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Computer Architecture Assignment

This document contains an assignment submission for a computer architecture course. It includes the student's name, course details, and responses to 5 questions about RAID systems, Amdahl's law, magnetic disks, cache mapping techniques, and differences between sequential, direct, and random access memory. The student provided detailed explanations of these core computer architecture concepts in their assignment answers.

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MASUDUR RAHMAN
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52 views

Computer Architecture Assignment

This document contains an assignment submission for a computer architecture course. It includes the student's name, course details, and responses to 5 questions about RAID systems, Amdahl's law, magnetic disks, cache mapping techniques, and differences between sequential, direct, and random access memory. The student provided detailed explanations of these core computer architecture concepts in their assignment answers.

Uploaded by

MASUDUR RAHMAN
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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ASSIGNMENT

Course Name: Computer Architecture


Course Code: CSE 1003

Submitted To
Md. Nazmus Sakib
Lecturer, Department of CSE.
World University of Bangladesh

Submitted By
Ummay Somaiya
Roll - 2204
Batch - 38(A)
Dept : CSE
Ans to the qus. no. (01)
Raid :
RAID stands for Redundant Array of Independent Disks. Simply put, it’s the process of
using multiple hard drives to make a redundant copy of data.

Reason of data redundancy :


Data redundancy, although taking up extra space, adds to disk reliability. This means, in
case of disk failure, if the same data is also backed up onto another disk, we can retrieve
the data and go on with the operation. On the other hand, if the data is spread across
just multiple disks without the RAID technique, the loss of a single disk can affect the
entire data.

Redundancy achieved in RAID system :

RAID arrays utilize striping, parity, and mirroring to accomplish data redundancy. It’s
important to understand what these processes mean in order to know which RAID level
to select.

Striping is the process of segmenting a file into multiple parties, and storing each
segment on a different physical disk. This process is great for high I/O operations as
data can be concurrently accessed across multiple devices, increasing throughput. But if
one drive in the striping array fails, it means the file would become corrupt. That’s why
striping is used concurrently with either mirroring or parity.

Parity is used within RAID to achieve data redundancy during drive failure. If a drive in
the array fails, the parity bit is used to rebuild the array on a new hard drive. The
Boolean XOR function is used to rebuild the data stored on the surviving drive along
with the parity data.

Mirroring is simply copying the data on one drive and replicating it onto a second
physical disk. This is the simplest form of RAID and achieves basic data redundancy on
one drive, but it doesn’t offer the performance and storage enhancements that can be
achieved through striping and parity.
Each level of RAID uses a different level of striping, parity, and mirroring to achieve
redundancy. Now that you understand basic RAID terms, let’s review RAID levels:

RAID Fault Drives


Description
Level Tolerance Required
Data is striped across multiple disks, improving I/O performance
0 No 2
but without any redundancy in the event of disk failure
The data on one drive is mirrored across the other, delivering
1 Yes 2 redundancy to protect against disk failure. RAID 1 does not increase
performance, in fact in delivers a slightly degraded I/O experience.
Data and parity (data used for recovery) are striped across 3 or
more drives. Should a drive fail, data is recreated automatically.
5 Yes 3
Hard drives may be swapped out seamlessly. Servers that perform
heavy write operations may notice a performance hit from RAID 5.
Identical to RAID 5, but utilizes an additional parity block so that
6 Yes 4
two drives may fail and the integrity of the data remains in tact.
Combines the mirroring of RAID 1 with the striping of RAID 0,
10 Yes 4
delivering significant performance and redundancy.
Combines the parity of RAID 5 with the striping of RAID 0. RAID 50
50 Yes 6
delivers increased performance and faster rebuilds than RAID 5.
Combines the benefit of RAID 6 and the parity of RAID 0, RAID 60
60 Yes 8 utilizes two RAID 6 arrays to deliver maximum performance and
redundancy.
Ans. To the qus. no. (02)

