Biochemistry Notes 

 
Active and passive transport 
● Active Transport 
○ The movement of substances across membranes against their concentration 
gradient using pumps 
○ Energy Dependent process 
○ Pumps: Allows AT to move particles from low concentration to high concentration  
■ Particles bind to transport proteins that use energy (ATP) to pump them 
across the membrane 
● Primary Active Transport 
○ Moves positively charged ions to establish a concentration gradient between the 
inside of the cell  
■ Ex. H+, Ca^2+, Na+, K+ 
○ Difference in charge results in a voltage (potential difference) 
○ Electrochemical gradient 
■ Stored potential pump that can be used for other transport mechanisms  
● Secondary Active Transport  
○ Uses an established concentration gradient (from primary transport) as its energy 
source to move other substances in or out. 
○ It is a process made by 2 mechanisms known ​SYMPORT AND ANTIPORT 
○ Symport 
■ The solute moves in the same direction as ions movement 
○ Antiport 
■ Moves in the opposite direction of ion movement  
 
● Passive Transport 
○ The movement of a substance across a membrane without expanding chemical 
energy 
○ Diffusion is what allows passive transport to happen 
■ Diffusion: The net movement of a substance from a region of high 
concentration to low concentration  
● Simple Diffusion 
○ The ability of small and non-polar substances to move across a membrane 
unassisted  
■ O2 and CO2 are readily soluble in the hydrophobic interior of a membrane 
and move from one side to the other  
■ Non-polar steroids and non-polar drugs can pass by the membrane easily  
■ Small uncharged molecules like water and glycerol can move fast across 
the membrane, even though they are polar  
■ Most membranes are impermeable to large molecules and ions  
● Facilitated Diffusion 
 ○ The facilitated transport of ions and polar molecules through a membrane via 
protein complexes  
■ Slow rate of Diffusion that can't keep up with the demand that metabolic 
processes often have for ions, many polar and charged molecules 
● Ex. water, amino acids, and sugars 
● Involves specific transporters, the movement of molecules and ions 
is driven by diffusion based on the concentration gradient 
● When equilibrium is reached and there is no concentration 
gradient, facilitated diffusion stops 
● Facilitated Diffusion is carried by integral membrane proteins called 
transport proteins that extend through the membrane  
● Diffusion of these compounds across a membrane can be helped 
by protein complexes  
● Rate of diffusion across membrane is influenced not only by 
concentration gradient and efficiency of transport proteins but by 
also the number of transport molecules 
 
● 2 types of transport proteins 
○ Channel proteins 
■ Hydrophilic tunnels (for water and ions), can be opened or closed with 
changes in voltage  
■ Most of these ion channels are voltage-gated channels. This means that 
they switch between open, closed, and intermediate states 
■ The gates are opened or closed by changes in voltage or by binding signal 
molecules 
○ Carrier proteins  
■ A protein that binds to a molecule and transports it across lipid bilayer  
● Each carrier protein binds to a specific solute such as a glucose 
molecule or particular amino acid, and transports it across the lipid 
bilayer 
● Diffusion would not be able to move a solute down its 
concentration gradient, without carrier proteins 
● The carrier protein changes shape, allowing the solute to move 
from one side of the membrane to the other. 
 
● Transport proteins are selective about which solutes they will carry  
● Rate of diffusion increases when the difference in concentration increases  
 
● Osmosis 
○ The passive diffusion of water across a membrane 
○ In living cells, the inward and outward movement of water by osmosis develops 
forces that can cause cells to swell or shrink  
 ○ Water diffuses from an area of lower concentration (low water concentration). This 
is influenced by any difference or change in solute concentration on either side of 
the membrane 
○ If the solution that is surrounding a cell contains dissolved substances at lower 
concentrations than they are in the cell, the solution is said to be hypotonic to the 
cell 
■ When a cell is in a hypotonic solution, water enters by osmosis and the cell 
swells 
○ An organism in a solution that contains salts or other molecules at higher 
concentrations than they are in its body must expend energy to replace the water 
that is lost by osmosis 
■ The outside solution is hypertonic to the organisms cell 
■ The concentration of water inside and outside cells is often equal or 
Isotonic  
● Hypotonic 
○ The property of a solution that has a lower solute concentration that another 
solution 
● Hypertonic 
○ The property of solution that has a higher solute concentration that another 
solution  
● Isotonic 
○ The property of a solution that has the same solute concentration as another 
solution 
 
 
Covalent and ionic bonding 
● Covalent 
○ Non-polar covalent 
■ 2 atoms share electrons; example would be O2 (Oxygen) 
○ Polar covalent 
■ A pair of electrons are unequally shared between 2 atoms; example would 
be H2O (water) 
● Ionic  
○ Bonding between 2 oppositely charged ions; example would be NaCl (salt) 
 
● Electronegativity determines which atom takes the electrons. Therefore, the atom with 
higher electronegativity takes the electron 
 
Allosteric site 
● Regulation Point 
● We can use this site to turn enzyme on or off 
● Other molecules can attach to this site to regulate 
● Ex. Can cause shape change of active site  
 
Substrate 
● The substance on which an enzyme acts. 
 
Substrate-enzyme complex 
 
Inhibition 
● Competitive Inhibition  
○ Molecules that take the substrate’s place in the active site and stop the enzyme 
from working 
 
● Non-Competitive Inhibition 
○ Molecule that sits on the allosteric site and turns the enzyme off  
 
Saturated vs. non-saturated fats, cis vs. trans 
● Saturated fats 
○ No Double Bonds 
○ Saturated/Plenty of Hydrogens 
○ Straight Chain  
○ Tend to be solid at room temperature 
 
● Unsaturated Fats 
○ One or More Double Bond 
○ Not Saturated with Hydrogens 
○ Straight Chain  
○ Tend to be solid at room temperature 
 
● Cis 
○ Very Bulky  
○ Liquid @ Room Temperature 
○ Natural Occurring 
 
● Trans 
○ Pack Together Well 
○ Can be solid 
○ Considered very unhealthy 
 
 
Extra Terms 
● Concentration gradient: The difference in concentration between 2 areas or across a 
membrane 
● Dynamic Equilibrium: The state in which the continuous action results in balanced 
conditions 
 ○ Even if the concentration of molecules or ions is the same in both regions there 
is no net change in concentration  
 
Q. I can investigate the movement of substances across membranes 
 
●   
 
Q.​I can make and draw carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and fats, nucleic acids 
 
●    
 
Q.​I can explain the roles of various cell organelles 
● Golgi Apparatus
○ packages proteins inside the cell before they are sent to their destination.

● Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

● Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

● Nucleus
○ A cellular organelle that is only present in eukaryotes. Its main function is to
regulate gene expression; it also controls cellular growth and replication. One of
the main functions of the nucleus is to carry DNA in the form of chromatin.