Hunter Gatherers: Economic History of Africa
Hunter Gatherers: Economic History of Africa
Hunter Gatherers: Economic History of Africa
The earliest humans were hunter gatherers who were living in small, family groupings. Even then there was considerable trade that
could cover long distances. Archaeologists have found that evidence of trade in luxury items like precious metals and shells across the
entirety of the continent.
African economic history often focuses on explanations of poverty and obscures other aspects such as the achievements of African
farmers, traders and states, including improvements in food security, and episodes of economic growth.[1]
A hunter-gatherer is a human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging (collecting wild plants and
pursuing wild animals). Hunter-gatherer societies stand in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly
on domesticated species.
Africa has the longest and oldest economic history. Humanity originated in Africa, and as soon as human societies existed so
did economic activity. Earliest humans were hunter gatherers living in small, family groups. Even then there was considerable trade
that could cover long distances. Archaeologists have found that evidence of trade in luxury items like metals and shells across the
entirety of the continent were the main trades of the Berber people, lived in dry areas and became nomadic herders, while in
the savannah grasslands, cultivated crops and thus permanent settlement were possible. Agriculture supported large towns, and
eventually large trade networks developed between the towns.
Origins of agriculture
The first agriculture in Africa began in the heart of the Sahara Desert, which in 5200 BC was far more moist and densely populated
than today. Several native species were domesticated, most importantly pearl millet, sorghum and cowpeas, which spread
through West Africa and the Sahel. The Sahara at this time was like the Sahel today. Its wide open fields made cultivation easy, but
the poor soil and limited rain made intensive farming impossible. The local crops were also not ideal and produced fewer calories than
those of other regions. These factors limited surpluses and kept populations sparse and scattered. North Africa took a very different
route from the southern regions. Climatically it is linked to the Middle East and the Fertile Crescent, and the agricultural techniques of
that region were adopted wholesale. This included a different set of crops, such as wheat, barley, and grapes. North Africa was also
blessed by one of the richest agricultural regions in the world in the Nile River valley. With the arrival of agriculture, the Nile region
became one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and Egypt home to one of the first civilizations.
The drying of the Sahara created a formidable barrier between the northern and southern portions of the continent. Two important
exceptions were Nubian Sudan, which was linked to Egypt by the Nile and Ethiopia, which could trade with the northern regions over
the Red Sea. Powerful states grew up in these regions such as Kush in Nubia (modern day Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt)
and Aksum in Ethiopia. Especially from Nubia, ideas and technologies from the Middle East and Europe reached the rest of Africa.
Historians believe that iron working developed independently in Africa. Unlike other continents Africa did not have a period
of copper and bronze working before their Iron Age. Copper is quite rare in Africa while iron is quite common. In Nubia and Ethiopia,
iron, trade, and agricultural surpluses lead to the establishment of cities and civilizations.
The Bantu expansion
Further information: Bantu expansion
Ordinarily, in the sparsely populated areas, this same period saw the expansion of the Bantu speaking peoples. The Bantu
expansion began in Southern Cameroon around 4000 years ago. Bantu languages are spoken there today and there is archaeological
evidence for incoming Neolithic farmers in Northern Gabon c. 3800 BC. It is known that Bantu expansion was extremely rapid and
massive, but its exact engine remains controversial. This period predated iron, which appears in the archaeological record by 2500 BC.
One of the early expansions of Bantu was the migration of the Bubi to Fernando Po (Bioko). They were still using stone technology at
first. The difficulties of cutting down the equatorial forest for farming have led to the suggestion that the primary expansion was along
river valleys, a hypothesis supported by studies of fish names. Another factor may have been the arrival of southeast-Asian food crops,
notably the AAB plantain, the cocoyam and the water-yam. Linguistic reconstructions suggest that the only livestock possessed by the
proto-Bantu was the goat. Over the centuries the entire southern half of Africa was covered with the group, excluding only
the Kalahari desert. Their expansion only ended relatively recently. In the year 1000, Arab traders described that the Bantu had not
reached as far as Mozambique, and European settlers observed the Bantu expansion into South Africa under the Zulu and others.
The importation Bantu pastoralism reshaped the continent's economy. Sometime in the first millennium, an equally important change
began as crops began to arrive from Southeast Asia. The Indian Ocean has always been far more open to trade than the
turbulent Atlantic and Pacific. Traders could ride the monsoon winds west early in the year and return east on them later. It is guessed
that these crops first arrived in Madagascar, which also adopted Southeast Asian languages, sometime between AD 300 and 800. From
the island, the crops crossed to African Great Lakes region. They included many crops, the most important being the banana.
The banana and other crops allowed for more intensive cultivation in the tropical regions of Africa, this was most notable in the Great
Lakes region, and area with excellent soil, that saw many cities and states form, their populations being fed largely
USAID/West Africa’s strategy is to work through regional organizations and private sector associations to address critical constraints
to competitiveness and demonstrate West Africa’s productive potential in order to trigger greater regional investment.
USAID is building the capacity of the West Africa Grains Network (WAGN) and the regional association for livestock and meat
(COFENABVI) to help their members meet product requirements, negotiate formal contractual obligations, and access financial
services. The Trade Hub and Partner Network link West African farmers to regional processors and facilitate better access to
information on market opportunities and increase the understanding of market requirements. This includes building smallholder
farmers’ capacities to meet health regulations and grading, handling, and sorting requirements.
Borderless Alliance:
High transport costs in West Africa translate into lower prices for the goods of farmers and other producers, and make imports more
expensive. Major causes of high transport costs include bribery, administrative delays, arbitrary check-points, high taxes, inefficient
trade procedures, and poor infrastructure. Incorporated in September 2011, the Borderless Alliance represents a private sector-led
coalition to increase trade in West Africa and foster change by exposing trade inefficiencies throughout the region. To address the
issues of sustainability and effectiveness, the Borderless Alliance has evolved from an advocacy campaign into the region’s leading
free trade advocacy organization. From an initial group of six, the Borderless Alliance now has more than 50 dues-paying members
from the private sector across West Africa. Its membership base draws from a broad range of organizations involved in the various
supply chains including port authorities, freight forwarders, logistics operators, manufacturers, traders and farmers. The Borderless
Alliance’s premise is that by working together, businesses and traders can advocate effectively for change.
quality of West African shea products through developing training materials that demonstrate best practices in post-harvest shea nut
processing and handling. The GSA is developing industry-recognized quality standards for shea nuts and, finally, is facilitating direct
purchases between collector groups and shea nut buyers to encourage faster processing, which also promotes traceability.