Dutrizac1992 PDF
Dutrizac1992 PDF
Dutrizac1992 PDF
J.E. Dutrizac
Mineral Sciences Laboratories, CANMET, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, Ottawa, Ont.,
Canada
(Revised version accepted November 15, 1991 )
ABSTRACT
Dutrizac, J.E., 1992. The leaching of sulphide minerals in chloride media. In: W.C. Cooper and D.B.
Dreisinger (Editors), Hydrometallurgy, Theory and Practice. Proceedings of the Ernest Peters In-
ternational Symposium. ttydrometailurgy, 29: !-45.
Recent studies on ~he ferric chloride and cupric chloride leaching ofchalcopyrite, galena and sphal-
erite are reviewed. Although the chloride leaching ofchalcopyrite concentrates has been proven at the
demonstration plant scale, the leaching reaction is difficult. In contrast, galena dissolves rapidly in
FeCI.a media, and both the leaching rate and lead solubility increase significantly with increasing chlo-
ride concentration. The hydrometallurgical treatment of lead concentrates seems to be technically
feasible. The sphalerite leaching rate is strongly affected by its solid solution iron content, and leach-
ing processes for iron-rich zinc concentrates could probably be developed. The importance of inter-
mediate sulphide phases and insoluble reaction products on the leaching of sulphides is discussed. In
addition, it is postulated that at least part of the elemental sulphur reaction product is formed via the
oxidation of dissolved HaS. The ability of chloride leaching processes to generate elemental sulphur
while leaving pyrite largely unaffected makes them especially useful tbr the treatment of pyritic com-
plex sulphides. Thus, recent chloride leaching technologies for complex sulphides are also reviewed.
INTRODUCTION
The leaching of copper from sulphide ore deposits occurs naturally; as early
as 1086 Chinese metallurgists were recovering copper from the natural drain-
age waters of such deposits [ l ]. Similar operations were carried out on a large
scale as early as 1737 to extract copper from the acid waters at Rio Tinto,
Spain. Natural weathering processes liberated both copper and iron from the
copper-bearing pyrite ores, and the copper was recovered by cementation on
iron. Subsequent natural evaporation of the solutions in the stream beds dur-
ing the dry season allowed ferrous sulphate to be recuperated as a by-product.
Correspondence to: J.E. Dutrizac, Mineral Sciences Laboratories, CANMET, Energy, Mines
and Resources Canada, 555 Booth Street, Ottawa, Ont. K IA 0G l, Canada.
Large-scale heap leaching of calcined ore began in 1876, and the heap leach-
ing technique was soon extended to unroasted, low-grade pyrites [2 ]. The
leaching of metallic gold in cyanide media to prepare solutions suitable for
gold electroplating has been employed since the mid-19th century. In 1887-
1888, MacArthur and the two Forrest brothers extended the cyanide leaching
technique to low grade gold ores and the tailings from gold gravity circuits
[3 ]. Most initial applications used vat leaching. Today, various cyanide
leaching techniques treat around 500,000,000 t/yr of ore, averaging about 5
ppm Au, to produce approximately 2,500 t of gold. This is certainly the larg-
est single application of modern leaching technology [ 4 ].
At about the same time as the cyanide process was bei~;g developed, Bayer
discovered that aluminum could be extracted from bauxite by leaching in
NaOH media under pressure and that pure aluminum hydroxide could be
prepared by seeding the cooled pregnant solution. This discovery laid the
foundations of pressure-leaching technology and also paved the way for the
rapid expansion of the electrolytic aluminum industry [ 5 ]. Today, the Bayer
process treats abo~,t 90,000,000 t/yr ofbauxite, containing approximately 40%
AlaO3, making this the largest single application of pressure leaching
technology.
Vat leaching and heap leaching methods were widely used to recover cop-
per from oxide ores during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The solubilized
copper was recovered either by cementation on iron or by direct electrolysis
[ 6 ]. As methods to extract copper selectively from the pregnant solutions did
not exist until recently, early operations were restricted to relatively high-grade
ores or to ores having low soluble iron contents. With the advent of modern
solvent extraction technologies, this constraint has been removed, and the
leach-solvent extraction-electr,~winning process is widely used to treat even
low grade oxidized copper ores. Currently, around 10% of the world's copper
production of 9,000,000 t/yr originates from leaching operations, and in the
U.S.A. it is as high as 25%. Shortly after the turn of the century, both carnotite
and pitchblende ores were being leached for uranium and/or radium produc-
tion [ 7 ], and these leaching techniques were developed into the sophisticated
methods which now account for all the world's uranium production of 40,000
t/yr.
The diversity, scope and ingenuity of the early leaching processes are per-
haps surprising. Equally surprising is the fact that these same processes,
essentially unaltered in principle, currently account for most of the world's
production of Au, AI and U. It is also remarkable that most of the above
leaching processes are based on "oxidized" feeds and that most employ low
cost H2SO4 or NaOH media. Early efforts were made to leach the common
base metal sulphides directly, but the results were disappointing. The need to
supply large amounts of oxidant for the oxidation of the sulphide ion was
difficult in an era lacking high shear mixing and tonnage oxygen. For eco-
LEACHING SULPHIDE MINERALS IN CHLORIDE MEDIA 3
nomic reasons, the practical chemical oxidants for base metal sulphides were
limited to ferric ion and air. Initial studies showed that ferric sulphate solu-
tions gave lower leaching rates than ferric chloride media [ 8 ], but efforts to
use hot concentrated FeCls-HCl media resulted in severe equipment corro-
sion and other problems which were not well understood at the time. As a
result, the leaching processes developed for sulphide ores usually involved a
roasting step to convert the sulphide to an "oxide". Thus, the development of
the electrolytic zinc process was based entirely on roasted sphalerite feeds
[91.
