A Case Analysis submitted to the

Faculty of the Department of Civil Engineering

College of Engineering & Architecture

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in

CE_414: Environmental and Sanitary Engineering

LAND RECLAMATION

Submitted by:
Alaine G. Sobredo

Submitted to:
Engr. Leonora Quarte

September 2018
 1. Make a summary of the land reclamation projects identified in the cases indicating the
location, size, coverage, type, etc. 

LAND RECLAMATION IN JAKARTA

Located on the northwest coast of Java, Jakarta is the capital and largest city of Indonesia and the
country's economic, cultural and political center with a land area of 662 sq. km. The Special Capital City
District of Jakarta (DKI) has planned to transform Jakarta into a big city in the future by changing its
coastal line to about 8km toward the sea from its existing position. It is planned that Jakarta will become a
Water Front City, covering the area of 5km to the land side and 8km to the sea side along its coastal line.

The land reclamation is planned to have an overall area size of 10,000 hectare and due to
insufficient quantities of sand as fill material, waste is taken into account as an alternative fill material.
However, using waste as fill material within land reclamation projects is more complicated than it seems.
Waste needs to undergo major changes before it can be dumped into the open sea without significant
environmental consequences. In addition to that, the reclaimed land is meant for an urban area
development with its heavy constructions, any alternative fill material needs to be strong and stable
enough to carry this new urban area.

In the study, there are three proposed alternatives methods of using waste as fill material: (A1)
based on the existing expertise and technologies of the cases of Singapore and Japan; (A2): based on a
new technology of waste treatment method—Plasma gasification; and (A3) based on a new technology of
land reclamation—Strengthened sediment.

In alternative A1, it is proposed that the site for heavy constructions will be reclaimed using
normal mountain soil and surplus soil from construction work sites. Site for the construction of an urban
area will be reclaimed using excavated soil from civil engineering and construction work sites and
dredged soil from rivers and harbors. Sites for light recreational activities and park functions will be
reclaimed using incinerated and composted general wastes, including waste generated from operation of
public facilities.

The alternative A2 proposed the use of Plasma gasification, where in waste will be treated, such
as incinerator ash and chemical weapons, and will be converted into non-hazardous slag. The slag
produced in the plasma gasification can be used as fill material for the land reclamation. In A3,
strengthened sediment will be used as a substitute of sand and rubble within land reclamation projects.
With this technique, dredged or excavated sludge or soft material is strengthened on-site using secondary
building materials and could be directly used as fill material.

The study also presented the following alternative fill materials based on the TBL framework:
Compost, directly applicable; gained through composting of organic solid waste. Slag, directly applicable;
gained through plasma gasification of non-organic waste. Excavated soil: uncontaminated and directly

Sobredo, Alaine G. BSCE 4

Quiz No. 2_PL September 21, 2018

applicable; gained from construction work sites. Mountain soil: uncontaminated and directly applicable;
gained from mining. Sludge: directly applicable through the Strengthened Sediment technology; gained
from the city’s channels and the seabed.

In the end the study founded the best option for the land reclamation through the combined
method of A1 and A2, where incineration is replaced by plasma gasification, and A3. Construction waste,
mountain soil, excavated soil and sludge will be used as fill materials.

LAND RECLAMATION IN CHINA

In China, about 13.4 million ha of tidal lands have been reclaimed for agriculture, salt-making,
mariculture, and other industrial and urban development uses since the middle of the 20th century (Fu et
al., 2010). As a new national coastal development strategy unfurls, there will be a demand for an
additional 5,780 km2 of sea area to be reclaimed by the year 2020 in China (Task Force of CCICED,
2010).

Located at the southeastern coast of China’s Fujian Province, to the west of Taiwan Strait,
Xiamen covers a land area of 1,565 km2 and a sea area of 340 km2 with a coastline of 234 km. A total of
128.72 sq. km sea area has been reclaimed since the 1950s. An estimate in 2006 indicated that the areas
of West Sea and Tongan Bay had decreased 58% and 27%, respectively, due to the coastal reclamation
(Zhang et al., 2008).

The deterioration of environmental and resource conditions in Xiamen is already vast. However,
to cope with rapid economic development, population growth, and urbanization, a reclamation plan of 20
km2 has been proposed, in which the eight planned areas to be reclaimed in Tongan Bay (TA1 to TA8)
represent a total of 15.22 km2 (16.33% of the current bay area).