Amdhal’s Law :
Amdahl’s law is a formula used to find the maximum improvement possible by
improving a particular part of a system. In parallel computing, Amdahl's law is mainly
used to predict the theoretical maximum speedup for program processing using
multiple processors. 
Characterizes Amdhal’s Law :
Amdahl's law characterizes the speedup of a parallel program. It assumes perfect load
balance, meaning that all threads / processes do the exact same amount of work and
therefore all finish simultaneously.
Amdahl’s law states that in parallelization, if P is the proportion of a system or program
that can be made parallel, and 1-P is the proportion that remains serial, then the
maximum speedup that can be achieved using N number of processors is 1/((1-P)+(P/N).

If N tends to infinity then the maximum speedup tends to 1/(1-P).

Speedup is limited by the total time needed for the sequential (serial) part of the
program. For 10 hours of computing, if we can parallelize 9 hours of computing and 1
hour cannot be parallelized, then our maximum speedup is limited to 10x.
Ans. To the qus. no. (03)
Magnetic Disk :
A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization process to write, rewrite
and access data. It is covered with a magnetic coating and stores data in the form of
tracks, spots and sectors. Hard disks, zip disks and floppy disks are common examples of
magnetic disks.
Written onto a magnetic disk :
The write mechanism is based on the fact that electricity flowing through a coil produces
a magnetic field. Pulses are sent to the write head, and magnetic patterns are recorded
on the surface below, with different patterns for positive and negative currents. An
electric current in the wire induces a magnetic field across the gap, which in turn
magnetizes a small area of the recording medium. Reversing the direction of the current
reverses the direction of the magnetization on the recording medium.
Magnetic disks have traditionally been used as primary storage in computers. With the
advent of solid-state drives (SSDs), magnetic disks are no longer considered the only
option, but are still commonly used.

Ans. To the qus. no. (04)


Associative Mapping :
In this type of mapping, the associative memory is used to store content and
addresses of the memory word. Any block can go into any line of the cache. This means
that the word id bits are used to identify which word in the block is needed, but the tag
becomes all of the remaining bits. This enables the placement of any word at any place
in the cache memory. It is considered to be the fastest and the most flexible mapping
form.
Set-associative Mapping :
This form of mapping is an enhanced form of direct mapping where the drawbacks of
direct mapping are removed. Set associative addresses the problem of possible
thrashing in the direct mapping method. It does this by saying that instead of having
exactly one line that a block can map to in the cache, we will group a few lines together
creating a set. Then a block in memory can map to any one of the lines of a specific
set..Set-associative mapping allows that each word that is present in the cache can have
two or more words in the main memory for the same index address. Set associative
cache mapping combines the best of direct and associative cache mapping techniques.
In this case, the cache consists of a number of sets, each of which consists of a number
of lines. The relationships are
m=v*k
i= j mod v
where
i=cache set number
j=main memory block number
v=number of sets
m=number of lines in the cache number of sets
k=number of lines in each set
Ans.to the qus. no (05)
Difference between sequential access, direct access and random access :
Sequenti al access:
Memory is organized into units of data, called records. Access must be made
in a specifi c linear sequence. Stored addressing information is used to separate
records and assist in the retrieval process. A shared read- write mechanism is used, and
this must be moved from its current location to the desired location, passing and
rejecting each intermediate record. Thus, the time to access an arbitrary record is
highly variable. Tape units are sequential access.

Direct access :
As with sequential access, direct access involves a shared read-write mechanism.
However, individual blocks or records have a unique address based on physical
locati on. Access is accomplished by direct access to reach a general vicinity
plus sequenti al searching, counti ng, or waiti ng to reach the fi nal locati on.
Again, access ti me is variable. Disk units are direct access.

Random access:
Each addressable locati on in memory has a unique, physically wired-in
addressing mechanism. The ti me to access a given locati on is independent of
the sequence of prior accesses and is constant. Thus, any locati on can be
selected at random and directly addressed and accessed.Main memory and
some cache systems are random access.

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