitter and a receptor occurs via a direct conduction
path between the emitter and receptor. Examples of such coupling are:

[1] Interferences can be carried by power supply lines when emitter and receptor operate
from the same power supply line. For example, common mains power supply is a
frequent source of conducted interference.
[2] Interferences are also carried from emitter to receptor by signal or control lines,
which are connected between the two.

Radiation Coupling
The radiation coupling between an emitter and a receptor results from a transfer of
electromagnetic energy through a radiation path. Various types of radiation coupling are:

[1] Coupling of natural and similar electromagnetic environment to the receptor, such as
a power line. The power transmission line here acts as a receiving antenna. A
receptor may also receive electromagnetic environmental noise or interference
through exposed connectors (or connections) and from exposed signal or other lines
in the equipment or circuit.
[2] Coupling of electromagnetic energy from nearby equipment via direct radiation.

Common Impedance Ground Coupling:

Common impedance coupling occurs when currents from two different circuits flow
through common impedance. The voltage drop across the impedance observed by each
circuit is influenced by the other circuit. This type of coupling usually occurs in the power
and/or ground system.

The example of this type of coupling is shown in Fig 2 below. The ground currents 1 and 2
both flow through the common ground impedance. As far as circuit 1 is concerned, its
ground potential is modulated by ground current 2 flowing in the common ground
impedance. Some noise, therefore, is coupled from circuit 2 to circuit 1, and vice versa,
through the common ground impedance.
 Fig 2. When two circuits share a common ground, the ground voltage of each one is
affected by the ground current of the other circuit.

6. What is EMI shielding? What is the need for shielding? Explain shielding theory and
effectiveness.

EMI shielding:
Electromagnetic shielding is the technique that reduces or prevents coupling of undesired
radiated electromagnetic energy into equipment, so to enable it to operate compatibly in its
electromagnetic environment. Electromagnetic shielding is effective in varying degrees over
a large part of the electromagnetic spectrum from DC to microwave frequencies. Shielding
problems are difficult to handle because perfect shielding integrity is not possible because
of the presence of intentional discontinuities in shielding walls such as shielding panel
joints, ventilation holes, visual access windows or switches.

Need for shielding:

The sources of electromagnetic interference (EMI) are many. These may be from individual
circuit design, engineering, or layout. Several techniques and technologies are available to
control EMI, and achieve electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). No one technique or
approach may result in a solution to all EMI problems. In many practical situations, more
than one approach is required to solve a single EMI problem. One of the approaches is
shielding.

Shielding Theory:
 There exists a wide difference between plane-wave shielding theory and practice. Practical
shielding performance depends on a number of parameters such as frequency, distance of
interference source from the shielding walls, polarization of the fields, discontinuities in a
shield, and so on. The regions located close to the radiating sources are most likely to have
high intensity fields, and the fields can have both longitudinal and transverse components.
Such fields may be predominantly E-field or H-field if most of the energy is stored in the
dominant component E or H, respectively. The two fields are related by the wave
impedance, which is defined by the ratio of tangential component of E-field and H-field:

Therefore, for predominantly E-field, the wave impedance is very large; and for
predominantly H-field, the wave impedance is very small.

Shielding Effectiveness:
The shielding effectiveness SE of these fields can be defined as the ratio of powers at the
receptor without the barrier and with barrier:

Where suffix 1 represents quantities at the receptor without shielding barrier, and suffix 2
represents quantities at the receptor with a shielding barrier between the emitter and
receptor. Expressions for the E-field and H-field shielding effectiveness assume that the
wave impedance is the same before and after the shield.
There are also multiple reflections between the interfaces of the shielding materials when
absorption loss is small. Total shielding effectiveness SE(dB) of a solid conducting barrier
can be expressed as the sum of the reflection loss α R(dB), absorption loss αA(dB) and
internal reflection losses, αIR(dB):

7. Explain various method of grounding with examples.

Grounding is a technique that provides a low-resistance path between electrical or electronic
equipment and the earth or common reference low-impedance plane to bypass fault current
or EMI signal. The EMC grounding techniques are not straightforward because the
equipment and system performance is a function of large number of variables, such as type
of system, system configuration, sizes, orientation, distances, frequencies, polarization of
fields, and so on. The signal ground network can be a single point ground, multipoint
ground, hybrid ground, or a floating ground.

Single-Point Grounding:
In single-point grounding scheme, each subsystem is grounded to separate ground planes
(structural grounds, signal grounds, shield grounds, AC primary, and secondary power
grounds). These individual ground planes from each subsystem are finally connected by the
shortest path to the system (Fig 3) ground point of reference potential.

Fig 3. Single point ground configuration

A single-point grounding scheme operates better at low frequencies where the physical
length of the interconnection is small compared to wavelength at the frequency of operation.
The single-point grounding scheme avoids problems of common-mode impedance coupling.
Problems in implementing the above single-point grounding scheme become significant
because of common-impedance coupling when,
[1] Interconnecting cables are used, especially ones having cable shields with sources
and receptors operating over a length of more than λ/20.
[2] Parasitic capacitance exists between subsystems, or equipment housings, or between
subsystems and the grounds of other subsystems.
Multipoint Grounding:
In multipoint grounding scheme, equipment is heavily bonded to a solid ground conducting
plane which is then earthed for safety purposes (Fig 4). Multipoint grounding behaves well
at high frequencies where the dimension of the grounding scheme is large compared to
wavelength at the frequency of operation. At high frequencies, there exist different
potentials at different points on the interconnecting systems which need to be grounded at
multiple points to zero reference potential. At high frequencies, the parasitic capacitive
reactance represents low-impedance paths, and the bond inductance of a subsystem- to-
ground point results in higher impedances. Thus, again common-mode currents may flow,
or unequal potentials may develop, among subsystems.

Fig 4. Multipoint ground configuration

Hybrid Grounding:
In a hybrid grounding scheme, the ground appears as a single-point ground at low
frequencies and a multipoint ground at high frequencies. Fig 5 shows such a scheme where
a video circuit, in which both the sensor and driver circuit chassis, must be grounded and
the coaxial cable shield needs to be grounded to the chassis at both ends. Here low-
frequency ground current loop is avoided by the capacitor at one ground. At high
frequencies, the capacitor produces low reactance and cable shield is grounded. Thus, this
circuit simultaneously behaves as a single-point ground at low frequencies and a multipoint
ground at high frequencies.
 Fig 5. Hybrid ground configuration
Floating Ground:
A floating signal ground system (Fig 6) is electrically isolated from the equipment cabinets,
building, ground, and other conductive objects to avoid a coupling loop for noise currents
present in the ground system and their flow in signal circuits.

Fig 6. Floating signal ground configuration

Cable Shield Grounding:
When a shielded cable is used for interconnection between two subsystems or systems, the
shield must be connected to a single ground reference at both ends. In order to avoid
leakage of electromagnetic energy through the shield, the outer surface of the shield has to
be grounded (Fig 7). Often, doubts arise in a designer's mind as to whether the shield has to
be grounded at one end (asymmetric) or grounded at both ends (symmetric) or grounded at
intervals along the length of the cable. The effectiveness of grounding of these schemes
depends on the electromagnetic coupling mode and the electrical length of the cable (1/λ)
 used for interconnection.

Fig 7. Cable shield grounding

8. Discuss about EMI diagnosis and fixes.

In today’s dynamic industrial environments, electronic devices, signal and power wiring,
and other electrical plant/process equipment often interact to create noise or electromagnetic
interference (EMI) problems which can degrade critical measurement and control signals.

Diagnosis :

Capacitive Coupling: Any piece of plant equipment or wiring can develop an electric
charge, or potential, which can be expressed as a voltage. If this charge changes, then a
changing electric field is generated which can couple capacitive to other equipment or
wiring. Capacitive coupled noise can be modelled as a current as shown in Fig 8. This type
of noise is dominant when a circuit or termination has high impedance because the noise
voltage generated at the receiver is the noise current, in, times the receiver impedance, Zin.
 Fig 8. Capacitive coupling Equivalent circuit

The capacitance between two conductors is inversely proportional to the distance between
them. Therefore, another simple way to reduce capacitive coupling is to increase the
distance between the victim cable and the source cable. It is always a good idea to route
‘noisy’ cables such as power input wiring, motor control wiring, and relay control wiring
separate from ‘quiet’ cables such as analog I/O lines, digital I/O lines, or LAN connections.

Inductive Coupling: When a current I flows through a conductor, it produces a magnetic

flux F, which is proportional to the current. The constant of proportionality is the
inductance L; hence, we can write φT =LI. The inductance depends on the geometry of the
circuit and the magnetic properties of the media containing the field.

Where M is the mutual inductance. This is a basic equation describing inductive coupling
between two circuits. It may be helpful to note some differences between magnetic and
electric field coupling. For magnetic field coupling, a noise voltage is produced in series
with the receptor conductor, whereas for electric field coupling, a noise current is produced
between the receptor conductor and ground. This difference can be used in the following
test to distinguish between electric and magnetic coupling.

Proper grounding and shielding techniques can help reduce or eliminate these problems and
maintain signal integrity. We describe three approaches to combat EMI. These are
Grounding, Shielding and Bonding.