According to the results of Total Allowable Area for Coastal Reclamation (TAACR) the optimal
reclamation scale for the Tongan Bay is only 5.68 km2, Xiamen with a discount rate of 4.5%. Even with
high discount rate, 8%, the optimal size of reclamation is about half of what is planned. Xiamen should
reexamine and reformulate its plan for coastal reclamation so that the area of Tongan Bay is kept at a
minimum of 87.52 km2 in order to maintain the ability of the coastal ecosystems to provide various
services to the society.

2. Explain the uses and benefits of the reclaimed lands for each of the covered countries.

LAND RECLAMATION IN JAKARTA

Since Jakarta is the capital and largest city of Indonesia and the country's economic, cultural and
political center, there is a need for it to expand in space but due to the limited geographical size,
reclamation of land is needed in order to accommodate the needs such as:
  Waste disposal sites: This refers mostly to offshore waste disposal landfills which are afterwards
turned into natural areas (green zones, parks, golf courses etc.).

 The purpose of creating new land for urban development plans: These may range from residential
and cultivation purposes to major development projects such as tourism, individual/commercial
business ventures, wharf age and other infrastructural improvement. In this case, the use of waste
is only chosen when proven to be economically more attractive and able to replace the use of
sand within the conventional way of land reclamation.

LAND RECLAMATION IN CHINA

Xiamen is one of the costal zones of China with high population density which confront a
common problem, the deficit of space. Coastal reclamation is the solution for almost all coastal societies
to ease the pressure of land shortage and to cope up with rapid economic development, population
growth, and urbanization. The following are the benefits and uses of land reclaimed in Xiamen:

 Agricultural Development: The reclaimed land can be used for food production. Some of the
lands will be converted for farming.

 Urban Development: Reclaimed lands will be developed for infrastructural improvement.

 Attracting New Investment: Once the reclaimed land is develop, individual / commercial business
ventures will bloom and investments will soon arise.

3. Identify and elaborate on the issues and challenges of land reclamation of each of the cases.
Discuss how these challenges were addressed by the respective countries.

LAND RECLAMATION IN JAKARTA

To cope up with urbanization issues and the economic need for expansion, the city of Jakarta is
planning to reclaim more land in the Jakarta Bay. However, the country is already confronted with issues
and challenges for the reclamation of land; Unavailability of enough fill material, inadequate functioning
of the SWM system, lack of governmental or social support, the state of the city’s channels. In order to
cope up with this issues and challenges, the following are improved and changed:

 Sand scarcity

Due to the deficit of sand in the area, Jakarta is considering waste as fill material. However, using
waste as fill material within land reclamation projects is more complicated than it seems. Waste needs to
undergo major changes before it can be dumped into the open sea without significant environmental
consequences. In addition to that, the reclaimed land is meant for an urban area development with its
heavy constructions, any alternative fill material needs to be strong and stable enough to carry this new
urban area. To fix the problem, Jakarta used a combined method of A1 and A2, where incineration is
replaced by plasma gasification, and A3 and construction waste, mountain soil, excavated soil and sludge
will be used as fill materials.

 The solid waste management (SWM) system

An adequate SWM system with all needed facilities and equipment needs to be in place. A
system where waste collection is maximized and all collected waste is sorted, where the recyclables are
recycled, the compostable composted and the remaining waste is gasified. Compost and slag could then
be used as fill materials for the land reclamation projects. This includes (1) getting the inhabitants
involved, (2) educating them regarding the whole SWM process and (3) accounting the cost of
environment and health damages by following the concept of ‘polluters pay’ along with (4) a strong legal
system to control and execute SWM rules and regulations.

 The state of the city’s channels

The channels should be dredged, widened and deepened in order to use the dredged sludge for
land reclamation, doing so also stimulating the water evacuation out of the city and reducing/preventing
flood. Therefore the inhabitants living in the vicinity of those channels must be relocated with the least
possible negative impact. Informing them about the reasons and necessity of the relocation and involving
them within the relocation process along with offering them a suitable alternative living areas are
important conditions.

 The land reclamation projects’ support

Governmental and social support should be promoted making sure all involved or needed parties are
willing and motivated to participate and realize the project within the set conditions.

 Investments in construction projects on the main land

Investment in especially underground construction projects (parking garages, infrastructure etc.)

should be promoted, in order to secure more excavated soil and construction waste for the land
reclamation.

