Introduction

Direct Digital Control (DDC)

Feedback control system
y where the controller action is attained numericallyy byy a
programmable digital device

disturbances
reference output
Control output Actuator Process
Algorithm
g

I/O

Transducer
input

Microprocessor (μp)

The overall system is an hybrid system or a sampled data system: digital part (discrete
time: controller)+ analogic part (continuous time: process, actuator, tranducer)
A.Cenedese Introduction to Digital Control 1
 Direct Digital Control

disturbances
reference output
Control output Actuator Process
Algorithm
g

I/O

Transducer
input

Microprocessor (μp)

A.Cenedese Introduction to Digital Control 2

 Control Algorithm

Feedback
Clock Reference Elaboration Output
p to
signal
i l W it
Wait
interrupt reading (control algorithm) actuator
acquisition

Microprocessor (μp)

™ The interrupt is provided by a Real Time Clock RTC.

™ The reference is already available in digital format or is computed in real time or is
an analogical signal acquired by the transducer

™ Control at discrete times regularly spaced every T (sampling time) given by the RTC
™ The control algo output signal is piecewise constant
™ The
Th controller
t ll actst in
i the
th “digit
“di it domain”
d i ” (works
( k with
ith numbers)
b ) whilehil input
i t signals
i l
to the plant (actuator commands) and output signals from the transducer
(measurements) are usually analog signals.
™ There
h is therefore
h f needd for
f a suitable
bl interface between
b the
h ddigitall andd the
h analogl
parts of the system.
A.Cenedese Introduction to Digital Control 3
 Direct Digital Control

disturbances
reference output
Control output Actuator Process
Algorithm
g

I/O

Transducer
input

Microprocessor (μp)

A.Cenedese Introduction to Digital Control 4

 Input interface (to the controller) – 1

VFS ADC - A/D Analog to Digital Converter:

It provides the sampling of the analog
ADC signal from the transducer and the
V bit conversion into a sequence of bits

Uniform quantization Nonuniform quantization

A.Cenedese Introduction to Digital Control 5

 Input interface (to the controller) – 2

Uniform quantization:
™ Given:
Gi
Number of bits n (Æ number of levels)
Full scale value FS (Æ maximum value managed by the device)
Analog signal V FS
Quantization step (quantum) q: q = n
2
™ Quantization (nonlinear operation):

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
V → Q[V] = nq if ⎜ n - ⎟ q < V < ⎜ n + ⎟q
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

™ ADC Mathematical model:

V n bits
Q
T
A.Cenedese Introduction to Digital Control 6
 Output interface (from the controller)

DAC - D/A Digital to Analog Converter:

VFS It converts a binary digit into the analog signal
commanding the actuator (voltage or current,
DAC V proportional in value to the input signal value).
bit
The converter also interpolates the signal:
ZOH - Zero Order Hold o holder
output

t
input

Note:
the output interface problem is of immediate solution when the actuator is a digital
actuator, that is a system that “accepts number as its own inputs” (e.g. step motor: the
input is the number of rotation steps to advance – and not the rotation angle…)

A.Cenedese Introduction to Digital Control 7

 Direct Digital Control scheme

DDC scheme is therefore:

Rif. Actuator
ControlAlgo H0
- Process
Transducer
T
Q

Note: reference is a digital signal (already acquired/in memory)

DDC raises two main issues related to sampling and quantization:

1. Error correction happens only at discrete times (Å sampling)
2. Nonlinearities are present in the system (Å quantization)

A.Cenedese Introduction to Digital Control 8

Oil & Gas Instrumentation Engineering Computer Control (SCADA)

1. Manual Control Before 1920

Figure 1 shows a simple scheme for a manual control which the Operator manipulated
the wheel of manual valve to control (flow/level/temperature) by looking at mounted
gauges. The operator was the controller and used visual feedback, control and
information was fully distributed.

Figure 1: Manual Control System Figure 2: Automatic Control System

2. Automatic Control (1920 to 1950)

Control panels with pneumatic controllers were introduced on a process unit basis as
shown above in Figure 2. Several operators regularly monitored and manipulated the
plant from the control panel. Control and information was centralized on a unit level
basis.

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3. Automatic Control (1950 to 1970)

Figure 3 shows a high density panels with electronic instruments were introduced.
Operators had a complete picture of the process from a central control panel and could
manipulate the entire process with very little physical movement.

Control and information was totally centralized.

Figure 3: Automatic Control Figure 4: Distributed Control

4. Distributed Control Systems 1975

Figure 4 shows three elements CRT-based man machine interface, microprocessor

based distributed controllers and data highway resulted in distributed system .

Control functions are distributed and information centralized.

5. Computer Controlled System Configurations

Direct Control

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Oil & Gas Instrumentation Engineering Computer Control (SCADA)

Actuator Plant 1
C1
-

Measurement

Multiplexer Multiplexer

DAC Figure 5: Direct Control block

ADC
diagram

Computer

The main characteristics of a direct control system are:

 The analog controller is replaced by the computer

 Control modes such as PID control, neural network and fuzzy logic can
easily be implemented via programming.
 If the computer fails, the plant is out of control.

6. Supervisory Computer Control

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Oil & Gas Instrumentation Engineering Computer Control (SCADA)

R1 +
Controller Actuator Plant 1
C1
-
b1
Measurement

Multiplexer Multiplexer

DAC Figure 6: Supervisory Control block

ADC
diagram

Computer

The main characteristics of a supervisory control system are:

 The control loops are still analog in nature.

 The computer monitors measurements and updates inputs.
 The computer use appropriate software to optimize inputs for the
best overall plants operation
 If the computer fails, the analog loops will maintain the operation of
the plants.

7. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

SCADA is a system and technology for remote monitoring and control, which allows
the operator to:

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Oil & Gas Instrumentation Engineering Computer Control (SCADA)

 Get data and gather information from the processes.

 Exchanging data from the plant floor to a supervisory computer.
 Displaying and supervise process with some geographical scattered
 Data logging, data display, trending, downloading of recipes.
Also, SCADA is not a full control system, but rather focuses on the supervisory level.

SCADA working to collecting data and information via distributed devices like
(remote terminal unit) RTU,PLC, transferring data back to the central unit, carrying out
any necessary analysis and control and then displaying that information on a number of
operator screens or displays. Finally, send control actions to the process depending on
the information.

The independent PLCs and RTUs in a SCADA

system perform I/O control signals on field
devices while being supervised by a
SCADA/HMI software package on a master
computer.

Figure 7: SCADA System.

7.1 Applications and Uses of SCADA

Now days, Modern SCADA are used extensively in many industrials around the world
for remote control of sectors and substations. The following are some examples of the
usage of SCADA systems:

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Oil & Gas Instrumentation Engineering Computer Control (SCADA)

 Electric Energy
Power generation, transmission and distribution is cover very wide areas, so SCADA
systems are used to detect and monitor any change in loads ,currents flow and line
voltages, and control the sectors by opening and closing the switches.
 Oil and Gas
Transmissions, distributions, productions, Pipelines, Wells, refinery, pumps are
distributed in very large Areas, which
need to get data and information for fluid
pressure and measurements.

 Water and sewage treatment

Figure 8: oil and gas site.
SCADA systems used to monitor and
control the distributed equipment used like filters and valves. Besides, SCAD A used to
regulate water flow, reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors.

Figure 9: water treatment.

 Buildings, facilities and environments

Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC, refrigeration units, lighting and
entry systems.

 Industrial Processes
SCADA systems are used in Industrial and manufacturing to manage processes
and robots like (Car, Food manufacturing, Chemical process).
 Nuclear Processes

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Oil & Gas Instrumentation Engineering Computer Control (SCADA)

 Transportation

7.2 SCADA System Benefits

Besides SCADA can monitor and control any kind of equipment, SCADA used to
automate more complex processes. Further SCADA has many benefits as follows:

 Save time and money.

 Saves energy.
 Increases productivity and profitability.
 Less physical movements for workers.
 Wear and tear on equipment can be reduced by continuously monitoring levels.
 Manage a real-time system trouble.
 Fast Troubleshooting and Maintain.
 Cost effective for power systems.
 Reliable.
 Expansion capability

7.3 Popular SCADA Vendors and Brands

N.o Brand Name Software Name Country

1 Siemens Wincc Germany
2 Schneider Citect Scada France
3 Rockwell RS View USA
4 Wonderware In Touch USA
5 Honeywell Experion
6 Ci technology Citect Australia

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Oil & Gas Instrumentation Engineering Computer Control (SCADA)

7.4 Architecture of SCADA

SCADA is highly complex system includes the following components: master terminal
unit (MTU) or host computers, operating equipment, PLCs, instruments, remote
terminal unit, intelligent electronic device IED, and Actuators. These components were
distributed in terms of layers or levels. The basic SCADA architecture system is
represented as shown in Figure 10.
 Level 0: is the Input/ Output Level which distributed at one level including all type
of sensors and actuators.
 Level 1: is the Process and Field Level which is gather field values, I/O – analog,
digital, measuring and other commands, such as RTUs, Valves IEDs, and PLCs.
 Level 2: is the Control Level which includes the control devices like PLC, PC.
 Level 3: is the Supervisory Level with dynamic changing states and real time control.
 Level 4: world Connection using Internet and various new technologies related to mobile /
cell phone operations.

Data Flow
Amount
of Data

L3

L2

L1

L0
Reaction
Time

Figure 10: SCADA Architecture.