The brief historical review presented above indicates that leaching is a ma-
jor hydrometallurgical activity which is largely based on "oxidized" feeds.
The abundant sulphide ores of copper, lead and zinc are traditionally treated
by roasting and smelting technologies. Although these technologies have many
advantages, they are not without their inherent limitations. Current environ-
mental regulations demand nearly complete SO2 capture in any pyrometal-
lurgical operation. Although the technology to capture SO2 exists, its imple-
mentation commonly results in high capital and operating costs. It is estimated
that it costs an additional US$ 0.17/kg Cu for American copper smelters to
conform to current SO2 emission standards [ l 0 ]. A further difficulty is that
the marketing of the H2SO4 is coupled with that of the metal; depending on
the geographical location of the plant, the linkage can create major difficul-
ties. Ladle transfers, launders~ etc., all create in-plant hygiene problems which
are technically difficult to resolve.
Leaching technologies for sulphide feeds offer many potential advantages
over smelting processes [ l l, 12 ], and these include:
( l ) Formation of elemental sulphur or soluble sulphate such that SO2
emissions are entirely avoided.
(2) Ability to treat low grade or highly complex feeds.
(3) Pyrite is often "inert".
(4) Viable at either a small or large scale.
(5) Potential for lower capital costs and incremental plant additions.
(6) Potentially easier to instrument and control.
(7) Greater flexibility in product purity and form.
Set against these strengths are several disadvantages [ 11 ]"
(1) The need to demonstrate a significant advantage over existing
technologies.
(2) They are often energy intensive because of the high specific heat of
water and the use of electrochemical technologies.
(3) Water pollution problems.
(4) Recovery of Au and Ag by-products is difficult and requires additional
processing steps.
Steady progress, however, is being made on the leaching of sulphide feeds,
and many of the traditional difficulties are being overcome. For example, the
corrosion problems which plagued the early development of many leaching
4 J.E. DUTRIZAC
processes have been largely resolved through the use of engineered plastics
and thoughtfully selected metallic and ceramic components. Although com-
mercial leaching processes for sulphide feeds are limited in number, R&D
activities remain relatively strong. Thus, the purpose of this review is to sur-
vey the recent developments associated with sulphide leaching, and especially
the use of chloride media for such leaching processes~
Numerous leaching processes have been advocated for copper sulphide ores
and concentrates. Dutrizac and MacDonald [ 8 ] have reviewed the early lit-
erature on this subject. Ferric chloride or cupric chloride processing of copper
concentrates offers several potential advantages related to sulphur control,
metal purification/recovery options and process economics. Despite the
potential advantages of the chloride processing route for conventional chal-
copyrite-rich copper concentrates, the technology remains very much in the
developmental stage. Nevertheless, significant progress has been made [ 12 ],
and some of the recent advances in this area are noted below.
About 20 years ago, both the U.S. Bureau of Mines [13] and MINTEK
[ 14 ] developed relatively simple flowsheets for the treatment of chalcopyrite
concentrates. Leaching was carried out in a single stage near the boiling point
of the ferric chloride leaching medium (around 105 °C); high copper extrac-
tions were realized by grinding the copper concentrate to 95% - 3 2 5 mesh
and by prolonging the leaching time up to 8 h. The investigators recognized
that metal recovery and iron disposal were key factors. The Bureau of Mines
electrowon copper powder directly from the cuprous chloride solution', MIN-
TEK researchers used solvent extraction with LIX-64N to convert the cupric
chloride to a sulphate medium for conventional electrowinning. Both re-
moved iron by an oxidation-hydrolysis route. Fine grinding was considered
a necessary first step in both processes. An economic evaluation of the Bureau
of Mines' process [ 15 ] indicated capital costs ( 1975 US$ ) for an output of
54,000 t Cu/yr of $ 28,000,000 and operating costs of$ 0.22/kg Cu.
Cominco [ 16 ] carried out small scale test work and developed a ferric chlo-
ride process for copper concentrates which were ground to 97% - 325 mesh.
Leaching was carried out countercurrently in two stages, both of which oper-
ated at 95°C. Retention times of 9-12 h were required to achieve 99% Cu
extraction from solutions containing 50-200 g/l FeCl3. The long retention
times were probably a consequence of the 95 °C temperature used. As will be
seen later, the leaching of chalcopyrite is strongly temperature dependent, and
significant advantages are gained by leaching near the solution boiling point
(i.e., > 105 ° C). The spent iron chloride leach solution was regenerated under
pressure at 135-165 °C, and excess iron was precipitated as Fe203 in the iron
oxidation step. In the Cominco process, the hot-filtered leach solution was
LEACHING SULPHIDE MINERALS IN CHLORIDE MEDIA 5
treated with excess copper metal to reduce all the copper to the cuprous state.
Pure cuprous chloride crystals were formed on cooling the solution. Copper
powder was produced by hydrogen reduction of the cuprous chloride, with
the evolved HC! gas being used in the iron oxidation autoclave. The Cominco
process recognized the need to make high purity copper directly, and also
sought to avoid the high costs of electrowinning.