LAND RECLAMATION IN CHINA

Xiamen is one of the places in China who has rapid economic development, population growth,
and urbanization but Xiamen only covers a piece of land and cannot withstand the vast development. As
opportunities come and land reclamations are brought up it automatically gains issues and problems
before even the actual project starts. The following are the issues gains in the reclamation of land in
Xiamen and how the government confronts it:

 Ecosystem damages
 Large scale reclamation in Xiamen has led to the disappearance of 90% of the natural mangroves and
the destruction and alteration of natural habitats of various living resources. With the deterioration of
environmental and resource conditions, the development in Xiamen is not sustainable.

As a result, coastal communities take measures to increase their waste treatment capacity.

 Size of land reclamation

In order to cope with rapid economic development, population growth, and urbanization, a
reclamation plan of 20 km2 has been proposed but due to the past reclamations which led to the
deterioration of the environment the proposed size of reclamation is reduced by TAACR to 5.68 km2.

Policymakers are being careful about the tradeoffs between the short-term interest to provide
additional land and the long-term interest to ensure the sustainable use of the marine and coastal
ecosystems. By assessing the optimal scale and location for reclamation, they may be able to meet the
current demand for land to facilitate economic development while maintaining the health and resilience of
the coastal ecosystems.

 Lack of good understanding of the ecological thresholds

When a system crosses a threshold, a very small change in economic activity can have enormous
impacts and result in irreversible loss of critical natural capital (Farley, 2012). The natural and
socioeconomic systems are highly complex and dynamic. Our static model cannot capture the full effects
of the dynamic interactions in the coastal systems. Sustainable development is an evolutionary process,
and sustainability is not a static objective.

An adaptive management system should be in place to cope with various uncertainties (Rammel et al.
2007). In fact, the estimation of the TAACR for Xiamen should not be viewed as static, and it should be
reevaluated periodically so that new knowledge can be incorporated into the analysis to guide future
reclamation or restoration plans.

4. Base on your own perception, answer and elaborate your stand on the following:

A. Does land reclamation pose a threat to the natural balance of the ecosystem? Elaborate
your answer.

Yes, land reclamations pose a threat to the natural balance of the ecosystem for it disturbs
the underwater environment as fills are put into the water. As we all know biodiversity ensures
natural sustainability for all life in the earth, land reclamation is an invasive act of taking away
what is for marine beings, and we are changing the natural characteristics of the coastal
environment. Once the process of reclamation starts we are starting to contribute damages in the
environment, the reclamation site and the dredging site may undergo biological, physical, and
chemical impacts. There are many potential effects in the process of dredging soil; it may change
the bathymetry, current velocity and wave conditions. Land reclamation can also result to large
displacement of marine sediments and the development of mud waves beneath the reclamation
fill which greatly affects marine beings.

B. When is land reclamation really necessary?

Land reclamation is only necessary when the land size of a country with high population
density is not enough and when there is insufficient amount of food production. Land reclamation
is the solution for almost all country with high population density to ease the pressure of land
shortage. Once the land reclaimed is converted to agricultural land, it can serve as a raising
livestock, in order to increase food production.

C. Is it necessary to impose restrictions in the reclamation of land? 

Yes, it is necessary to impose restrictions in the reclamation of land to reduce the possible
damages to the environment. The environment takes it all during the process of land reclamation,
dredging of soil can disturb the original forms of lands it can also be a form of habitat destruction,
although some species can take advantage of newly created areas, the environment still takes high
amount of toll due to the process that’s why restrictions in the reclamation of land is highly
necessary.

D. What policies or laws can you recommend to limit or regulate land reclamation?

- National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1970

NEPA is one of the first laws that establishes the broad national framework for protecting
our environment. This law assures that all branches of government give proper consideration to
the environment prior to undertaking any major federal action that significantly affects the
environment.
- Rio Declaration 1922
The Rio Declaration on environment and development defines the rights and responsibilities
of nations in the areas of environmental protection and sustainable development. It states that
nations have the rights to use natural resources within their borders as long as their actions do not
harm the environment. It also demands the government to develop and implement environmental
plans that preserve and protect the environment.

- Law of the Non-Navigational uses of International Watercourses, UN 1997

 The laws sought to impose upon UN member states an obligation to consider the impact of
their actions on other states with an interest in a water resource and to equitably share the
resource, mindful of variant factors such as population size and availability of other resources. It
will also allow other states to perceive if the action of the other states are harmful, and if it was
perceived to be harmful it will require the involve states to negotiate a mutually acceptable
solution.

- Biological Diversity Treaty of 1992

The objective of the treaty is to develop national strategies for the conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity.