i

DEVELOMENT OF PORTABLE
SOLAR GENERATOR

KHAMELRUN SHAH BIN MAT JAMIL

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the award of the degree
Master of Electrical Engineering

Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

University Tun Hussein OnnMalaysia

JUN 2015
 v

ABSTRACT

The increase of demand for energy, stimulated by developing countries and consequent
decrease of power sources, is leading to an unsustainable future. These way renewable
and clean energies are necessary to be used, particularly solar energy. It can produce heat
or be directly converted into electricity, called photovoltaic (PV) energy. JX Crystals Inc
is developing a class of compact portable solar generators using commercially available
32% efficient multifunction solar cells. Three different sized solar generators with
nominal power ratings of 12 W, 36 W and 75 W are described. The high solar cell
efficiency will allow all three units to be small, portable, and light weight. (For example,
the 12 W generator will fit in a pocket.) The 36 W Charger is exemplary. The 36 W
Charger in its stowed form will resemble a notebook computer case in size and form
Deployed, its physical size is half that required for a traditional Silicon 16% solar cell
Charger and one-quarter that for a 8% thin film solar cell Charger. A challenge for the
use of these 32% efficient cells is their cost. This cost can be reduced ten fold through the
use of linear Fresnel lenses as per the designs described herein. The challenge is to
preserve simplicity of operation. By using bypass diodes in the cell circuits and by
orienting the lens focal line and cell circuit East and West, the smaller 12 W and 36 W
units can be easily aimed at the sun and they will then maintain output without
adjustment for 2 hours in the middle of a sunny day. A simple 1-axis solar tracker is also
proposed for the larger 75 W unit. It can fit within the stowed case where the case will fit
within a backpack.
 vii

CONTENTS

TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xiv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Background 1

1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Objectives 3
1.4 Scope of Project 3
1.5 Thesis Outline 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Solar Energy 7
2.2.1 Review of Photovoltaic Energy 8
2.2.2 Functional Of Solar Energy 8
2.3 Solar Irradiance 10
2.4 PV Module Temperature 13
2.5 Air Mass 16
2.4.1 Standardized Solar Spectrum and Solar Irradiation 18
 viii

2.4.2 Intensity Calculations Based on the Air Mass 18

2.5 Fill Factor (FF) 19
2.6 Efficiency 22
2.7 Photovoltaic Charge Controller 23
2.7.1 DC-DC Converters 23
2.7.2 Buck (Step-Down) Converter 24
2.7.3 Buck (Step-Down) Converter 25
2.8 PIC 16F877A Microcontroller 26
2.8.1 An Overview 26
2.8.1 Microcontroller Implementation 27
2.9 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) 27

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Project Development Flow Chart 30

3.2 Block Diagram 31
3.3 Setup of the prototype model 32
3.4 Experimental Works 32
3.4.1 Solar PV 33
3.4.2 Circuit Controller Design 33
3.4.3 Display circuit 38
3.4.4 Changing circuit 40
3.4.5 Relay and indicator 43
3.4.6 Inverter 45
3.4.7 Rechargeable Battery 46
3.7 Measurement 47
3.7.1 ISC (Short Circuit Current) 47
3.7.2 VOC (Open Circuit Voltage) 48
3.7.3 Irradiance (Measurement of Light in W/M²) 48

CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction 50
4.2 Analysis of PV module 51
 ix

4.2.1 Temperature & Irradiance 52

4.2.2 Voltage and Current 56
4.2.3 Power and Efficiency 58
4.3. Analysis of battery charging 62

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION

5.1 Conclusion 64
5.2 Recommendations 66

REFERENCES 67

APPENDIX A: NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor BD233 68

APPENDIX B: 16 x 2 Character LED 72
APPENDIX C: LM340 3-Terminal Positive Regulator 74
APPENDIX D: Microcontroller PIC16F87X 76
VITA
 xiv

LIST OF SYMBOL AND ABBREVIATIONS

UTHM UniversitiTun Hussein Onn Malaysia

CPC Compound Parabolic Concentrator
PV Photovoltaic’s
LED Light Emitting Diode
Voc Open Circuit Voltage
Isc Current Short Circuit
VSHOT Visual Scanning Hartmann Optical Tester
Wp Watt peak (measure of nominal power of a
photovoltaicmodule under 1000 W/m2 light intensity
FF Fill Factor
DC Direct Current
AC Alternating Current
PSG Portable Solar Generator
PCB Printed circuit Board
TMY Total Metrology Year
NOCT Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
W Watt
mm Millimeter
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
DIP Dual Inline Package
MCLR Master Clear
% Percentage
 x

