42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

TOPIC 42

THE NORMAN CONQUEST. THE

INFLUENCE OF FRENCH UPON THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. BORROWINGS
AND CALCS

Virginia Gandía

)  Instituto de Ciencias
Ciencias del Hombre XXI 
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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

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 Instituto de Ciencias
Ciencias del Hombre XXI  #
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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

)% INTRODUCTION

-he history of a language must include not only the e8olution of the structure of the
language "ut also an account of the e=ternal forces> such as> political> economic> social> and
cultural> !hich influence this e8olution in the course of time. +ur (no!ledge of earlier stages of
$nglish is a reconstruction of !hat !e thin( once e=isted. -here are no descriptions of medie8al
$nglish coming from "efore #?)).

-he history of $nglish> as !ell as other languages> is con8entionally di8ided into periods
to facilitate the description of its e8olution. In $nglish> then> !e can distinguish among fi8e
different periods:
Pre-Old Engl!" @circa 4?)%A))B

Old Engl!" @A)) %##))B: $nglish !as a fle=ile language> li(e Latin or Gree(.
-his is considered as a period of formation and gro!th of $nglish as a ne! language spo(en in
Great 7ritain. It !as "orn out of the con;unction of se8eral dialects of the Germanic tri"es that
in8aded the territory after the fall of the /o man $mpire.

Mddle Engl!" @##)) %#?))B: In this period $nglish suffered its most meaningful
changes. In grammar it !ent from "eing a fle=ile language to "eing completely analytical.
-housands of !ords !ere added to the 8oca"ulary from 5rench and Latin as a result of the
in8asion and coloniCation from ,ormandy that lasted 4)) years and noticea"ly deteriorated the
+ld $nglish.

M#dern Engl!" @#?)) %#D?)B: 0uring this period> the in8ention of the printing
 press eased a conser8ati8e process in its grammar and its orthography> !hich !as facing the need

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

for a standard language for all its readers. It also eased an inno8ati8e process in its range of
8oca"ulary due to the disco8eries and the tra8els of the 7ritish all o8er the !orld.

C#n$e%&#r'r(-Pre!en$ D'( Engl!" @#D?)% . . . B

-he period !e are going to deal !ith in this topic "elongs to the ,orman *onquest>
!hich is placed during the last part of the late old $nglish> and the "eginning of the early middle
$nglish. o!e8er> "efore !e start tal(ing a"out the ,orman *onquest and its consequences in
the $nglish language> !e could say something a"out the history of 7ritain> and the $nglish
language.

I- HISTORICAL APPROACH

3s 5rancisco 5ernEndeC points out in his "oo( Historia de la (en)ua In)lesa> the history
of the $nglish language "egins !ith the settlement of 7ritain "y Germanic tri"es in the middle of 
the fifth century 30. et> "efore this happened> the island @inha"ited "y *eltic peoples for a fe!
centuriesB !itnessed a num"er of political and military e8ents> !hich finally led to its conquest
 "y Germanic in8aders. -hese in8aders !ere Futes> a=ons and 3ngles.

1ntil the tenth century there !as no $nglish monarchy. -he Germanic tri"es> !hich
conquered 7ritain> founded se8eral small (ingdoms. -hese three different Germanic tri"es shared
the po!er of $ngland until the candina8ian in8asions of the island. -he candina8ian in8aders>
or Vi(ings> as they are usually called> !ere led "y 0anes and ,or!egians during the middle of
the th century until the ##th century.

In #)42 the third period of 0anish in8asions came to an end> together !ith t!enty%eight
years of 0anish rule in $ngland. -he (ing arthacnut @#)4)%2B !as follo!ed "y $d!ard> !h o
had come to $ngland in #)4# at the in8itation of arthacnut. $d!ard !as acclaimed (ing in
London in #)42 and !as cro!ned at Hinchester a year later. $d!ard the *onfessor !as half
 ,orman "y "irth% son of $thelred 1nraed and $mma> daughter of a former 0u(e of ,ormandy%>
and spent most of his life there. e !as no !arrior> "eing his chief delights hunting and religious
o"ser8ance.

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-he coronation of $d!ard mar(ed the "eginning of the end of the (ingdom of $ngland.
e contri"uted grossly to the !ea(ening of the (ingdom of $ngland in e8ery respect> since he
!as not interested in efficient running of the state. e spent long years of e=ile in ,ormandy> and
during his reign he did nothing to impro8e the la!s and administration> or to de8elop the defense
a"ilities of his country. Instead> he appointed ,ormans to important offices in his court> church>
and state administration.