After experimenting with copper electrowinning directly from an iron
chloride leach solution, the Cyprus Metallurgical Corp. (Cymet) developed
a process based on a two-stage countercurrent leach in a FeCI3-CuCI2-NaCI
medium [ 17,18 ]. The concentrate was leached for 3 h in each stage at 98 °C
to achieve a copper recovery of 99%. The pregnant solution contained 100-
150 g/l Cu and 110-160 g/l Fe. Af:er thickening and filtration, the solution
was vacuum cooled to around 40°C to crystallize about half of the copper as
CuCI. The CuCI crystals were centrifuged, washed, dried, and then reduced
with H2 in a fluidized bed roaster at 500°C. Sand was used in the fluid bed
reactor to prevent sintering of the charge, and the Cu-sand product was sub-
sequently melted to yield bar copper. The spent leaching solution containing
approximately 50 g/l Cu and 110-I 60 g/l Fe was reoxidized at 95°C with 02
and HCI from the fluid bed reactor. About 3 h was required to reoxidize the
solution and control iron by the precipitation of sodium jarosite and fl
FeO.OH. The Cymet process was evaluated in a small continuous pilot plant
treating about 20 t/day of chalcopyrite concentrate. All parts of the process
were technically feasible and all corrosion problems were apparently over-
come. However, silver was extensively solubilized in the leaching circuit, and
unfortunately, much of the silver reports in the CuC! crystals and, thence, to
the metallic copper. The similar behaviour of silver and copper in ~:oncen-
trated chloride media is a continuing concern in all copper leaching processes.
The Cymet process demonstrated on a pilot scale that high copper leach ex-
tractions were achievable and that copper could be successfully recovered from
chloride media by non-electrowinning processes. The Cymet pilot plant was
closed in 1982, and the process has not been developed further since that
time.
The chloride hydrometallurgical process for treating chalcopyrite concen-
trates developed by the Duval Corporation and known as the CLEAR process
(Copper Leaching Electrowinning and Recycle) operated for a period of six
years and ultimately attained an output of 100 t Cu/day [ 19-21 ]. As shown
in Fig. 1, a two-stage countercurrent leach was used to achieve high overall
copper extractions. The first stage was carried out at 105 °C with 20 g/I CuCI:,
4 g/l FeCI3, 80 g/l NaCI and 44 g/I KCI. During process development, it
became apparent that high total chloride concentrations allowed higher leach
temperatures to be used with concomitantly higher extractions. The principal
leaching reactions were felt to be:
6 J.E.DUTRIZAC
FinelyGround
Cholcopyrite
Concentrote
!
FIRST
LEACH
STC1"
• 105"C Cu Powder
_~ ~ ,
r--... I _1 OUCT,O. w,r,I
[ S'~~"~ Cu POWDER ]
-I 1
/ LEACH ! 4 i ELECTROLY,StS ]
9P---~ Product
Residue
~ to
treotmenlor
disoosol
Fig. 1. Schematic tlowsheet for the CLEAR copper process for chalcopyrite concentrates, after
[211.
a collection belt. At the anode, half of the cuprous ions are oxidized to cupric
chloride, which is recycled to the second-stage leach. The relevant reactions
are:
The loaded organic is scrubbed to remove chloride and is then stripped with
H2SO4 to yield a conventional CuSO4-H2SO4 electrowinning solution. Silver
is not extracted with the Cu 2+ ions and accumulates in the raffinate. Presum-
ably, it could be recovered as a silver-rich product from the solution, but de-
tails of the silver recovery options have not been presented.
The principal advantage of the Minemet approach is that high purity cop-
per is recovered in compact form from a sulphate electrolyte using well-proven
technologies. Although the theoretical energy requirement for the plating of
copper from a cupric sulphate solution is considerably higher than that for
deposition from a cuprous chloride electrolyte, the metal produced is of a
higher purity. Unless major advances are made in ~i,e purification of chloride
leach solutions and in the control of the quality of the electrolysis product,
the transition to a copper sulphate electrolyte may be a practical solution to
the copper quality and silver recovery problems in chloride hydrometallurgy.
In a somewhat similar vein, the Henkel Corporation [24 ] has developed a
mixed organic e:aractant to transfer copper from a chloride leaching medium
to a conventional CuSO4-H2SO4 electrowinning solution. In principle, the
solvent extraction circuit can be incorporated in any ferric chloride leaching
process provided that an excess of Fe 3+ is maintained in the pregnant solu-
tion to ensure that all the copper is present as CuCl2. Such conditions can be
easily achieved in any ot'the processes described above by adjusting the ratio
oflixiviant to concentrate. The first component (di-isodecyl ester of pyridine
dicarboxylic acid) of the mixed organic, extracts the neutral CuCI2 species
from the concentrated acidic leaching medium. The reagent is selective for
copper such that most impurities, including silver, remain in the raffinate.
Presumably, a silver-rich product can be prepared from such a solution by
cementation, statphide precipitation, etc. After silver recovery, the raffinate is
subjected to oxidation hydrolysis to regenerate the FeCI3 lixiviant and to pre-
cipitate excess iron. Chlorine gas generated elsewhere in the process is the
principal oxidant. The copper-loaded organic phase is contacted with a NaOH
solution at pH 2.2 to wash out all the chloride. Due to the close pH control in
this operation, the copper is transferred from the first reagent to the chelating
extractant (L 1X 860) and the chloride ions liberated in the process are also
removed during washing. The aqueous phase from the washing operation is
directed to a conventional chlor-alkali cell to regenerate the NaOH and to
provide CI_~for the iron oxidation step. Finally, the loaded extractant is con-
tacted with spent H,~SO4-CuSO4 electrolyte to extract the copper as copper
sulphate. Ultimately, the copper is recovered as high-purity cathode using, well
established copper electrowinning technologies [ 25, 26 ].
The general disadvantages of this type of approach are well known. There
is a need for a large solvent extraction operation and the copper must be elec-
trowon from the higher valent cupric state. Furthermore, in the Henkel op-
tion, there is a requirement for a separate electrolysis step to generate C12 and
LEACHING SULPHIDE MINERALS IN CHLORIDE MEDIA 9
About 85% of the copper is produced in the main electrowinning cells, and
the remainder is recuperated from a stripper cell which treats the catholyte
bleed from the main cells. The magnitude of the catholyte bleed is governed
by the need to maintain the iron and water balances in the cell. The solution
GroundCopper
C°nc~f~r°'L
+.] L _l co,,+,
- .L
== L___3 SLvER
LEACH I ,ELECTROWlNNINGJ
Ir)n
Residue
F ANOLYTE I
-~
Copper-,m
roduct
~esidue for
gold recovery
Fig. 2. Schematic tlowsheet for the Great Central Mines (GCM) hydrocopper process for chal-
copyrite concentrates, after [ 31 ].
LEACHING SULPHIDE MINERALS IN CHLORIDE MEDIA 11
CHALCOPYRITEACTIVATION
TABLE !
Activation with 32,33 Pyrite and various Cu-S phases (nukundamite, idaite, bornite,
sulphur covellite, etc. ) formed. Significant improvement in rate and
extent of Cu leaching noted. Enhanced Fe rejection as pyrite.
Activation with 34 Covellite reacts to form bornite and pyrite. Rapid copper leaching
covellite and good iron rejection achieved in CuSO4 leach.
Activation with 35 Reaction forms Cu2S and FeS; hence high soluble Fe
copper concentrations realized during leaching. Significant rate increase
during O2-H2504 leaching.
Activation with 36,37 Forms Cu2S or Cu in addition to FeS. Copper is recovered by
iron FeCi3 leaching or flotation.
Activation with 38 Activated carbon increases the leachin~ rate in ferric sulpha:e
carbon media by up to 400%.
Activation by 39 Bornite and FeS formed; FeS removed by acid leaching. Bornite
sulphur removal product should be amenable to chloride leaching.
with H2
Activation by 40 Treatment at ~ 800°C forms intermediate solid solution, bornite
sulphur removal and FeS. Enhanced leaching rates noted in an H2504-O2 system.
in vacuum or in
inert gas
Activation by 4 !,42 Low concentrations of Ag+greatly accelerate leaching in ferric
silver catalysis in sulphate media, but have no effect in chloride solutions.
solution
Mechanical 43,44 Extensive grinding results in marked increase in leaching rate in
activation ferric sulphate or H202 solutions. Similar effect likely in chloride
media. Effect seems to be due to both the particle size and lattice
distortions in the chalcopyrite.
In many of the processes cited above, there are serious problems related to
the purity of the copper product. Product purity depends to some extent on
the concentrate being treated. However, elements like Ag, Pb, As and Sb, are
all soluble in concentrated chloride media [45, 46 ] and all report to some
LEACHING SULPHIDE MINERALS IN CHLORIDE MEDIA 13
extent to the final copper product. Both the Cymet and Cominco processes
utilize CuCl precipitation to eliminate many of the objectionable impurities~
Silver, however, reported to the CuCl crystals and traces of other elements
will probably also co-precipitate if their concentrations in the leaching me-
dium are high. Consequently, CuC1 precipitation, by itself, is orobably not an
adequate purification process for yielding high purity copper. In most in-
stances a solution purification step will be required. Solvent extraction ~neth-
ods are being developed to produce a pure copper-bearing solution, and the
development of such technologies should be encouraged.
The principal by-products in most copper concentrates are silver and gold.
Silver generally dissolves more slowly than copper when chalcopyrite concen-
trates are leached, although the extent of silver dissolution depends on the
mineral form of the silver in the concentrate [ 47, 48 ]. Although some of the
solvent extraction processes result in a low-copper chloride solution contain-
ing most of the silver, the silver recovery methods themselves have not been
well defined. Unlike silver, gold is virtually insoluble in chloride media unless
a very high oxidation potential is maintained by Cl2, H202, etc. [49, 50 ].
Gold can be recovered from the leach residue by conventional cyanide leach-
ing, but the cyanide consumption is excessive because of the high elemental
sulphur content and gold extractions are generally low. Thiourea leaching has
been used to recover gold from sulphur-bearing leach residues [51 ]. Gold
recoveries of 60-85% were realized, but thiourea consumptions were 30 kg/t
residue. Due to the fact that gold is such an important economic factor in
most copper operations, the recovery of the precious metal from the chloride
leach residue will require more attention.
One of the principal advantages of the chloride leaching route is the total
avoidance of SO2 emissions. Not only does this resolve concerns about SO2
air pollution, but it also separates metal production from sulphuric acid man-
ufacture. In the U.S. Bureau of Mines' process [l 3] only a "small amount"
of sulphate was formed and pyrite in the copper concentrate was largely un-
affected during leaching. It was proposed to recover the elemental sulphur
reaction product using an ammonium sulphide leach, with subsequent acidi-
fication to precipitate the sulphur. In the MINTEK process [14 ], less than
5% of the total oxidized sulphide ion reported as SO4; over 95% elemental
sulphur production occurred. Cominco [ 16] noted that elemental sulphur
was the dominant reaction product in their process and proposed to recover
the sulphur by flotation. Elemental sulphur recoveries ranging from 75% to
90% were realized. The Cuprex [ 27 ], GCM [ 31 ] and Henkel [ 24 ] processes
all noted mostly elemental sulphur formation, although the precise amount of
SO4 generated was not precisely defined and may depend on the mineralogi-
14 J.E. DUTRIZAC
formed. It was confirmed that elemental sulphur itself is not attacked by FeCI3
solutions below the sulphur melting point [ 57 ].
Following the earlier work of Majima and co-workers [ 54, 55 ], it was shown
that the sulphur morphology was strongly affected by particle size, retention
time and the leaching conditions used [ 56 ]. The elemental sulphur agglom-
erates and coats the individual chalcopyrite particles, as noted in Fig. 3.
Although the sulphur coatings probably make the leaching somewhat more
difficult, the agglomeration certainly improves the thickening and filtration
properties of the leach residues. This is probably the cause of the good filtra-
tion rates noted by all investigators despite the often fine particle sizes in-
volved. Figure 4 shows the sulphur layer formed on a 50 ILtmchalcopyrite
particle leached for 24 h at 95 °C. The entire surface of the chalcopyrite is
covered with small particles and intergrown masses of elemental sulphur. Of
note, however, is the presence of many 15 ~tm euhedral sulphur crystals sim-
ilar to those observed by Majima and co-workers [ 54, 55 ]. The development
of large, well-formed sulphur crystals suggests that sulphur is deposited from
the leaching medium. The actual reaction sequence must involve, at least in
part, various dissolved H2S species:
TABLE 2
Sized, high purity natural 66 Leaching studies showed that the CuCl2 reaction product
chalcopyrite promoted the FeCl3 leach
Rate a [ FeCI3 ] 0.3-0.4
Rate increased slightly with [ HC! ]
FeCI2 slightly inhibited the reaction
Total Cu extraction depends on NaC! concentration
different mechanisms may prevail above and below 80°C. Low concentra-
tions of Cl adversely affect the reaction, but the rate may be chloride-
insensitive at higher ( > 2 M Cl) chloride concentrations. Most workers have
20 J.E. DUTRIZAC
TABLE 3
Natural chalcopyrite crystals 69 Rate linear for first 200 h, but accelerates thereafter due
to surface roughening
Activation energy 82 kJ/tool
Rate increases as [CuCI2 ]o. 54
Rate decreases as [CuCI] -o.5
Rate increases with [ NaC! ] to -,, 2 M, but is insensitive
to higher concentrations
Rate electrochemically controlled by Butler-Volmer
equation
Galena (PbS) is the only lead sulphide mineral of any commercial signifi-
cance. Galena concentrates are readily processed by pyrometallurgical meth-
ods, but problems persist with fugitive SO2 emissions from some operations,
and all plants are concerned with potential in-plant hygiene problems caused
by Pb, Cd, TI, etc. In addition, the capital cost of replacing obsolete lead
smelters is high, and the future of small, independent smelters is in doubt.
Hydrometallurgical processing offers some promise of resolving these prob-
lems and numerous developmental and fundamental studies on the leaching
and recovery of lead have been carried out.
Although some work has been done on the reaction of galena in ferric sul-
phate media, that approach is limited to processes intending to leave the lead
as insoluble PbSO4 in the leach residue. Due to the moderately high solubility
of PbCI2 in concentrated chloride media [ 72, 73 ] and the potential to recover
a pure PbCI2 intermediate product by cooling the hot PbCl2-concentrated leach
solution, most processes have been chloride based. All early investigations
noted that galena is easily oxidized by eitheJ" FeCI3 or CuCI2 media, and those
early investigations have been reviewed [ 8, 12 ].
Early low-temperature leaching processes included those developed by the
Hecla Mining Company [74], Cominco Limited [75] and Hazen Research
[76]. Low temperature leaching is carried out at around 40°C in FeCI3 or
CuCI2 media to convert galena to PbCI2, which remains in the leach residue.
The residue is separated from the primary leach solution and is then re-leached
in hot concentrated brine to solubilize the PbCI2 selectively. Pure PbCI2 is
subsequently precipitated by cooling the solution:
40°C
PbS + 2FeCI3 ~ (PbCI2),olid + 2FeCI2 + S° (30)
In both processes, silver extractions were 20-85%; the erratic values prob-
ably reflect variations in the silver mineralogy of the various concentrates
tested. The Bureau of Mines produced a PbCI2 intermediate product which
was subjected to fused salt electrolysis. In the Minemet process, the solution
was purified by Pb powder cementation and then by ion exchange. The ac-
cumulation of zinc was a lingering problem which was not completely re-
solved. Initially, Minemet recovered Pb from the leach solution by aqueous
electrolysis in a diaphragm cell such that the FeCI3 lixiviant was simultane-
ously regenerated:
P b 2+ + 2e- --, Pb ° (cathode) (34)
2Fe 2+ --, 2Fe 3+ + 2e- (anode) (35)
Subsequent developmental work, however, suggested that better product
purity and greater process flexibility could be achieved by crystallizing PbCl2
as an intermediate product [79 ]. The PbCl2 was subsequently dissolved in
concentrated NaCl solution for electrolysis in a high-flow cell of Minemet
design. Lead powder was obtained and this was compacted in briquetting rolls
to reject electrolyte and to minimize oxidation during subsequent melting:
P b 2 + + 2 e - .-, P b ° (36)
2CI- --,C12 + 2e- (37)
The chlorine gas evolved at the anode was used to regenerate the iron chlo-
ride lixiviant. Both of the above high temperature leaching processes were
tested in integrated pilot plants at a scale of 250 or 100 kg Pb/day. Both pro-
duced high purity lead, and neither encountered significant operational
difficulties.
More recently, St. Joe Minerals [80] carried out an extensive pilot plant
campaign to produce 2.7 t/day of PbCl2 by the FeCI3 leaching of conven-
tional high-grade lead concentrates. Their generalized flowsheet is presented
in Fig. 5. During the pilot program, over 360 t of PbCl2 were produced. The
lead concentrates were fed by a belt feeder to a tank where a 50% solids slurry
was prepared using regenerated leach solution. Leaching was then carried out
at 95 °C in three tanks in series with each tank fitted with a rubber lined, steel
agitator. The total leaching time in the 3 MNaCI-FeCI3 medium was only 0.5
h, but this was adequate to solubilize all the lead. The slurry was then thick-
ened and filtered at > 92°C to prevent PbCl2 crystallization. The clarified,
nearly saturated, PbCl2 solution was fed to a vacuum crystallizer and the
solution-PbCl2 crystal slurry exited the crystallizer at 25 °C. The slurry was
filtered on a belt filter so that good washing to remove the iron-bearing solu-
tion occurred. Copper and silver were recovered by cementation on iron. If
the cementation was carried out on the cooled solution, negligible precipita-
LEACHING SULPHIDE MINERALS IN CHLORIDE MEDIA 23
Lead
Concentrate
1
~ ResidueTreatment]----~erightS o
I
PbCl2 Residue J Ferric I
-IRegeneration ~
Crystallization
t J
etI
Aqueous
l 1
Lead ~Pb Metal
PbCl s -I ( l e c t r ° l y s i s ,I
I Copper I ~CuO
Cement |
/
Fe° ].~r Solution Bleed
Fig. 5. Schematic flowsheet for the St. Joe ferric chloride leach process for galena concentrates,
from [ 80 ].
tion of lead occurred. Finally, the solution was regenerated with chlorine gas,
which could be recovered from the electrolysis cells of a commercial operation.
Although the Leadex process [30] developed by Tecnicas Reunidas is
nominally based on aqueous Cl2 leaching, it can also be viewed as a dilute
FeCl3 leach in which the lixiviant is continuously regenerated by Cl2 gas. A
similar process was also advocated by the U.S. Bureau of Mines [ 81 ]. In the
Leadex process, leaching is carried out for 2.5 h at 90°C in a solution contain-
ing 2-10 g/l Fe 3+ and 200 g/l Cl; the redox potential is controlled at 550 mV.
Impurities, including Ag and Bi, are removed by cementation with a small
quantity of zinc dust. Next, lead is recovered by cementation on sheared zinc
cathodes in a trommel. Lead is totally removed from the solution and sepa-
rates cleanly from the zinc. The lead forms small pellets which are melted and
cast into ingots. The resulting zinc chloride solution is treated by solvent ex-
traction to produce a pure 70 g/l Zn solution for electrolysis in the company's
Metclor cell. Chlorine gas from the zinc electrolysis cell is employed in the
leaching operation. The process has been evaluated on a l kg Pb/h pilot plant
which ran for over 600 h, and achieved 99% Pb recovery as a 99.97% Pb
product. Silver recoveries were around 94% and sulphur was produced by
flotation of the leach residue. Zinc is used to cement the lead and the overall
energy consumption is 2.33 kWh/kg Zn, or about 0.9 kWh/kg Pb, a value
which is not excessive.
Although developed for copper, the Dextec process can also be used to re-
24 J.E. DUTRIZAC
cover lead from lead concentrates [82 ], and may be particularly useful for
deleading copper concentrates prior to subsequent smelting. In regard to the
latter application, Boliden Metall and Dextec operated a 3 m diameter by 4
m high pilot cell for about l year. The cell was operated in a batch mode using
10-12 h/day cycles. In the anode, or slurry, part of the cell, lead was selec-
tively solubilized at 90°C in a 250 g/l NaCl electrolyte maintained at a pH of
around 1.5 with HC1. A variety of dissolution reactions are probably involved:
PbS + 2FeCI3 --, PbCI2 + 2FeCI2 + S° (38)
PbS+ 2HCI--, PbCI2 +H2S (39)
P b S - 2e- -~ Pb 2+ + S° (40)
Any H2S evolved either would be oxidized by ferric chloride or would pre-
cipitate dissolved Ag, Cu, Zn, etc. In this regard < 1% of the copper, zinc and
iron in the concentrate was solubilized. The lead concentration of the solution
was 20 g/l Pb, and the lead migrated through the diaphragm and was depos-
ited as coarse crystals at the cathode. Concentrates containing 10-25% Cu,
4-20% Pb, 4-30% Zn and 100-20,000 ppm Ag were successfully treated.