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Portable Solar Generator 4

2.1 Photovoltaic Cell 9
2.2 Comparison of TMY and average solar radiation data. 12

2.3 Thermo graphic image of sixteen cell module with 14

integral bypass diode cells under reverse bias conditions.
Each color change corresponds to a 4oC change in
temperature.
2.4 Temp Vs Irradiance 15
2.5 The air mass represents the proportion of atmosphere 17
that the light must pass through before striking the Earth
relative to its overhead path length, and is equal to Y/X.
2.6 Hypotenuse Air Mass 17

2.7 Graph of cell output current (red line) and 19

power (blue line) as function of voltage. Also shown
are the cell short-circuit current (Isc) and open-circuit voltage
(Voc) points, as well as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp).
2.8 A basic buck converter topology circuit 24
2.9 Equivalent circuit for switch closed 25
2.10 Equivalent circuit for switch open 26
2.11 PIC Microcontroller 27
3.1 Overall flowchart of the project 30
3.2 Block diagram of the project. 30
3.3 Flowchart of the project. 31
 xi

3.4 40-Pin PDIP Diagram of PIC 16F887A 33

3.5 PIC 16F877A power supply circuit 34
3.6 PIC 16F877A clock circuit 35
3.7 PIC 16F877A reset circuit 36
3.8 LM7805 Circuit 36
3.9 HD44780 Character LCD 38
3.10 Hitachi HD44780 interface 39
3.11 Charging Diagram Circuit 40
3.12 Relay 42
3.13 Circuit for controlling an AC 43
3.14 LED 44
3.15 Inverter Circuit 45
3.16 Rechargeable Battery 46
3.17 Short Circuit Current Measurement 46
3.18 Open Circuit Voltage Measurement 47
3.19 Irradiance Measurement 48
4.1 Mass air 50
4.2 Temperature PV Module 51
4.3 Azimuth And Altitude 52
4.4 Iirradiance PV Module 53
4.5 Comparison Irradiance Vs Temperature 54
4.6 Voltage PV Module 55
4.7 Current PV Module 56
4.8 Comparison Power (a) , (b) & (c) 58
 xii

LIST OF TABLES

3.1 Technical specification of the system 32

3.2 Technical specification of the PIC 16F887A 33
4.1 Data of Fill Factor 59
4.2 Data of efficiency 60
 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Background

Energy resources have become an importance when we are out for outdoor activities. If
it rains, camp fires will die out and torch light batteries usually do not last long. Besides
that, hawkers from the night market also rely on generators to provide light. The world is
full of alternative energies such as the heat from the sun, wind and hydro power. These
energies can be harness to reduce relying totally on the supplied electricity. Moreover,
some of the electrical devices and home lightings use only little power. Harnessing the
natural energies can save money paid for the electricity and help to save our world.
Hence the purpose of this project is to design a fully automated low cost power
generation system that will harness solar energy and then convert it into electrical energy
to power some of the electrical devices at home and for outdoor lighting. An additional
 2

feature is the solar tracking method of the panel which can maximize the energy
harnessed.

The system will also include a backup battery which will store the extra charge giving
the system to provide longer energy supply. The cost for the project will be emphasizing
on low cost to produce so that it will be affordable to be installed for every home.
Moreover, the design of the low cost mobile power generator will be convenient to be
carried around to places where availability for electricity is an issue.

1.2 Problem Statement

In Malaysia now many people like having outdoor activities like camping, fishing,
mounting climbing and other outdoor activities. So that activities sometime do at day
and sometime do at night. Can we imagine what if happen the outdoor activities do at
night without any energy supply. That will problem to do that activities or any
emergency like loss power of cell phone to make the call or any equipment will problem
without electrical supply

Based on the current situation described above is likely to people have problem to get
the power supply when they are in jungle or some place without any source of electrical
supply For that reason, the suitable solution is develop the new concept of generation
and friendly user for everybody and any situation also easy to carry and light. This
generator will use the renewable energy to produce the electricity. This generator also
can generate the ac and dc supply. The best concept to solve this problem is develop
the portable solar generator.

Hence this portable solar generator also can help the severely environment can
not have the power supply using to have the some energy where it can help in
emergency situation or critical situation
 3

1.3 Objectives

The objective for the project is to produce a mobile generator system which is portable
for many various uses such as outdoor activities and areas where there is a shortage of
power supply. Besides that, it can also be used for residents in the rural area. The design
of the project will also focus on low cost on producing the generator so that it is
affordable. The low cost power generation system will be fully automated so that it will
be easy to use. Solar power will be the power source option for the generator.. This
project will help graduates be more competent in future as the experience gained in
completing the project will be highly evaluated by the industry.

The overall objectives can then be summed as the main points below:

1. To propose a measurement technique and procedure in evaluating using

simple measurement setup and tools
2. To design and build a portable generator system for small and easy to use
3. To evaluate and analyze the reliability of the constructed PSG

1.4 Scope of Project

This project will include working with both hardware and software. The hardware will
include the materials such as the solar panel, acid lead battery, PIC microcontroller,
printed circuit board (PCB), solar panel and so on. The hardware materials will be
purchased either locally or pre order from companies from different states.

Not all of the hardware are designed but rather purchased to contribute as a part of the
system such as lead acid battery and charge controller. The hardware will then be set up
by connecting the system in a correct sequence. The mechanical design for the project
will be studied such as the solar panel to the desired angle. Cooling the solar panel also
 4

the comprising the output. This will include the hardware and software implementation
for the system. Software programming and hardware design will be deterministic for the
overall outcome of the project.

After the materials are finally ready, the overall components and materials will be
combined to work and function as a mobile energy generator. If there are problems that
occur, troubleshooting will be done until the project works properly.

Figure 1.1: Portable Solar Generator

1.5 Thesis Outline

This thesis is divided into five chapters. First, chapter 1 is on the introduction to the
project where problem statement, objectives and scope of project is presented on this
chapter. Chapter 2 describes previous work, idea and concept which is related and a
motivation for the work performed throughout this project. Chapter 3 describes the
methodology used in the design of the experiment where flow of the project, experiment
procedure and materials used is included in this chapter. While in chapter 4, it present
 5

the experiment results together with its analysis and discussion. Chapter 5 summarizes
the main conclusion of the thesis and presents an outlook for future work.
 6

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Literature review is a study about the project and this chapter covers the fundamental
concepts of Portable Solar Generator (PSG) and the fundamentals of PSG applied to
concentration.

It involves all the aspect which can be linked to the project or research which is
available in outside world. The research is not mainly focus directly to research which is
already performed but also focused on fact research and references of studies. The
source and information can be available from internet, library, and also from a person
who has high knowledge about the research. This research is important because it
 7

resemble the starting point to creating, upgrade and producing a quality research which
have trustable result obtained.

From past research that had been done, lot of knowledge can be obtained such as the
equipment needs to be used, type of disadvantages can be expected, the basic knowledge
need to master to run the experiment and the expected result to be obtained. This will
help to reduce the time and cost used for performs of the research.

2.2 Solar Energy

Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that influences Earth's climate and
weather and sustains life. Solar power is sometimes used as a synonym for solar energy
or more specifically to refer to electricity generated from solar radiation. Solar radiation
is secondary resources like as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass
account for most of the available flow of renewable energy on Earth. Solar energy
technologies can provide electrical generation by heat engine or photovoltaic means,
space heating and cooling in active and passive solar buildings, potable water via
distillation and disinfection, day lighting, hot water, thermal energy for cooking, and
high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.

Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. All other
renewable energies other than geothermal derive their energy from energy received from
the sun. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active
depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar
techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful
outputs.

Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties,
designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to
the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered
 8

supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate
resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.

2.2.1 Review of photovoltaic energy

A definition of a photovoltaic (PV) system is a system that converts directly solar

radiation into electricity [4]. Since it was first found, in 1839 by Edmond Becquerel, and
after improvements made in the almost 100 following years, the photovoltaic energy has
raised a constantly growing interest all over the world. The possibility to generate
electrical energy in practically any place in the world was extremely appealing. With the
major drawback of the high cost of solar cells, the almost exclusive use of PV energy
was made by space industry to fuel satellites, where no budget constraints were applied.
The efficiency of solar cells more than double from 6% in 1954 to 13.5% [8], but still
too expensive. Today the top efficiency of silicon cells is around 27.6% 2.2

Ironically, it was in offshore oilrigs and isolated on-shore gas and oil fields, among
others, where PV systems were used, replacing the toxic and short-lived batteries [5].
Nowadays, total PV installed capacity is estimated to reach 50.9 GWp, representing a
growth of 62.1% comparing to 2010 [8]. The continuously increasing price of oil, the
global warming, the Kyoto Protocol, and the recent nuclear disaster that occurred in
Fukushima, Japan, turns the attention of the world to renewable energies [4].

2.2.2 Functional Of Solar Energy

Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. A photovoltaic cell,

commonly called a solar cell or PV, is the technology used to convert solar energy
directly into electrical power. [1]

Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain

various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar
spectrum. When photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right
 9

through, or be absorbed. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate

electricity.

Figure 2.1: Photovoltaic Cell

When enough sunlight energy is absorbed by the material that is a semiconductor,

electrons are come out from the material's atoms. Special treatment of the material
surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to free
electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface. When the electrons leave
their position, holes are formed.

When many electrons, each carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of
the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge between the cell's front and back surfaces
creates a voltage potential like the negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the
two surfaces are connected through an external load, electricity flows. Photovoltaic
cells, like batteries, generate direct current (DC) which is generally used for small loads
like electronic equipment.
 10

When DC from photovoltaic cells is used for commercial applications or sold to electric
utilities using the electric grid, it must be converted to alternating current (AC) using
inverters. Advantages of photovoltaic systems are:

1. Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical

generator systems are unnecessary.

2. PV arrays can be installed quickly and in any size required or allowed.

3. The environmental impact is minimal, requiring no water for system cooling

and generating no by-products.

2.3 Solar Irradiance

Total solar irradiance is defined as the amount of radiant energy emitted by the Sun over
all wavelengths that fall each second on 11 sq ft (1 sq m) outside the earth's atmosphere.

By way of further definition, irradiance is defined as the amount of electromagnetic

energy incident on a surface per unit time per unit area. Solar refers to
electromagnetic radiation in the spectral range of approximately 1-9 ft (0.30-3 m), where
the shortest wavelengths are in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum, the intermediate
wavelengths in the visible region, and the longer wavelengths are in the near
infrared. Total means that the solar flux has been integrated over all wavelengths to
include the contributions from ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation.

By convention, the surface features of the Sun are classified into three regions: the
photosphere, the chromospheres, and the corona. The photosphere corresponds to the
bright region normally visible to the naked eye. About 3,100 mi (5,000 km) above the
photosphere lies the chromospheres, from which short-lived, needle-like projections may
extend upward for several thousands of kilometers. The corona is the outermost layer of
the Sun; this region extends into the region of the planets. Most of the surface features of
the Sun lie within the photosphere, though a few extend into the chromospheres or even
the corona.
 11

The average amount of energy from the Sun per unit area that reaches the upper regions
of the earth's atmosphere is known as the solar constant; its value is approximately 1,367
watts per square meter. As earth-based measurements of this quantity are of doubtful
accuracy due to variations in the earth's atmosphere, scientists have come to rely on
satellites to make these measurements.

Although referred to as the solar constant, this quantity actually has been found to vary
since careful measurements started being made in 1978. In 1980, a satellite-based
measurement yielded the value of 1,368.2 watts per square meter. Over the next few
years, the value was found to decrease by about 0.04% per year. Such variations have
now been linked to several physical processes known to occur in the Sun's interior, as
will be described below.

From the earth, it is only possible to observe the radiant energy emitted by the Sun in the
direction of our planet; this quantity is referred to as the solar irradiance. This radiant
solar energy is known to influence the earth's weather and climate, although the exact
relationships between solar irradiance and long-term climatologically changes, such
as global warming, are not well understood.

The total radiant energy emitted from the Sun in all directions is a quantity known as
solar luminosity. The luminosity of the Sun has been estimated to be 3.8478 x 1026 watts.
Some scientists believe that long-term variations in the solar luminosity may be a better
correlate to environmental conditions on Earth than solar irradiance, including global
warming. Variations in solar luminosity are also of interest to scientists who wish to gain
a better understanding of stellar rotation, convection, and magnetism.

Because short-term variations of certain regions of the solar spectrum may not
accurately reflect changes in the true luminosity of the Sun, measurements of total solar
irradiance, which by definition take into account the solar flux contributions over all
wavelengths, provide a better representation of the total luminosity of the Sun.

Short-term variations in solar irradiation vary significantly with the position of the
observer, so such variations may not provide a very accurate picture of changes in the
solar luminosity. But the total solar irradiance at any given position gives a better
 12

representation because it includes contributions over the spectrum of wavelengths

represented in the solar radiation.