3fter t!enty%four years of reign> $d!ard the *onfessor died in Fanuary #). 3 day after
his death> arold @his "rother%in%la!B !as made (ing. Hhen the ne!s reached ,ormandy>
Hilliam @the 0u(e of ,ormandy and 2nd cousin of $d!ard the *onfessorB decided to conquer
$ngland and assume the royal reins of po!er. It is "elie8ed that $d!ard promised the (ingdom
to Hilliam in #)?# or #)?2. 5urthermore> "eing the closest li8ing relati8e> he "elie8ed that
legally he had full rights to the $nglish throne. *onsequently> he in8aded $ngland later in the
year and fought a decisi8e "attle near astings.

3fter initial success in repulsing se8eral ,orman charges> <ing arold !as fatally
!ounded "y a ,orman archer. 3t that moment> the resistance disintegrated and the $nglish !ere
defeated. 3s dar(ness fell> the remnants of the $nglish army fled the "attlefield. -he road to
Hinchester and London !as open. hortly after the "attle of astings> Hinchester capitulated> to
 "e follo!ed "y London a fe! !ee(s later.
+n *hristmas 0ay #)> Hilliam> 0u(e of ,ormandy> !as cro!ned <ing of $ngland in
Hestminster. 3 ne! no"ility !as introduced in the country.

II- POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES

-he fact that Hilliam came to the $nglish throne through military conquest had se8eral
consequences for $ngland and the $nglish:

a% the introduction of a ne! no"ility. Hilliam depri8ed the $nglish earls of 
their po!er and replaced them !ith a system of shires and "aronies !ith his o!n local officials>
all ,orman. -herefore> for more than a century after the

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

conquest> almost all large estates and important positions !ere in the hand s of ,ormans.

 "% a strong military force control !as esta"lished. -he ne! elite "rought
!ith it ,ormal feudal customs> !hich !ere reinforced "y the need for cohesion and mutual
military support among the fairly small group of conquerors. -hus the re"ellions among the
 ,orman "arons !ere minor and short%li8ed> the interests of sta"ility "eing paramount.

c% -here !as a strong impact on the $nglish church. Hilliam not only
replaced the $nglish no"ility !ith ,orman "arons "ut also the nati8e church esta"lishment !ith
his o!n ,orman clergy. -herefore> ,orman clergymen !ere appointed to important positions.
 ,e! monasteries !ere founded and filled !ith foreign mon(s. 7y #.)A> not a single $nglish
$arl remained> !hilst in #.)A only 9 of 2# a""ots !ere $nglish.

-he coronation of Hilliam in #) !as only the "eginning of the ,orman
*onquest. It too( him four more years to su"due the !hole country. 5rom the coronation of
Hilliam the *onqueror until #2)4 the (ings of $ngland !ere simultaneously du(es o f ,ormandy.
imilarly> the $nglish no"ility also had their possessions on the *ontinent. *onsequently they
spent much of their time in 5rance> li(e their monarchs> attending to the "usiness> !hich required
their physical presence there.

III- LINGUISTIC CONSEQUENCES

3s 5ernEndeC points out> !hen 3nglo%,orman in8aders came to $ngland in #)> they
!ere to su";ugate a nation !ith higher culture than theirs> !ith a rich literature ha8ing its o!n
!ritten standard. 3ll this had a tremendous impact on the linguistic situation of $ngland:
a% it enhanced the use of 5rench in $ngland from the ##th to the #9th century
 "% it contri"uted to the further use of the language e8en later.

Hhen ,ormans settled in $ngland after #)> they continued to spea( 

their o!n 5rench dialect @3nglo%,ormanB. ome no"lemen pic(ed up enough of the $nglish
language to understand it. ince a num"er of them decided to spend more time in $ngland> it is

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reasona"le to assume that the generations "orn in the #2th century !ould reach a certain degree of 
 "ilingualism.

0espite this> 5rench continued to "e used as a means of e8eryday communication among
mem"ers of upper classes "eyond the year #2)). -he (ings did not (no! $nglish fluently until
the #9th century. 5rench !as used at the $nglish court not only as the language of ordinary
intercourse "ut also as the language of literature. 3t first> those !ho spo(e 5rench !ere of
 ,orman origin> "ut soon> through intermarriage and association !ith the ruling class> many
 people of $ngland found to their ad8antage to learn a ne! language.

5rench !as soon learnt "y a num"er of $nglishmen !ho sa! ad8antages in spea(ing it:
as the language of upper classes and the court> 5rench carried a mar( of social and cultural
 prestige.
a% a certain num"er of $nglish people had to learn 5rench in order to
function in the society !hose ruling class !as monolingual for some time.
 "% all people ser8ing ,orman lords had to (no! their language.
c% It !as also common for (nights and merchants to "e "ilingual and "oth
 ,ormans and $nglishmen !ere learning $nglish and 5rench respecti8ely.

5rench !as spo(en in some monasteries and "y a siCa"le portion of the
clergy as !ellJ "ut $nglish remained the language of the common people. 3nd some ,ormans
@especially soldiersB !ho settled among hundreds of $nglish people !ould also learn the
language of those !hom they had contact !ith e8ery day.

ummariCing> the issue of the use of 5rench and $nglish in $ngland at the close of the
#2th century could "e defined as a Ktrilingual scene:

a% 5rench !as spo(en "y ,orman upper and middle classes: in e8eryday
use> in la! courts> in the armyJ it !as used "y some $nglishmen under the same circumstances
!hene8er interacting !ith ,ormans.

 "% $nglish !as "asically the language spo(en "y the $nglish population

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on all occasionsJ it !as also used "y ,orman middle classes and sporadically "y mem"ers of
upper classes in interactions !ith the ethnically $nglish population. 5urthermore> "oth 5rench
and $nglish !ere used in church sermons.

c% In !riting> $nglish and not 5rench !as used in !rits @ordersB issued in
#)A). 3fter #)) Latin replaced $nglish in legal documents> although a fe! documents still
appeared in $nglish during the reign of /ichard I @##D%DDB. -he first la! in 5rench dated form
c. ##4)%?).

It is important to notice that -he Peter"orough *hronicle continued to "e

!ritten in $nglish until ##?4.
3ll in all> the $nglish language !as used side "y side !ith 5rench from #) to #2))
and> although less prestigious> it functioned continuously in social> cultural and other spheres. 3s
a result of the gro!ing "ilingualism in a situation !here 5rench had a higher prestige> $nglish
 "egan to undergo serious changes under the influence of 5rench and the re8erse !as pro"a"ly
true also> although on a much smaller scale.

o!e8er> in #2)4 30> <ing Fohn lost the pro8ince of ,ormandy to the <ing o f 5rance.
-his "egan a process !here the ,orman no"les of $ngland "ecame increasingly estranged from
their 5rench cousins. $ngland "ecame the chief concern of the no"ility> rather than their estates
in 5rance> and consequently the no"ility adopted a modified $nglish as their nati8e tongue. -he
conflict of interests "et!een 5rance and $ngland caused the rise of antagonism "et!een the t!o
countries> !hich finally resulted in an open military confrontation> the so%called undred ears
Har> !hich lasted from #99A to #4?9. -he 7lac( 0eath @#94D%?)B> on the other hand> (illed
a"out one third of the $nglish population. -he la"oring and merchant classes gre! in economic
and social importance> and along !ith them $nglish increased in importance compared to 3nglo%
 ,orman.

-herefore> $nglish !on its !ay "ac( into uni8ersal use and in the #?th century> spo(en
5rench had disappeared> !hile !ritten 5rench !as still used as a medium for social
correspondence. o!e8er> the mi=ture of the t!o languages ca me to "e (no!n as &iddle
$nglish. -he most famous e=ample of &iddle $nglish is *haucer s Canterbur* ales. 7oth
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5rench and $nglish !ere used in correspondence. o!e8er in the first quarter of the #?th century>
the final shift to!ards $nglish as an official and unofficial national !ritten language occurred.

7y #92> the linguistic di8ision "et!een the no"ility and the commoners !as largely
o8er. In that year> the tatute of Pleading !as adopted> !hich made $ng lish the language of the
courts and it "egan to "e used in Parliament. /ichard II and enry IV !ere pro"a"ly the first
$nglish monarchs completely fluent in $nglish. 7y the middle of the #?th century> only the ouse
of Lords and the La! *ourts !ere still "ound to 5rench and> later on> only the La! *ourts
continued !ith some of their KLa! 5rench until the #th century.

I)- INFLUENCE OF FRENCH UPON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

-he strongest 5rench influence too( place during the #9th and #4th centuries. -hese t!o
centuries !ere the ones !hen 5rench 8oca"ulary in8aded $nglish language massi8ely. +n the
other hand> the 5rench literature of the period !as at its pea( in the !hole of $urope> influencing
other literatures and languages. 0uring the #9th century 5rench romances such as -he &atter of
7rittany> -he &atter of 5rance and -he &atter of $ngland !ere translated or imitated "y the
$nglish.