Overall lead recoveries were 93% and the energy requirement was 0.6-0.7
kWh/kg Pb. During the pilot program, various improvements were made to
the cell design, and it was estimated that the capital cost of a 30,000 t/yr lead
refinery would be (1986 US$) $ 10,000,000 and that the operating costs,
exclusive of capital charges, would be $ 0.27/kg Pb. Although the Dextec pro-
cess would probably require extensive development to control all the impur-
ities present in conventional lead concentrates, it appears to offer a viable
means of de-leading copper concentrates with the concomitant production of
a marketable lead product.
Most of the lead leaching processes developed to date advocate the precip-
itation of a PbCl2 intermediate product. Such a step improves the final purity
of the lead metal and provides a "surge capacity" between the leaching and
metal recovery operations. Although the Minemet process initially proposed
electrowinning directly from the purified leach solution, the latest develop-
ments of that process incorporate an intermediate PbCl2 crystallization step.
Only the Dextec process proposes lead recovery directly from the leach solu-
tion, but it is doubtful if that option would be viable for "dirty" lead
concentrates.
Although the Hazen Research process [76 ] employed H2 reduction of the
PbCl2 crystals, most processes utilize electrolysis to recuperate the lead and
regenerate an oxidant. SNC Inc. and CANMET recently reviewed PbCI2 elec-
trolysis technologies and offered a conceptual design for an electrowinning
cell [ 83, 84 ]. Seven fused salt and eleven aqueous electrolysis cells were eval-
uated. It was concluded that the recovery of lead by either fused salt or aqueous
electrolytic procedures had been demonstrated at a pilot scale. Three pro-
L E A C H I N G S U L P H I D E M | N E R A L S IN C H L O R I D E MEDIA 25
I I AN6DES : I I
L___2 - L. . . . II !__-~
CATHODE
lished prior to 1984 have been reviewed [ 8, 12 ]. The more recent fundamen-
tal studies on the chloride leaching of galena are summarized inTable 4.
The various kinetic studies were reviewed by Kobayashi et al. [ 93 ] and the
individual investigations were Compared on a consistent basis. There is a con-
sensus that the rate increases directly as the surface area of the galena
increases or with increasing temperature. Most of the reported activation
energies lie in the relatively narrow range of 34-53 kJ/mol. The rate increases
with increasing total chloride concentration, and the effect is especially ap-
parent at the higher chloride levels. Concentrated HCI solutions accelerate
the rate, probably via the generation of H2S. Of some commercial significance
is the fact that two reaction regimes are identified depending on the FeCl3
concentration. This point is illustrated in Fig. 7 which is taken from the paper
ofKobayashi et al. [93 ]. For FeCl3 concentrations <0.1 M, the rate is strongly
dependent on the FeCl3 concentration, and linear kifietics may prevail. For
FeCl3 concentrations > 0. l M, the rate is nearly independent of the ferric ion
TABLE 4
10 -2
.¢_ ~'" t41
E
"~ 10-3
m
c
ou
o
m 10 -4
7"
I I I
10"2 10-1 10 0
FeCl 3 conc (M)
Fig. 7. Effect of the FeCI3 concentration on the galena leaching rate as reported by various in-
vestigators, from [93 ]. 1 = [91 ]; 2= [88 ]; 3= [85 ]; 4= [90]; 5= [93 ]; 6= [93 ].
Fig. 8. Backscattered electron micrograph showing the continuous PbCI2 layer tbrmed on galena
after 7 h of leaching at 80°C in 0.3 M FeCl~-0.3 M HCI-3.0 M NaCI solution. The PbCl2 forms
a cominuous layer between the galena and the sulphur reaction product, from [86]. l -galena;
2 = PbCl~; 3 = sulphur.
the galena surface. Hence, the outward diffusion of the reaction products must
be at least partly rate controlling. Second, the separation of the elemental sul-
phur reaction product from the surface of the PbS, as well as the morphology
o1"the sulphur, suggests that the sulphur is liberated from the galena surface
as a soluble species:
The PbCI2 quickly saturates the solution at the reaction interface, and a
thin layer of solid PbCI2 is formed. The H2S species dissolves in the solution
and diffuses through the PbCI2 layer. Thence, the H2S reacts with FeCI3 to
form sulphur and the porous, globular texture of the sulphur is consistent
with such a reaction:
The overall reaction is the same as for the direct FeCI3 leaching of the gal-
ena, but the formation of a soluble sulphur intermediary better accounts for
the morphology of the reaction products.
LEACHING SULPHIDE MINERALS IN CHLORIDE MEDIA 29
Bulk
Concenl~ae
Feed
Reagents~ ~
Leach Residue to
lb '~asto or to S"IAu
,v i~ecovely
1 Lead Chlo~le
E~'tro~ ! "- LEAD INGOT
bOll l l ~ 22
lh COPPER-SILVER
v CEMENTCAKE
Z]n~ Chlotldo m
Iron Removal by SX
~ m m
Zn
Ramna
~ C~
~ ZINC CATHOOE
Clz Io CNo~nailon
Emuenl m m m m ~ CADMIUM
......... v[ Trealmerland Zn, Pb Chloride
Cadmium Remvi~,
.-- ii i
Emue~t Sol.fort.
" In wasle
P,Issidue to Waste
Fig. 9. Schematic flowsheet of the CANMET ferric chloride leach process for low-copper pyritic
bulk concentrates, from [ 100].
zinc dust cementation. A novel feature of the CANMET process is that zinc
is electrowon from the chloride solution as a compact plate; Cl2 gas is gener-
ated at the anode of the diaphragm cell and is used to re-oxidize the iron
chloride leach solution. Excess iron and other impurities are controlled by the
oxy-hydrolysis of a bleed stream from the SX raffinate.