Variations in the solar irradiance are at a level that can be detected by ground-based
astronomical measurements of light. Such variations have been found to be about 0.1%
of the average solar irradiance. Starting in 1978, space-based instruments aboard
the Nimbus 7, Solar Maximum Mission, and other satellites began making the sort of
measurements (reproducible to within a few parts per million each year) that allowed
scientists to acquire a better understanding of variations in the total solar irradiance.

2.3.1 Solar Irradiance Data Sets

The most accurate measurements of solar radiation are obtained by a pyrometer placed
at a location for a number of years, usually on the order of a decade or more, measuring
the direct radiation every few minutes. However, the volume of data generated by this
technique makes it impractical (and unnecessary) to provide the full data set for each
location for PV system design. Instead, the data can be presented in several other
formats.

Figure 2.2 : Comparison of TMY and average solar radiation data

 13

The most conceptually straight forward method of reducing the data set is to average the
data over the measuring period. This form of data is called average daily, monthly or
yearly radiation data. Although this data is useful for basic system design, the day-to-day
variation in the solar radiation is lost. The loss of the day-to-day variation is critical
since the design and performance of a system with, for example, 5 kWh/day nearly
every day is quite different than one with 8 kWh/day on some days followed by several
cloudy days with 2 kWh/day.

The most common format for solar radiation data is TMY data (or TMY2 data used by
the National Renewable Energy Laboratories in the USA) which includes daily
variability in the data. TMY data sets are described in the following page. However,
average solar radiation data, particularly for each month of the year is also extensively
used in rough estimates on the amount of PV panels required.

An additional useful, although less common data which can be determined from the full
radiation data sets, is the probability of having a certain number of cloudy days which
occur in a row, whereby the definition of a cloudy day is usually a day where less than
50% of the theoretically expected radiation is received.

For example, at a certain location, 4 cloudy days in a row may occur once a year and 5
cloudy days in a row may occur once every 5 years. This information is particularly
useful in estimating storage sufficient requirements. However, this information is less
commonly tabulated and, if used, must be determined from the original data sets.

2.4 PV Module Temperature

An unwanted side-effect of the encapsulation of solar cells into a PV module is that the
encapsulation alters the heat flow into and out of the PV module, thereby increasing the
operating temperature of the PV module. These increases in temperature have a major
impact on the PV module by reducing its voltage, thereby lowering the output power. In
addition, increases in temperature are implicated in several failure or degradation modes
of PV modules, as elevated temperatures increase stresses associated with thermal
 14

expansion and also increase degradation rates by a factor of about two for each 10°C
increase in temperature.

The operating temperature of a module is determined by the equilibrium between the

heat produced by the PV module, the heat lost to the environment and the ambient
operating temperature. The heat produced by the module depends on the operating point
of the module, the optical properties of the module and solar cells, and the packing
density of the solar cells in the PV module

Figure 2.3 : Thermo graphic image of sixteen cell module with integral bypass diode
cells under reverse bias conditions. Each color change corresponds to a 40oC change in
temperature.

The heat lost to the environment can proceed via one of three mechanisms; conduction,
convection and radiation. These loss mechanisms depend on the thermal resistance of
the module materials, the emissive properties of the PV module, and the ambient
conditions (particularly wind speed) in which the module is mounted. These factors are
discussed in the following pages.
 15

2.4.1 Nominal Operating Cell Temperature

A PV module will be typically rated at 25 °C under 1 kW/m2. However, when operating

in the field, they typically operate at highest temperatures and at somewhat lower
insulations conditions. In order to determine the power output of the solar cell, it is
important to determine the expected operating temperature of the PV module.

The Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) is defined as the temperature reached
by open circuited cells in a module under the conditions as listed below:

1. Irradiance on cell surface = 800 W/m2

2. Air Temperature = 20°C
3. Wind Velocity = 1 m/s
4. Mounting = open back side.

Figure 2.4: Temp Vs Irradiance

The equations for solar radiation and temperature difference between the module and air
show that both conduction and convective losses are linear with incident solar
insulations for a given wind speed, provided that the thermal resistance and heat transfer
 16

coefficient do not vary strongly with temperature. The NOCT for best case, worst case
and average PV modules are shown below. The best case include aluminum fins at the
rear of the module for cooling which reduces the thermal resistance and increases the
surface area for convection.

Temperature increases, above ambient levels, with increasing solar irradiance for
different module types [1]. The best module operated at a NOCT of 33°C, the worst at
58°C and the typical module at 48°C respectively. An approximate expression for
calculating the cell temperature is given by [2]:

Tcell = Tair + [(NOCT - 20) / 80 ]S (2.1)

where:

S = insulation in mW/cm2. Module temperature will be lower than this when

wind velocity is high, but highest under still conditions.