*haucer + to,ic 43  !as of the gentle classes and he clearly spo(e 5rench from an early age
and pro"a"ly first !rote poems in 5rench> the language of the courts in !hich he ser8ed.
*haucers first "oo(> -he 7oo( of the 0uchess> can "e considered as a mere translation since it
has its 5rench counterpart: enriette 03ngauleme. -he 7oo( of the 0uchess> also -he 7oo( of
7lanche> !as !ritten on occasion of the death of 7lanche of ,a8arra> the !ife of Fohn of Gaunt.
-ranslations continued all o8er the &iddle $nglish period. -hey !ere a !ay through !hich
5rench literary influence came into the $nglish literature of the period.

7y the later #4th century a demand for $nglish had de8eloped> and literary !or(s in
$nglish !ere !anted not "ecause their audience had no 5rench "ut "ecause they preferred
$nglish. 7y the #?th century> London $nglish !as firmly esta"lished as the dialect spo(en "y the
deniCens of po!er> a fact comic effect in e econd e,erds la*. -he literary language that

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*haucer fashioned "ecome the standard !ritten language of elegant !riters and the language of
London "ecame the !ritten standard for all formal $nglish.

o!e8er> !e should point out that 5rench influence upon the $nglish language can "e
seen not only in its 8oca"ulary "ut also in certain idioms and syntactical usages that appeared in
the &iddle $nglish period. -hat is> special terms and stylistic e=pressions or idiomatic terms>
!hich are typically 5rench are found in $nglish literary !or(s. -herefore> !e !ill study here the
influence on the le=icon> that is> "orro!ings> compounding and deri8ation> and calques on the
one hand> and the influence on the spelling system. He !ill also pay attention to the influence on
the synta=> regarding the ad;ecti8e and 8er". 5rench influence came from t!o separate dialects of 
this language: the ,orman dialect @"oth spo(en and !ritten languageB> and the 5rench of the KIle
de 5rance.

The words from French which would have been entering the language during Chaucer's lifetime were rather
different in character from those which arrived in the early Middle English period. The French of the Norman
conquerors was a northern dialect of the language and this dominated the English scene for !"" years . #y
the $!th century however %aris had come to be established as the centre of influence in France and new
loan words began to arrive from the dialect of that area.
&s the %arisian court grew in prestige so %arisian French became the prestige dialect. t is this variety of
French which in due course would have been taught in quality schools in England with the earlier English(
influenced varieties of French considered uneducated and perhaps a bit of a )o*e +if this is the correct
interpretation of Chaucer's remar* about the %rioress who learned her French at the #enedictine nunnery in
,tratford Middlese-/
&nd Frenssh she spa* ful faire and fetisly 0gracefully1
&fter the scole 0school1 of ,tratford atte #owe
For Frenssh of %arys was to hire un*nowe 0her un*nown1.
From a le-ical point of view it is important to note these dialect differences as otherwise it is not possible to
e-plain certain spellingvariants. There are several pairs of loan words affected +though not all have survived
in Modern English/
Norman French Parisian French

calange +$!!2 challenge +$3""

canchelers +$"44 chanceleres +$3""
 wile +$$25 guile +$!!2

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 warrant +$!!2 guarantee +$4!5

 warden +$!!2 guardian +$544
reward +$3$2 regard +$53"
conveie+$362 convoy +$5!2
lealte +$3"" loialte +$5""
prisun +$$!$ prison +$!!2
gaol +$$43 )ail +$!"7
The central French spellings post(date the Norman ones. The situation is not always clear partly because
of the uncertainties of English spelling practices at the time 8 but there is enough evidence to show that
there were two distinct stages of borrowing from French in early Middle English. +&fter 9. #urnley $77!.

A- INFLUENCE ON THE LE*ICON

+- BORROWINGS

He could agree !ith 7augh that> a considera"le transference of !ords is

ine8ita"le !hen t!o languages e=ist side "y side for a long time> as 5rench and $nglish did.
-herefore> and as !e ha8e "een pointing out "efore> many 5rench !ords !ere introduced into
$nglish since the ,orman *onquest. o!e8er> the earliest 5rench "orro!ings are found on pre%
conquest documents> and they reflect aristocratic 8alues and tastes. 5or e=ample> baron>
messen)er M

It is also true that e8en though 5rench comes from Latin> prior to the ,orman *on quest>
Latin had "een only a minor influence on the $nglish language> mainly through 8estiges of the
/oman occupation and from the con8ersion of 7ritain to *hristianity in the Ath century
@ecclesiastical terms such as ,riest > 2icar > and mass came into the language this !ayB> "ut no!
there !as a !holesale infusion of /omance @3nglo%,ormanB !ords> as !e are a"out to see.

-herefore> after the conquest> the earliest "orro!ings appear in the Peter"orough
*hronicle. o!e8er it is possi"le that !ords "orro!ed from Latin !ere adapted to 5rench
spelling con8entions. -he inta(e of "orro!ings increased dramatically around the #9th century>

#)  Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

coinciding !ith the language shift among the upper class mem"ers> !ho !ere turning to the use
of $nglish.

-he influence of the ,ormans can "e illustrated "y loo(ing at t!o !ords> bee!  and co.
 ee! > commonly eaten "y the aristocracy> deri8es from the 3nglo%,orman> !hile the 3nglo%
a=on commoners> !ho tended the cattle> retained the Germanic co. &oreo8er> many legal
terms> such as indict > 5ur*> and 2erdict  ha8e 3nglo%,orman roots "ecause the ,ormans ran the
courts. -his split> !here !ords commonly used "y the aristocracy ha8e /omantic roots and
!ords frequently used "y the 3nglo%a=on commoners ha8e Germanic roots> can "e seen in
many instances.
-herefore> !e can appreciate ho! in changing from 5rench to $nglish they transferred
much of their go8ernmental and administrati8e 8oca"ulary> their ecclesiastical> legal and military
terms> their familiar !ords of fashion> food and social life> the 8oca"ulary of 3rt> learning and
medicine. He can offer some e=amples related to each of the pre8ious fields.

a% C",r" 'nd Relg#n @from !ords e=pressing class or ran(> to names of 

o";ects or !ords e=pressing religious conceptsB: theology> sermon> confession> "aptism> prayer>
8irginM
 "% G#ern%en$ $er%!: go8ern> royal> repu"lic> minister> empireM$=cept for 
/ng%Q,een%L#rd%L'd(%E'rl> most designations of ran( are 5rench: ,o"le> ir> Prince>
Princess> 0u(e> 7aronM
c% Ml$'r( $er%!: army> na8y> "attle> soldier> peaceM
d% Leg'l $er%!: ;ustice> ;udge> ;ury> crime> 8erdict> prison> punishmentM
e% F'!"#n $er%!: fashion> dress> "lue> "oots> "uttonM
f% C,ln'r( $er%!: "acon> salmon> sardine> fry> dinner> supper> appetiteM
g% D#%e!$ 'nd !#'l $er%!: chair> lamp> curtain> to!el> "lan(et> danceM
h% Hg" ,l$,r'l $er%!: art> poet> prose> painting> cathedral> imageM
i% Med'l $er%!: pain> stomach> physician> remedy> paralyticM

o!e8er> "orro!ings from 5rench are not limited to single !ords. Hhole e=pressions !ere
also translated into $nglish: ,lent* o! accordin) to b* eart to do 5usticeM

 Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI  ##

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

3s a result of all these "orro!ings> duplications !ere frequent for many of the 5rench
!ords that came into use "ore meanings already e=pressed "y a nati8e !ord. In such cases> either 
one of the !ords !as e8entually lost> or !here "oth sur8i8ed> they !ere differentiated in
meaning. In most cases> it !as the +$ !ord that died out. $.g. the +$ NaepeleO yielded to 5rench
Nno"leO> +$ NleodeO to 5rench NpeopleO.

ometimes> then> 5rench !ords replaced +ld $nglish !ordsJ crime replaced !iren and

uncle replaced eam. +ther times> 5rench and +ld $nglish components com"ined to form a ne!
!ord> as the 5rench )entle and the Germanic man formed )entleman. +ther times> t!o different
!ords !ith roughly the same meaning sur8i8e into modern $nglish. -hus !e ha8e the Germanic
doom and the 5rench 5ud)ment > or is and desire.