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7.5 Advantages/ Disadvantages of SCADA

The advantages of the SCADA system are:

• The computer can record and store a very large amount of data
• The data can be displayed in any way the user requires
• Thousands of sensors over a wide area can be connected to the system
• The operator can incorporate real data simulations into the system
• Many types of data can be collected from the RTUs
• The data can be viewed from anywhere, not just on site
• scalability of the hardware
The disadvantages are:
• The system is more complicated.
• Different operating skills are required, such as system analysts and programmer
• With thousands of sensors there is still a lot of wire to deal with
• The operator can see only as far as the PLC

8. Elements of SCADA

SCADA system is used to supervise, control and monitor data from subsystems, by using
physical cables or remote access. All these procedures are done by using some
components and elements. SCADA systems components as shown in Figure 11 are:
 Master Terminal Unit ( MTU ) “ Host Computer, Server”
 Remote Telemetry/Terminal Unit ( RTU)
 Programmable Logic Controller ( PLC )
 Human-machine Interface (HMI)
 Sensors and actuators
 Communication
MTU is The Master Terminal Unit ( heart of a SCADA system) operated by an operator
who has the authority to access the system by input devices as a computer keyboard or
pointing devices as touchscreen. The MTU can monitor and control the field devices even
when the operator in not present by means scheduler programed.

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MTU has other auxiliary devices considered to be part of the MTU such as (printers,
backup memories and modems, HMI, Historical Data logging).
The MTU initiates virtually all communication with remote sites and interfaces with an
operator. Data from remote field devices (pumps, valves, alarms, etc.) is sent to the MTU
to be processed, stored and/or sent to other systems. MTU CAN BE
 Web server
 Data logging, Analyzing data
 Serve the clients through a firewall
 Real-time decision maker

Figure 11: SCADA Elements [6,9].

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8.2 RTU

Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) is a microprocessor-based device with very good radio
interfacing. RTUs are deployed in the field as an interface between the I/O Devices and
SCADA system. RTUs are used to transmit telemetry data from the sensors to the
master unit and receive the control signal from the master station to control the output
devices. RTU can do next:
 Gather information from field devices (analog values, digital values, alarming).
 Save information in memory unit and exchange with MTU.
 Open/close valves, turns switches, change set points).

8.2.1 RTU Features

 Intelligent to control a process and multiple processes

 Data logging and alarm handling

 Can control IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Device)

 Expandable
RTU RTU RTU
 Slave/Master device

MTU

Figure 12: RTU in SCADA.

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8.2.2 RTU Architecture

Figure 13 shows the block diagram of the RTUs hardware which includes (power
supply, backup battery, CPU, Memory, analog/digital outputs, radio module,
communication ports). Small RTUs generally have less than 10 to 20 A/D signals;
medium sized RTUs have 100 digital and 30 to 40 analog inputs.

Figure 13: RTU Architecture [10].

RTU has two or three communication ports (RS232, RS422 and RS485) or Ethernet
link. A watchdog timer provides a check that the RTU program is executing regularly.
The RTU program regularly resets the watchdog timer and if this is not done within a
certain time-out period the watchdog timer flags an error.

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8.2.3 RTU Types

There are two types of RTU

1- Single board RTU: is compact device and contains all input output (normally has
fixed I/O) in the same board.

2- Modular RTU: which has separate modules for (CPU, I/O) and can added more
modules.

Figure 14: RTU Block Diagram [9].

The RTU’s are expected to read data from field devices FD’s in a plant, and to
transmit data to the MTU. Likewise, the RTU’s expected to receive control
instructions from the MTU to control the plant as shown in Figure 15. This two-way
digital communication between RTUs and MTU is carried out on the so-called MTU-
RTU communication sub-system, which constitutes the third component of our
SCADA system. The RTU-FD communication may be analog (in old systems) or
digital (in modern systems) of SCADA system.

D: Data
RTU C: Control Sign.

MTU

Figure 15: MTU-RTU-FD communications.

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 The communication between MTU-RTU is two-way (duplex) digital

communication.
 The communication between (non-smart) field devices - RTU is in one
direction only (simplex), from non-smart sensors to the RTU. Similarly, the
information to the unintelligent actuators has to come from RTU.
 The set points received by the RTU from the MTU are always digital in nature,
because RTU-MTU communication is always digital.
 Each RTU has a unique address.
 Cost of laying cables (copper or optical fibre) would be very high.

 Simplex: One way communication

Data in a simplex mode is always one way. Simplex mode is not often used because it is not possible to
send back error or control signals to the transmit end.

 Half Duplex: Two way communication, but

only one way at a time
A half-duplex mode used to send and receive, but not at
the same time. it is possible to perform error detection and
request the sender to retransmit information.

 Full Duplex: Two way simultaneous

communication
Data in duplex mode travel in both directions Figure 16: Communication Modes.

simultaneously. Figure 16 shows the tree types of channels’ mode.

8.3 SCADA versus DCS

SCADA system and distributed control system (DCS), both, are suitable for the control
of large distributed industrial processes, a comparison between the two would be in
order. The table below shows the comparison between them

Feature DCS SCADA

1 Data transmission One way Two way
2 Type of control Full or elaborate control Limited or simple control
Extent of intervention by
3 Limited intervention Regular intervention
operator

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