2.5 Air Mass

The Air Mass is the path length which light takes through the atmosphere normalized to
the shortest possible path length (that is, when the sun is directly overhead). The Air
Mass quantifies the reduction in the power of light as it passes through the atmosphere
and is absorbed by air and dust. The Air Mass is defined as:

AM=1cosθ (2.2)

where θ is the angle from the vertical (zenith angle). When the sun is directly overhead,
the Air Mass is 1.
 17

Figure 2.5: The air mass represents the proportion of atmosphere that the light must pass
through before striking the Earth relative to its overhead path length, and is equal to
Y/X.

A more detailed model showing the effect of air mass on the solar spectrum is available
at the PV Lighthouse Solar Spectrum Calculator. An easy method to determine the air
mass is from the shadow of a vertical pole.

Figure 2.6: Hypotenuse Air Mass

Air mass is the length of the hypotenuse divided by the object height h, and from
Pythagoras's theorem we get:

Air Mass = 1+sh2 (2.3)

 18

The above calculation for air mass assumes that the atmosphere is a flat horizontal layer,
but because of the curvature of the atmosphere, the air mass is not quite equal to the
atmospheric path length when the sun is close to the horizon. At sunrise, the angle of the
sun from the vertical position is 90° and the air mass is infinite, whereas the path length
clearly is not. An equation which incorporates the curvature of the earth is[1]:

Air Mass = 1cosθ+0.5057296.07995-θ-1.6364 (2.4)

2.4.1 Standardized Solar Spectrum and Solar Irradiation

The efficiency of a solar cell is sensitive to variations in both the power and the
spectrum of the incident light. To facilitate an accurate comparison between solar cells
measured at different times and locations, a standard spectrum and power density has
been defined for both radiation outside the Earth's atmosphere and at the Earth's surface.

The standard spectrum at the Earth's surface is called AM1.5G, (the G stands for global
and includes both direct and diffuse radiation) or AM1.5D (which includes direct
radiation only). The intensity of AM1.5D radiation can be approximated by reducing the
AM0 spectrum by 28% (18% due to absorption and 10% to scattering). The global
spectrum is 10% highest than the direct spectrum. These calculations give approximately
970 W/m2 for AM1.5G. However, the standard AM1.5G spectrum has been normalized
to give 1kW/m2 due to the convenience of the round number and the fact that there are
inherently variations in incident solar radiation. The standard spectrum is listed in
the Appendix page.

The standard spectrum outside the Earth's atmosphere is called AM0, because at no
stage does the light pass through the atmosphere. This spectrum is typically used to
predict the expected performance of cells in space.
 19

2.4.2 Intensity Calculations Based on the Air Mass

The intensity of the direct component of sunlight throughout each day can be determined
as a function of air mass from the experimentally determined equation [2]:

ID = 1.353·0.7AM0.678 (2.5)

Where ID is the intensity on a plane perpendicular to the sun's rays in units of

kW/m2 and AM is the air mass. The value of 1.353 kW/m2is the solar constant and the
number 0.7 arises from the fact that about 70% of the radiation incident on the
atmosphere is transmitted to the Earth. The extra power term of 0.678 is an empirical fit
to the observed data and takes into account the non-uniformities in the atmospheric
layers.

Sunlight intensity increases with the height above sea level. The spectral content of
sunlight also changes making the sky 'bluer' on high mountains. Much of the southwest
of the United States is two kilometers above sea level, adding significantly to solar
isolation. A simple empirical fit to observed data [3] and accurate to a few kilometers
above sea level is given by:

ID = 1.353·1-ah0.7AM0.678+ah (2.6)

where a = 0.14 and h is the location height above sea level in kilometers.

Even on a clear day, the diffuse radiation is still about 10% of the direct component.
Thus on a clear day the global irradiance on a module perpendicular to the sun's rays is:

Irradiance Global (IG) = 1.1 · ID

(2.7)

2.5 Fill Factor

The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum current and
voltage respectively from a solar cell. However, at both of these operating points, the
power from the solar cell is zero. The "fill factor", more commonly known by its
 20

abbreviation "FF", is a parameter which, in conjunction with Voc and Isc, determines the
maximum power from a solar cell. The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power
from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc. Graphically, the FF is a measure of the
"squareness" of the solar cell and is also the area of the largest rectangle which will fit in
the IV curve. The FF is illustrated below. As FF is a measure of the squareness of the IV
curve, a solar cell with a highest voltage has a larger possible FF since the "rounded"
portion of the IV curve takes up less area.