An economic analysis of the CANMET ferric chloride leach process indi-
LEACHING SULPHIDE MINERALS IN CHLORIDE MEDIA 31
The initial, nearly neutral, leach is accelerated by the presence of low con-
centrations (e.g., 1.5 g/l Cu 2+ ) of cupric chloride, and it seems likely that a
cupric chloride leach is actually involved:
4ZnS+ 14Cu 2+ + 4H20--* 14Cu + + 4 Z n 2+ (47)
+ 8H + + 5042- "~"35 °
2Cu + +½02 + 2NH~ --, 2Cu 2+ + H 2 0 + 2NH3 (48)
The residue from the near-neutral leach is treated in an acidic environment
at 105 °C and 150 kPa 02 pressure. Sufficient HCI is added to solubilize all
the non-ferrous metals in the residue.
Silver in the pregnant solution from the first stage leach is recovered by
cementation on copper and a PbCI2 product is formed by vacuum crystalli-
zation at < 50 ° C. The PbCI2 is redissolved and cemented on zinc, following
the precedent of Tecnicas Reunidas [ 30]. Zinc is extracted at 50°C with
j'1 ~ J
I______ ____ 7.-
S~Nr(nbO
I 1
-'.1 II
1 i .1
e
Ao/HL
SdUino
Pyrite l
| ~oethll
i
9 Sulphu,
i
,_J
--~- [
I '
i. i ' ' ' I ,.~w,ww.
i
. e.u ~ .~.N .....
i
: .................................. !'..... .1................... !.....
~J;7..-. -.7 ,F,...............................................
. J
i
Copper-zinc concentrate Rate a [ FeCI3] o.t4 40 Rate independent of Linear kinetics 105
containing 6% Zn stirring speed. NaC!
slightly increases rate
Fifteen sized, 39-811 Rate increased in a Linear kinetics for all 106
high-purity sphalerites linear manner with Fe contents
containing 0.04-15% Fe increasing Fe content
.m
-t
N
N
g
LEACHING SULPHIDE MINERALS IN CHLORIDE MEDIA 35
I I
7{:
,ll
E
m
X I01 - -
_1 . / l i
Z
t
too I I
i0'~ I0"=
Fea+ + Fe HSO4~'+] ( mol/L )
Fig. 11. The effect of the combined concentrations of the F~ 3+ and FeHSO42+ species on the
rate of sphalerite dissolution at 60°C. The implication is that the FeSO4 + species is inactive.
From [ 109].
36 J.E. DUTRIZAC
0.7
Bluebell 12.5% Fe
°6
OS II nau n79S* F
~- L Jt ~ Nanisivik6.0"/oFo
~" 0.4
Balmat 1.29% Fo
0.3
0.1
0.0 I i
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
TIME (h)
Fig. 12. The effect of the solid solution iron content of sphalerite on its dissolution in FeCI3
media, from [ 106 ].
tion iron content, and that the effect is most pronounced in the, 0-2% Fe range.
This aspect, as well as the effect of the iron content on other leaching param-
eters, requires additional study.
CONCLUSIONS
Over the past decade, significant progress has been made in the ferric
chloride and/or cupric chloride leaching of sulphide concentrates. A demon-
stration plant treating chalcopyrite concentrates and various pilot plant cam-
paigns on lead, zinc and pyritic bulk concentrates have been carried out. Nu-
merous fundamental studies provide a sound foundation for process
development and have defined many of the important control parameters.
Demonstrated strengths of the FeCl3/CuCI2 leach option include high metal
recoveries, elemental sulphur generation, silver dissolution, lack of pyrite at-
tack and ease of solution regeneration. The avoidance of SO2 emissions and
the decoupling of metal production from acid manufacture are major advan-
tages. A number of economic studies suggest that chloride leaching/process-
ing routes are competitive with conventional technologies in some circum-
stances and especially for the treatment of non-conventional concentrates.
38 J.E. DUTRIZAC
TABLE 6
The effect of the solid solution iron content on the leaching of sphalerite
Despite the successes and apparent advantages of the chloride route, there
has been little commercial activity. In fact, a number of key problems remain
to be resolved. Metal product purity and morphology, especially for copper,
are a concern. The use of solvent extraction techniques, possibly with conver-
sion to a conventional sulphate system, would probably resolve both
problems. The recovery of elemental sulphur from the leach residues needs
additional attention; total sulphur extraction must be achieved if gold is to be
leached from the residues. The selenium content of the sulphur remains a
general concern. Although the process residues are casually assumed to be
benign, this has not been widely demonstrated, especially for long term resi-
due impoundment.
The implementation of any FeCl3/CuCl2 leach process will entail a consid-
erable risk that must be balanced by significantly lower costs or by a major
technical advantage. Much of the impetus for chloride technology originated
from the need to control SO2 smelter emissions. With the development and
widespread commercialization of flash and bath smelting processes for Cu
and Pb, this consideration becomes less and less compelling. Hygiene aspects
and fugitive SO2 emissions are still a concern, however, and could provide
the incentive for a chloride process to treat conventional Cu, Zn or Pb con-
centrates. There seems to be an economic advantage in producing a bulk con-
centrate from complex sulphide ores, and chloride leaching technologies hold
considerable promise for the treatment of such feeds. Clearly more work is
needed, especially at the pilot plant level, if the potential of chloride metal-
lurgy is to be realized.
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