Grounding: It is a technique that provides a low-resistance path between electrical or

electronic equipment and the earth or common reference low-impedance plane to bypass
fault current or EMI signal. The EMC grounding techniques are not straightforward because
the equipment and system performance is a function of large number of variables, such as
type of system, system configuration, sizes, orientation, distances, frequencies, polarization
of fields, and so on. The signal ground network can be a single point ground, multipoint
ground, hybrid ground, or a floating ground.
Proper grounding is dependent upon many factors such as the frequencies and impedances
involved the length of cabling required, and safety issues. When designing a ground or
troubleshooting a ground problem, it is first necessary to determine where the current is
flowing. When several kinds of grounds coexist, the current may not return by the assumed
path.
Shielding: Many potentially effective shields can be destroyed by improper termination of
the shields to ground. A low impedance path to ground is essential in order to realize
maximum shielding benefits. ‘Pigtail’ connections from a shield to ground have inductance,
resulting in impedance which increases with frequency. This type of connection will work
at frequencies below 10 KHz but it will cause problems at higher frequencies.
The use of short connections with large cross-sectional area minimizes the inductance of a
pigtail, but the best connection is a 360°contact between the shield and connector or chassis.
Solid shields provide the best theoretical noise reduction solutions but they are more
difficult to manufacture and apply. Most cables are instead shielded with a braid for
improved flexibility, strength, and ease of termination. Braided shields are less effective
than solid shields because they only provide between 60% and 98% coverage of the cable.
Decreased effectiveness is more prevalent at high frequencies where the holes in the braid
are large compared to a wavelength. For maximum shielding, reliability, and ease of use,
cables with combined shields are available which use both a solid layer and a braided layer.
The simplest way to reduce magnetically induced interference is to use twisted pair wires.
This applies both for shielded and unshielded cables and for interference caused by shield
currents or from other sources. Twisting the wires forces them close together, reducing the
loop area and therefore the induced voltage. Since the currents are flowing in minimum
loop areas, magnetic field generation is also reduced. The effectiveness of twisted pair wire
increases with the number of twists per unit length.

Bonding: Electrical bonding is a process in which components or modules of an assembly,

equipment or subsystems are electrically connected by means of a low impedance
conductor. Ideally, the interconnections should be made so that the mechanical and
electrical properties of the current path are determined by the connected members and not
by the joints. The joint must maintain its mechanical and electrical properties over an
extended period of time. The purpose is to make the structures homogeneous with respect to
the flow of RF currents. There are several factors that influence the EMI performances of
the bonding. These are
[1] Generation of inter modulation products because of nonlinear effects at contacts
between similar and dissimilar metals.
[2] Development of potential differences caused by DC and AC resistances and
inductance of a given length of the bond strap.
[3] Adverse impedance response because of resonance of inductance and the residual
capacitance of the bond strap.
9. Interpret the need for EMI standards. Why do the standards vary with reference to civilian
and military applications? What are the various standards for civilian applications? How do
they evolve? Discuss them in detail.

Problems relating to electromagnetic emissions (constituting EMI) and equipment,

subsystems, and device immunity to electromagnetic interference (electromagnetic
compatibility) frequently arise in radio broadcasting, communications, control, information
technology products, instrumentation, computers, and electrical power generation and
transmission. As a practical measure to ensure electromagnetic compatibility, a variety of
equipment design and performance standards have evolved and been published by different
agencies from time to time. These standards aim to set reasonable and rational limits for
electromagnetic emission levels by different equipment, as well as immunity levels for such
equipment.

In practice, military standards in various countries are generally mandatory for equipment
purchases and used by the military. Military standards are also generally more elaborate,
and tend to be more stringent than their nonmilitary commercial or civilian counterparts.
Similarly, standards issued by specialist agencies or regulatory agencies (such as NASA in
the United States) have varying degrees of mandatory nature associated with them. On the
other hand, civilian or nonmilitary standards are not always mandatory. For example, the
American National Standards published by the American National Standards Institution
(ANSI) are voluntary in the United States. In fact, the American National Standards do not
in any respect preclude anyone, whether he or she has approved the standard or not, from
manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, or using products, processes, or procedures not
conforming to the standard. The voluntary nature of the American National Standards is
immediately apparent. In most countries, standards, or regulations governing
electromagnetic emissions, are enforced and monitored by national agencies, such as the
Federal Communication Commission (FCC) in the United States and Zentralamt fur
Zulassungen in Fernmeldewesen (ZZF) in Germany. In some European countries, standards
relating to both electromagnetic emissions and immunity to electromagnetic emissions are
mandatory even in nonmilitary commercial applications.