The maximum theoretical FF from a solar cell can be determined by differentiating the
power from a solar cell with respect to voltage and finding where this is equal to zero.
Hence:

(2.8)

giving:

( 2.9)

Figure 2.7 : Graph of cell output current (red line) and power (blue line) as function of
voltage.
 21

Also shown are the cell short-circuit current (Isc) and open-circuit voltage (Voc) points,
as well as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp). However, the above technique does not
yield a simple or closed form equation. The equation above only relates Voc to Vmp, and
extra equations are needed to find Imp and FF. A more commonly used expression for the
FF can be determined empirically as:[1]

(2.10)

where voc is defined as a "normalized Voc":

(2.11)

The above equations show that a highest voltage will have a highest possible FF.
However, large variations in open-circuit voltage within a given material system are
relatively uncommon. For example, at one sun, the difference between the maximum
open-circuit voltage measured for a silicon laboratory device and a typical commercial
solar cell is about 120 mV, giving maximum FF's respectively of 0.85 and 0.83.
However, the variation in maximum FF can be significant for solar cells made from
different materials. For example, a GaAs solar cell may have a FF approaching 0.89.

The above equation also demonstrates the importance of the ideality factor, also known
as the "n-factor" of a solar cell. The ideality factor is a measure of the junction quality
and the type of recombination in a solar cell. For the simple recombination mechanisms
discussed in Types of Recombination, the n-factor has a value of 1. However, some
recombination mechanisms, particularly if they are large, may introduce recombination
mechanisms of 2. A high n-value not only degrades the FF, but since it will also usually
signal high recombination, it gives low open-circuit voltages.
 22

A key limitation in the equations described above is that they represent a maximum
possible FF, although in practice the FF will be lower due to the presence of parasitic
resistive losses, which are discussed in Effects of Parasitic Resistances. Therefore, the
FF is most commonly determined from measurement of the IV curve and is defined as
the maximum power divided by the product of Isc*Voc, i.e.:

(2.12)

2.6 Efficiency

The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance of one
solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar
cell to input energy from the sun. In addition to reflecting the performance of the solar
cell itself, the efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight
and the temperature of the solar cell. Therefore, conditions under which efficiency is
measured must be carefully controlled in order to compare the performance of one
device to another. Terrestrial solar cells are measured under AM1.5 conditions and at a
temperature of 25°C. Solar cells intended for space use are measured under AM0
conditions. Recent top efficiency solar cell results are given in the page Solar Cell
Efficiency Results.

The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which is
converted to electricity and is defined as:

(2.13)

(2.14)

where :
 23

Voc is the open-circuit voltage;

Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor
η is the efficiency.

The input power for efficiency calculations is 1 kW/m2 or 100 mW/cm2. Thus the input
power for a 100 × 100 mm2 cell is 10 W and for a 156 × 156 mm2 cell is 24.3 W

2.7 Photovoltaic Charge Controller

A charge controller is needed in photovoltaic system to safely charge sealed lead acid
battery. The most basic function of a charge controller is to prevent battery
overcharging. If battery is allowed to routinely overcharge, their life expectancy will be
dramatically reduced. A charge controller will sense the battery voltage, and reduce or
stop the charging current when the voltage gets high enough. This is especially
important with sealed lead acid battery where we cannot replace the water that is lost
during overcharging. Unlike Wind or Hydro System charge controller, PV charge
controller can open the circuit when the battery is full without any harm to the modules.

Most PV charge controller simply opens or restricts the circuit between the battery and
PV array when the voltage rises to a set point. Then, as the battery absorbs the excess
electrons and voltage begins dropping, the controller will turn back on. Some charge
controllers have these voltage points factory-preset and non adjustable, other controllers
can be adjustable. [1]

2.7.1 DC-DC Converters

There are various dc to dc converters topologies like buck converter, boost converter,
buck-boost converter and others converter topology are used in PV charge controller.
Since solar panels are only capable of producing a DC voltage, the DC-DC converter
becomes quite useful by providing the flexibility to adjust the DC voltage or current at
 24

any point in the circuit. DC-DC converters are often preferred in modern electronics
since they are smaller, light weight, provide a high quality output, and more efficient. [7]

2.7.2 Buck (Step-Down) Converter

One of the researches made is about buck converter topology which is one of many
topologies that were used in PV charge controller development. A buck converter is
called a step-down DC to DC converter because the output voltage is less than the input.
Its design is similar to the step-up boost converter, and like the boost converter it is a
switched-mode power supply that uses two switches (a transistor and a diode) and an
inductor and a capacitor.