o!e8er> !here "oth the $nglish and 5rench !ords sur8i8ed they !ere generally
differentiated in meaning: the common !ord in +$ for NsmellO !as NstenchO. 0uring the &iddle
3ges this !as supplemented "y the !ord NsmellO and the 5rench !ords NaromaO> NodourO> and
NscentO. &ost of these ha8e special connotation and Ksmell has "ecome the general !ord. tenc
no! al!ays means an unpleasant smell. ome other e=amples could "e> &ansion @+$B 8s. ouse
@5r.BJ &ight @+$B 8s. Po!er @5r.BJ Hish @+$B 8s. 0esire @5r.B

+n the other hand> and as it has "een pointed out "efore> it is also important to notice that
due to 5rench resem"lance to Latin> it is certain that many of the !ords $nglish "orro!ed from
5rench !ere originally "orro!ed "y 5rench from Latin. -herefore> the richness of $nglish in
synonyms is largely due to the easy mingling of Latin> 5rench> and nati8e elements. It has "een
said that $nglish has a synonym at each le8el% popular> literary> and learned. ome e=amples of
this tri%le8el structure are:
Engl!"0&#&,l'r1 Fren"0l$er'r(1 L'$n0le'rn$1
3s( question interrogate
-ime age epoch
/ise mount ascend
5ire flame conflagration
oly sacred consecrated
5ear -error trepidation

#2  Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

-here are some !ords that entered the $nglish language !ithout suffering any modification at all> and !e can find
many e=amples:
3d8ertise% adopted in the #? th c. meaning originally NnoticeO.
3ir% #9th c. meaning Ngas !e "reatheO.
3m"ulance% #Dth c.
3part% #4th c. from +ld 5rench
3ttitude% #Ath c. -he same !ord as Kaptitude.
7outique% #th c.
*orporal% #4th c.
0omino% #th c.
5a8our% #4th c.
Grand Pri=% #Dth c.
onour% #2th c.
ors doeu8re% #th c.
otel% #Ath c.
Loterie% #th c.
&achine% #th c.
&enu% #Dth c.
 ,o"le% #9th c.
+pinion% #9th c.
Poison% #9th c.
Possi"le% #4th c.
ueue% #th c.
/e8olution% #4th c.
/estaurant% #Dth c.
aint% in the +$ period
entiment% #Ath c.
-orrent% #Ath c.
1sual% #4th c.
Voucher% #th c.

2- COMPOUNDING AND DERI)ATION

3part from "orro!ings> another !ay to enrich the 8oca"ulary !as "y
means of composition and deri8ation. -he result !as that $nglish adopted many 5rench> Latin or 
Gree( prefi=es or suffi=es that they com"ined !ith already coined !ords "y means of
grammatical rules. +n the other hand> !hen "orro!ings entered $nglish they adapted them to

 Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI  #9

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

their pronunciation and orthography> as for e=ample> the 5rench !ord NcitéO "ecame NcityO in
$nglish.

*ompounding !as frequently used in +$> "ut the producti8ity of 

compounding had declined after the ,orman *onquest> and foreign loans !ere adopted more
freely.
+n the other hand> P/$5I63-I+, !as highly de8eloped during the &iddle $nglish
Period. ome 5rench prefi=es used in $nglish are:
Pre3 D'$e E3'%&le
/e% #9%#?th c. reclassify
0e% #?%2)th c. decontaminate
0is% #4th c. disallo!s
Inter% #4th c. international
Pre% #4%#Dth c. Predetermine
&al% #?th c. maladapted
&ost of the +$ 155I6$ !ere (ept in &$> and their num"er increased !ith
 "orro!ings from foreign sources. ome 5rench or Latin suffi=es !ere assimilated:
uffi= 0ate $=ample
%a"le #4th c. "rea(a"le> porta"le
%acy #4th c. confederacy
%age #9th c. "aggage> passage
%ity #4%#th c. sentimentality> prosperity
%iCe #9%#Dth c. finaliCe> specialiCe
%ment #4th c. amusement> shipment
%ure #4th c. pressure> failure

- CALQUES
3 calque @ or loan translationB is an e=pression translated directly from one language into
another.
3 famous e=ample of a calque is George 7ernard ha!Qs uperman "ased on the German
bermensc @as used "y ,ietCsche in #9B. 5rench has "een one of the greatest sources of
calqued e=pressions.

#4  Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

And "#56 (et comment').