The civilian standards are FCC and CISPR/IEC

FCC: The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States is responsible
for evolving and ensuring implementation of various regulations concerning the operation
of radio broadcast and transmission facilities in the United States. The FCC also has the
responsibility for regulations to control electromagnetic emissions from various electrical
and electronic devices and equipment. These are published in the Code of Federal
Regulations Telecommunications 47 (Washington DC: US National Archives and Records
 Administration). The regulations specifying limits for electromagnetic emissions for radio
frequency devices and equipment (both unintentional and intentional radiators) are covered
in part 15 sub part J; arid part 18 gives similar information for industrial, scientific, medical
(ISM) equipment. The following are among the several documents of relevance published
by the FCC:
[1] OST bulletin No 55: Characteristics of open-area test sites
[2] FCC/OET MP-3: Methods of measurements of output signal level, output terminal
conducted spurious emissions, transfer switch characteristics, and radio noise
emissions from TV interference devices
[3] FCC/OET MP-4: Procedures for measuring RF emissions from computing devices
[4] FCC/OET MP-5: Methods of measurement of radio noise emissions from industrial,
scientific, and medical equipment

CISPR/IEC: The Europe-based Comite International Special des Perturbations

Radioelectrique (CISPR) has been actively engaged since the 1930s in developing
international standards concerning EMI/EMC, and that these have been published by the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The CISPR/IEC effort is an international
effort involving not only European nations but also non-European nations such as Australia,
Canada, India, Japan, Korea, and the United States. A list of several IEC/CISPR documents
concerning EMI/EMC is given in Table 1.
Test and Evaluation Methods: As with ANSI/IEEE standards, the IEC/CISPR
documentation and standards are recommendations only. It is left to the participating nation
and other nations to determine what part of these recommendations will be implemented in
their countries and how they will be implemented. The test beds and the test procedures
described generally enable compliance testing with corresponding IEC/CISPR standards.
Where exact compliance is required it is necessary to refer to the corresponding standard
and follow all the details and procedures listed there.
Table 1. Some IEC/CISPR Standards related to EMI/EMC

10. With suitable diagrams explain the properties of EMC gaskets.

EMC gaskets are shielding arrangements used to reduce the leakage of electromagnetic
energy at metal-to-metal joints. Conductive gaskets, when properly compressed, provide
electrical continuity between seam-mating surfaces. Electrical properties of the gaskets are
selected to be nearly identical to 'those of the shield in order to maintain a high degree of
electrical conductivity at the interface, and to avoid air or high resistance gaps. The
performance of EMC gaskets depends on junction geometry, contact resistance, and the
force applied at these joints. They are capable of controlling electromagnetic leakage in the
frequency range from a few kHz to tens of GHz. Typical shielding effectiveness of
commercially available EMC gaskets is of the order of 80-100 dB. Some EMC gaskets and
their properties are described below.

Knitted Wire-Mesh Gaskets

This gasket is produced in rectangular, round, round with fin, or double-core cross-sections.
Standard materials generally used for galvanic compatibility with mating surfaces to
minimize corrosion are tin-plated phosphor bronze, tin-coated copper-clad sheet, silver-
plated brass, stainless steel or aluminum. These are used for minimizing leakage of
electromagnetic energy at enclosure joints, door contacts, and cables. For effective
shielding, the compression force required at a gasket joint is in the range of 34kPa to
400kPa depending on the shape of the strips.

Fig 8. Mesh wire of a double-layered strip of knitted wire-mesh

Wire-Screen Gaskets
A woven aluminum wire screen impregnated with neoprene or silicone elastomer provides
both EMI shielding and environmental sealing. This arrangement can provide electric field
shielding effectiveness of 75 to 100 dB up to a frequency of 1GHz. Another form of screen
is formed from thin sheets of aluminum expanded metal with a large number of small
openings (>200 per square inch) which can be filled with silicone elastomer. This
arrangement provides EMI shielding of the order of 60-120 dB, as well as an environmental
seal.
Oriented Wire-Mesh
This is a composite gasket material consisting of an oriented array of fine wires embedded
and bonded in solid silicone rubber in the form of sheets or strips as shown in Fig 9. This is
designed for use in military, industrial, and commercial applications requiring EMI
shielding and grounding in conjunction with environmental sealing when repeated opening
and closing of access doors and panels are expected. Oriented wires can also be embedded
and bonded in a soft closed-cell silicone sponge elastomer. These are used for EMI
shielding and environmental sealing when low closure forces and severe joint unevenness
are expected.

Fig 9. Oriented wire mesh gasket

Fig 10 shows typical shielding effectiveness of compressible silver-loaded gasket and wire-
mesh gasket, respectively, measured with modified American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) holder. These results vary with the compression force applied on the
gaskets.

Fig 10. Shielding effectiveness of (a) compressible silver loaded gaskets, and
(b)wire –mesh gaskets