A buck converter can be remarkably efficient (easily up to 95% for integrated circuits)
and self regulating. Most buck converters are designed for continuous-current mode
operation compared to the discontinuous-current mode operation. The continuous-
current mode operation is characterized by inductor current remains positive throughout
the switching period. Conversely, the discontinuous-current mode operation is
characterized by inductor current returning to zero during each period.

Figure 2.8: A basic buck converter topology circuit

 67

REFERENCES

1. BhubaneswariParida, S. Iniyan and RankoGoic (2011) . Review of Solar Photovoltaic

Technologies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15,pp. 1625–1636.
2. Alasdair Cameron.Tracking the CPV Global Market. Renewable Energy World
Magazine. August edition.2011. pp 60-72.
3. D. Mills and R.Morgan. Solar Thermal Power as the Plausible Basis of Grid
Supply.2008. Bayshore Rd, USA. pp (30 -36).
4. Andreev VM. andGrilikhesVA.Photovoltaic Conversion of Concentrated Sunlight.
John Wiley and Sons Ltd.1997.England.pp 185 -259.
5. J. Perlin.History of Photovoltaics. 2005.9(2) pp 104 -116.
6. W. Weisner (2005). Modeling of PV Modues-Efect of Non-Uniform Irradiance
Performance Measurements with Solar simulators. Proc of 16th European PV Solar
Energy Conf. Glasgow.pp 18-92.
7. A. Luque, S. Hegedus. Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, Wiley.
pp 88-93.
8. Mendes Lopes .J,et al. On field Demonstration Results of Medium Concentraton
System, HSUN. Proc of 7th Int. Conf. on Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems, Kas
Vegas,USA.2011.pp 5-19.
9. Joshua. M (2011). Finite Element Modeling and Ray Tracing of Parabolic Trough
Collectors for Evaluation of Optimal Intercept Factors with Gravity Loading. Proc of
the ASME 2011 5th Int. Conf. on Energy Sustainability. pp 2-9.
10. Lupfert, et. Al. Comprarative Flux Measurement and Ray tracing for the
characterization of the Focal Region of Solar Parabolic Trough Collectors. Solar
Eng.2004.pp 689 -694.
 68

11. Mendes Lopes. Method for Analysis, Optimization and Design of Optics for
Photovoltaic Concentration”, Institute Superior Technical, University Technical of
Lisbon, 2010.
12. J. Chaves. Optical Science and Engineering.1st edition, CRC Press Chapter 1.2004.pp
33-45.
13. Romeo .M and Martinez.(2004). Terrestrial Solar Thermal Power Plants : On the
Verge of Commercialization. Proc of the 4th Int. Conf. on Solar Power from Space.
Granada. pp 81-89.
14. Google (2013). Google search – Retrieved on September 20,2013, from
http://www.powerfromthesun.net/chapter2.htm.
15. Wikinet (2013). Wikimedia Search – Retrieved on September 21 , 2013 , from
http://commons.wikimedia .org/wiki/file:parabolic_trough.svg.
16. HatwamboS,Hakansson, and H. J. Nilson.(2008_.Solar Energy Materials and
Cells.2008.92(11). Pp. -1347 -1351.
17. Alasdair Cameron (2011) Tracking The Market:Focus on the Concentration
Photovoltaics Sector.Renewable Energy World Magazine,Penn Well, July – August
2011.4(14).pp 301-323.
18. R. Winstom, J. Minano and Benitez. Non-imaging Optics.Elsevier Academic
Press.2005.pp.93-105.
19. Wood R. Distant Observer Techniques for Verification of solar Concentrator Optical
Geometry. Technical Report, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 1981.
20. Prahl C and Roger M.(2011). Airborne Shape Measurement of Parabolic Trough
Collector Fields. Proc of the 17thSolarPACES Int. Symposium. Granada. pp 117-141.
21. Y. S. Hong, T. C. Chang.(2010) A Comprehensive Review of TolerancingResearch,
International Journal of Production Research.2010.1 (3) :22- 25.
22. Jaao Mendes Lopes (2008) .Optimization and Design Method for 2D Parabolic
Curves as Primary Optics. WS Energia S.A, Portugal.2008.