-his e=pression is used to e=claim> you can say that againR or definitelyR
e.g. 3: I bet tat urt89
7: And how! 07 es> a lotRB
A 8'g # $r/! (sac des ruses) 7 resources> special a"ilities. -he !hole "ag of tric(s can also
 "e used to mean e8erything:
e.g. (et9s see at Ro)er9s )ot in is ba) o! tric:s -e9s sure to a2e some solution.
e.g. ;e a2e to ta:e te costumes and te ,ro,s to te teatre e2er* ni)t and ten brin) te
whole bag of tricks home again.
T# 8,ld '!$le! n S&'n 0 chateau en Espagne) 7 to daydream
e.g. <oan *ou9re buildin) castles in ,ain a)ain. =et  real, they're not going to offer you the job
of inister of ulture!
A r( r#% $"e "e'r$ 0 cri de coeur) 7 an appeal in distress
e.g. "he psychologist said that the teenager's suicide attempt was really a cry from the heart.
An e%8'rr'!!%en$ # r"e! (Embarras de richesse) 7 too much of a good thing
e.g. e restaurant9s menu as ten ,a)es lon)8 > real embarrassment o! rices i! *ou ask me.
T"e 'r !e3 (le beau se#e) 7 !omen. -his e=pression is considered se=ist and patronising these
days:
e.g. $hen men call us %the fair se#% is it because they are the unfair se# or the ugly se#&
Fle' %'r/e$ (marche au# puces) 7 a mar(et that sells second%hand things. -he a"undance of
second%hand clothes on sale at such mar(ets meant that fleas !ere rife:
e.g. ack and  are going to the flea market this afternoon to see if we can find a secondhand
bed for the spare room. *o you want to come, too&

B- INFLUENCE ON THE SPELLING S9STEM

-he $nglish spelling system !as also modified after the conquest. 3nglo%,orman scri"es
introduced thereafter some additions or modifications> such as:

% the N,O !as replaced "y N#,O as in ",!:"#,!:"#,!e

 Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI  #?
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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

% the letter NoO !as used to indicate the sound u "efore m>n>8>!. eg: mSneTmoon
% NyO "egan to "e used instead of NiO> !hereas NyO from +$ !as replaced "y NuO.$g:
+$ synnTsunneTsun
% the com"ination of NquO replaced +$ Nc!O in many nati8e !ords. $g: c!enTqueen

C- INFLUENCE ON THE S9NTA*

+- DE)ELOPMENT OF PREPOSITIONS
0uring the &$ period> $nglish suffered the le8eling of 8o!els> !hich
 produced the loss of gender and inflectional endings> thus "ecoming stricter. -his loss had to "e
compensated "y de8eloping a prepositional system> !hich $nglish lac(ed. 3s a result> they too(
 prepositional phrases from 5rench> such as:

 In )eneral  from en )eneral In !act/ Indeed/ In e!!ect from

  en !ait 
 &or * from our?uoi * cause tat  from @ cause de ?ue
 >s one tat from come cil ?ue A!ten times from sour2entes !ois

2- INFLUENCE ON THE AD;ECTI)E

3s it is !ell (no!> no!adays the ad;ecti8e in $nglish is placed "efore the

noun> !ith only a fe! e=ceptions. 3t that period> ho!e8er> due to a 5rench influence the
ad;ecti8e could appear after the noun.
3 thynge immortalT an immortal thing.

Later on> this !ay of using the ad;ecti8e disappeared> lea8ing a num"er of
stereotyped e=pressions> such as:

the "ody politic the state General

the poet Laureate from times immemorial

ha(espeare himself made use of this construction in H'%le$: poem

#  Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

unlimited> scene inol8ida"leM He also find this feature in C"',er> !ho !as one of the most
influenced !riters. In addition> he used the plural form !ith the ad;ecti8e> as a result of the
5rench influence: the Goddes *elestials> places delitala"lesM

- THE )ERB <TO DO=

3lthough the 8er" Nto doO "egan to de8elop in the transitional period from
+$ to &$> it !as only used !ith motion 8er"s. o!e8er> in the &iddle 3ges the 8arious uses of
Nto doO "egan to de8elop e=tensi8ely.

% to form "oth interrogati8e and negati8e structures.

% -he &$ e=pression: NH#5 d#e! %( l#rd> O> has its counterpart in the 5rench one:
NBue !aites mes iresD

4- TERMS BUILT UP ON THE BASIS OF THE )ERB ?TO TA@E

T# $'/e 'd'n$'ge is a literal translation of Prendre ''n$'ge

T# $'/e le'e comes from Prendre #,g
T# $'/e '$ r'nd#% comes from Prendre r'nd#n

O$"er #n!e,ene! of the 5rench influence upon the $nglish synta= !ere:
% the l#!! # nle$#n! promoted regular !ord%order 
% gr'%%'$'l gender !as early l#!$
% the &er&"r'!$ #%&'r!#n also had 5rench influence @more larger> moste
clennestMB

D- INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE

$nglish literature !ritten from the t!elfth to the fifteenth century reflects e=actly the
situation of the $nglish language. Hhen 5rench !as the language of the court and the no"ility>
the literature in $nglish !as mostly religious or admonitory and appe aling to the tastes of the
 Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI  #A
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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

middle and lo!er classes. Hith the general adoption of $nglish "y all social classes> $nglish
literature reached again one of the highest standards in $urope and produced !or(s of
outstanding cali"er. @e=. *haucer and his follo!ersB

In the middle ages> $urope !as a feudal society !ith its o!n con8entions of ser8ice>
honor and o"ligation. -he ,orman *onquest "rought $ngland more into contact !ith this
society> and especially !ith the ne! flo!ering of 5rench culture> !hich !as changing the pattern
of all medie8al $uropean literature. -hus> for o8er t!o centuries the literature produced under
 patronage !as 5rench "oth in tone and in language> !hereas literature in $nglish !as rough and
used for popular or didactic purposes.

-here !as an important 3nglo%5rench literature in $ngland in the #2th and #9th centuries>

 "eing much of it religious and didactic> as it has "een said "efore. $=: +e hasteau dAmour >
-oyage of t. /rendan> 0oman de /rut M

5rench !or(s !ritten in $ngland during this period also include a num"er of romances
@8erse stories !ritten for entertainmentB. -he courtly 5rench romance> in !hich sentiment and
ad8enture !ere com"ined> had a great influence on $nglish literature. -hus> 5rench romances
!ere translated or imitated "y the $nglish> and a lot of 5rench !ords related to hunting> games or 
chi8alry !ere adopted. ome $nglish r#%'ne! of this period are atter of /ritain> atter of
 0omeM

-he F'8l', !as another type of short narrati8e poem> humorous and usually satiric. It is
associated !ith the ne! middle classes !ho gre! in importance !hen the feudal system came to
an end. -here are fe! indi8idual fa"liau=> though. -he only $nglish ones that ha8e sur8i8ed are
found in "he anterbury "ales> and D'%e Sr$".

$nglish &#e$r( !as influenced "y 5rench too. -he rhymed 5rench 8erse soon replaced
the 3nglo%a=on alliterati8e tradition in the #4th c. -here !as an important re8i8al of it in !or(s
such as 1iers 1lowman @"y Hilliam LanglandB> ir 2awain and "he 2reen 3night .

)- CONCLUSION

#  Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

It is true that during the ,orman *onquest the $nglish language !as really affected "y
5rench influence. o!e8er> $nglish "egan to rise> little "y little> in the social scale> achie8ing
international reno!n. -he num"er of 5rench terms still in use today goes up to A?))> and 5rench
is only one of the different languages such as 0utch> German> panish> Italian or Indian> among
others> !hich $nglish too( !ords from.

3s $nglish teachers> !e should consider using history as a means of o8ercome some of

our students dou"ts regarding $nglish 8oca"ulary. He should ma(e our students realiCe the
strong and determining influence that social changes ha8e on the language in order to ma(e them
see that languages are not fi=ed structures> "ut li8e ones that can "e transformed.

He must also "ear in mind that this 5rench influence is responsi"le for the similarity that
many $nglish !ords ha8e !ith their panishValencian equi8alents and though it is 8ery useful
sometimes> it is also the cause of false friends. -herefore> !e must !arn our students not to trust
in !ords similar to those of their mother tongue> "ecau se similarity in form does not al!ays
imply similarity of meaning.

 Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI  #D

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 42. La conquista normanda. Influencia del francés en la lengua inglesa. Préstamos y calcos.

)I- BIBLIOGRAPH9

7augh> H. U *a"le> -. #D. > Histor* o! te En)lis (an)ua)e. -ro!"ridge> Hillshire>.

*rystal> 0. #D. e En)lis (an)ua)e. Penguin>.

5ernEndeC> 5. #DD9. Historia de la (en)ua In)lesa. Gredos> &adrid>.

Hood!ard. #D). Historia de In)laterra. 3lianCa>.

-hin( in $nglish 9

http:!!!.or"islingua.comeaae.htm
http:!!!.factmonster.comcehistory3)9?D.html
http:!!!.!ordorigins.orghisteng.htm
http:!!!.icg.fas.har8ard.educhaucerlanguage.html

http:!!!.(rysstal.comenglish.html

2)  Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 

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